Nov 15, 2018
Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 1
School Violence
School Violence: Using and Enhancing Knowledge to Improve
School SafetyJennifer Maeng, Ph.D., & Dewey Cornell, Ph.D.
Curry School of EducationUniversity of Virginia
434-924-8929Email: [email protected]
Website: youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu
Department of JusticeOffice of Justice Programs
Comprehensive School Safety Initiative
Student Threat Assessment as a Safe and Supportive Prevention Strategy
This project is supported by Grant #NIJ 2014-CK-BX-0004 awarded by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice.
Virginia Youth Violence Project 2018-19 Research Team
Main Points 1. School violence is a small part of the larger
problem of gun violence. Schools are safer than the public perceives.
2. The fear of school violence has stimulated an excessive emphasis on security and zero tolerance discipline.
3. Threat assessment is a useful tool to identify students in need of assistance.
Traumatic Effect of School Shootings
School shootings are so traumatic that they convince the public that schools are unsafe.
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School Violence
Annual Gun Toll- 33,000 deaths- 67,000 injuries100,000 total
275 Shootings per day
APA report is available at http://www.apa.org/pubs/info/reports/gun-violence-prevention.aspxShooting deaths from: National Vital Statistics http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/dataRestriction_inj.htmlShooting injuries from: http://webappa.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/nfirates2001.html
5 yrs x 100,000 =
500,000 outside of schools
For every shooting in a school, there are 1,600+ outside of
schoolsSchools are far safer than
the public perceives.
9847
4455
1209
629
533
492
288
211
49
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Residence
Street
Parking lot/garage
Outdoors
Restaurant/bar
Store/gas station
Public building/business
Hotel/motel
School
2005‐2010 Homicides in 37 States
Restaurants are 10x more dangerous than schools.
Homes are 200x more dangerous than schools.
Source: FBI National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) database. Selected locations. School includes colleges. See Nekvasil & Cornell (2015) Psychology of Violence, 5, 236-245.
17
135
437
1336
1345
1871
4158
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
School homicide
Flu & pneumonia
Heart disease
Cancer
Homicide out ofschool
Suicide
Accidents
Number of Deaths
Causes of Death Ages 5-18
Selected causes for 2015 from CDC National Center for Health Statistics, 2018
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School Violence
Over-reactions to the fear of school shootings
• Zero tolerance• Excessive security
The Expansion of Zero Tolerance
From No Guns to• No Toy Guns• No Nail clippers• No Plastic utensils• No Finger-pointing• No Jokes• No Drawings• No Rubber band
shootingNo accidental violations
Zero Tolerance SuspensionsAfter the Newtown Shootings
6 year old pointed finger and said “pow!”
http://www.sott.net/article/255552-6-year-old-suspended-for-pretend-gunshot
Zero tolerance is not effective. Suspension associated with
poorer outcomes for students.
Suspension PracticesSuspension is a practice that has more negative than positive effects on students:
• Fall behind in their classes• Feel alienated and rejected• Continue to misbehave
and be suspended• Drop out of school• Juvenile court involvement
The school-to-prison pipeline
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School Violence
Racial Discipline Gap• Disproportionate suspension rates
for some minority groups• Potential discrimination• USDOE Office for Civil Rights
Latest available data April 2018https://ocrdata.ed.gov/StateNationalEstimations/Estimations_2013_14
Excessive School Security
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-11-14/schools-boosting-security-spending-after-newtown-massacreHigh Security Military Entrances
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School Violence
Students involved in shooter drills. Simulated Injuries
School security measures are expensive and deprive schools of resources that could be allocated to preventive measures such as anti-bullying programs and counseling services.
We should prevent shootings rather than
simply prepare for them.
We need a shift in mindset from security
to prevention.
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Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 6
School Violence
Photo of gunman
Prevention must start before the gunman is
at your door.
Prevention must start before the gunman is
at your door.
Prevention must start before the gunman is
at your door.
Prevention must start before the gunman is
at your door. We can prevent violence by identifying
and helping at-risk students.
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Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 7
School Violence
IIIIntensive
Interventions
IIAt-Risk Students
ISchoolwide Prevention
Three Tiers of Prevention in Schools
Prevention begins with a safe and
supportive school climate.
38
31
28
22
16
14
6
0 10 20 30 40
Students in this school are teased or put downabout their sexual orientation
Students in this school are teased or put downbecause of their race or ethnicity.
...sexual comments, jokes, or gestures that madeyou feel uncomfortable?
I have been bullied at school this year.
Have gangs caused trouble at your school thisyear (e.g., fights, sale of drugs?)
...touch, brush up against you, grab, or pull yourclothing, or corner you in a sexual and…
…in a physical fight on school property?
2018 School Climate ProblemsPercent Yes or Agree
N = 85,980 students in 324 Virginia high schoolsThe FBI, Secret Service, and Dept of Education recommended a threat assessment approach nearly 20 years ago.
What is Threat Assessment?
Threat assessment is a problem-solving approach to violence prevention that involves assessment and intervention with students who have threatened violence in some way.
Threat Assessment is a violence prevention strategy.
1. Family members, friends, or others seek help when concerned about someone in distress or who is threatening violence.
2. The threat assessment team evaluates the seriousness of the threat.
3. The team initiates assistance to address the underlying problem, conflict or need. In the most serious cases, protective action is taken.
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School Violence
• Developed 2001 at University of Virginia
• School-based teams gather information
• Follow decision-tree to determine whether threat is transient or substantive
• Take protective action if substantive
• Attempt to resolve the problem underlying the threat
2006 Manual
2018 Manual
Step 1. Evaluate the threat.Obtain a detailed account of the threat, usually by interviewing the person who made the threat, the intended victim, and other witnesses. Write the exact content of the threat and key observations by each party. Consider the circumstances in which the threat was made and the student’s intentions. Is there communication of intent to harm someone or behavior suggesting intent to harm?
No Not a threat. Might be expression of anger that merits attention.
YesStep 2. Attempt to resolve the threat as transient.
Attempt to resolve conflict or threat.Yes Case resolved as transient.
Add services as needed.Is the threat an expression of humor, rhetoric, anger, or frustration that can be resolved so that there is no intent to harm?
No
Step 3. Respond to a substantive threat.For all substantive threats:a. Take immediate precautions to protect potential victims.b. Warn intended victim and parents.c. Look for ways to resolve conflict.d. Discipline student, when time is appropriate.
SeriousCase resolved as serious substantive threat. Add services as needed.
Serious means a threat to hit, fight, or beat up whereas Very serious means a threat to kill, rape, or cause very serious injury with a weapon.
Very Serious
Step 4. Conduct a safety evaluation for a very serious substantive threat.In addition to a-d above, the student may be briefly placed elsewhere or suspended pending completion of the following:e. Screen student for mental health services and counseling; refer as needed. f. Law enforcement investigation.g. Develop safety plan that reduces risk and addresses student needs. Plan should
include review of Individual Educational Plan or “child find” procedures if appropriate.
Step 5. Implement and monitor the safety plan.Document the plan.Maintain contact with the student.Revise plan as needed.
Research on Threat Assessment
1. Cornell, D., Sheras, P. Kaplan, S., McConville, D., Douglass, J., Elkon, A., McKnight, L., Branson, C., & Cole, J. (2004). Guidelines for student threat assessment: Field-test findings. School Psychology Review, 33, 527-546.
2. Kaplan, S., & Cornell, D. (2005). Threats of violence by students in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 107-119.3. Strong, K., & Cornell, D. (2008). Student threat assessment in Memphis City Schools: A descriptive report. Behavioral Disorders,
34, 42-54. 4. Allen, K., Cornell, D., Lorek, E., & Sheras, P. (2008). Response of school personnel to student threat assessment training. School
Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19, 319-332. 5. Cornell, D., Sheras, P., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the
Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly, 24, 119-129. 6. Cornell, D., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2011). Reductions in long-term suspensions following adoption of the Virginia Student
Threat Assessment Guidelines. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 95, 175-194.7. Cornell, D., Allen, K., & Fan, X. (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in
grades K-12. School Psychology Review, 41, 100-115.8. Cornell, D. & Lovegrove, P. (2015). Student threat assessment as a method for reducing student suspensions. In D. Losen (Ed.).
Closing the School Discipline Gap: Research for Policymakers. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.9. Nekvasil, E., Cornell, D. (2015). Student threat assessment associated with positive school climate in middle schools. Journal of
Threat Assessment and Management 2, 98-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tam000003810. Burnette, A. G., Datta, P. & Cornell, D. G. (2017). The distinction between transient and substantive student threats. Journal of
Threat Assessment and Management. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-56103-00111. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Burnette, A.G., Jia, Y., Huang, F., Konold, T., Datta, P., Malone, M., Meyer, P. (2017). Student threat
assessment as a standard school safety practice: Results from a statewide implementation study. School Psychology Quarterly. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000220
12. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Huang, F., Shukla, K., & Konold, T. (2018). Racial/ethnic parity in disciplinary consequences using student threat assessment. School Psychology Review 47, 183-195.
Research on Threat Assessment
1.Field-test What happens when you try the model?
2.Controlled studies Cross-sectional, retrospective study:
How do schools using the model compare to other schools?Pre-post study:
How do schools change after adopting the model?Randomized controlled trial:
What happens to students in schools randomly chosen to use the model?
3.Large-scale implementationWhat happens when the whole state adopts the model?
Research on Threat Assessment
1. 99% of threats not carried out.2. Only 1% expelled, 1% arrested.3. Suspension rates decreased.4. Racial disparities reduced or absent. 5. Counseling used more often.6. More positive school climate.
Research on Threat Assessment
1. Cornell, D., Sheras, P. Kaplan, S., McConville, D., Douglass, J., Elkon, A., McKnight, L., Branson, C., & Cole, J. (2004). Guidelines for student threat assessment: Field-test findings. School Psychology Review, 33, 527-546.
2. Kaplan, S., & Cornell, D. (2005). Threats of violence by students in special education. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 107-119.3. Strong, K., & Cornell, D. (2008). Student threat assessment in Memphis City Schools: A descriptive report. Behavioral Disorders,
34, 42-54. 4. Allen, K., Cornell, D., Lorek, E., & Sheras, P. (2008). Response of school personnel to student threat assessment training. School
Effectiveness and School Improvement, 19, 319-332. 5. Cornell, D., Sheras, P., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2009). A retrospective study of school safety conditions in high schools using the
Virginia Threat Assessment Guidelines versus alternative approaches. School Psychology Quarterly, 24, 119-129. 6. Cornell, D., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2011). Reductions in long-term suspensions following adoption of the Virginia Student
Threat Assessment Guidelines. Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, 95, 175-194.7. Cornell, D., Allen, K., & Fan, X. (2012). A randomized controlled study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in
grades K-12. School Psychology Review, 41, 100-115.8. Cornell, D. & Lovegrove, P. (2015). Student threat assessment as a method for reducing student suspensions. In D. Losen (Ed.).
Closing the School Discipline Gap: Research for Policymakers. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.9. Nekvasil, E., Cornell, D. (2015). Student threat assessment associated with positive school climate in middle schools. Journal of
Threat Assessment and Management 2, 98-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tam000003810. Burnette, A. G., Datta, P. & Cornell, D. G. (2017). The distinction between transient and substantive student threats. Journal of
Threat Assessment and Management. http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-56103-00111. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Burnette, A.G., Jia, Y., Huang, F., Konold, T., Datta, P., Malone, M., Meyer, P. (2017). Student threat
assessment as a standard school safety practice: Results from a statewide implementation study. School Psychology Quarterly. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000220
12. Cornell, D., Maeng, J., Huang, F., Shukla, K., & Konold, T. (in press). Racial/ethnic parity in disciplinary consequences using student threat assessment. School Psychology Review.
Nov 15, 2018
Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 9
School Violence
Research on Threat Assessment
1. 99% of threats not carried out.2. Only 1% expelled, 1% arrested.3. Suspension rates decreased.4. Racial disparities reduced or absent. 5. Counseling used more often.6. More positive school climate.
Virginia mandates K-12 threat assessment in 2013
46% 47%
63%68%
2013‐2014 2014‐2015 2015‐2016 2016‐2017
Virginia Schools Conducting at Least One Threat Assessment
Selected sample of 1,865 threat assessment cases reported by 785 Virginia public schools during the 2014-15 school year
Percentages for 1,865 threat cases from 785 schools. One case can involve more than one type of threat.
33
23
21
18
13
5
1
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Unspecified
Kill
Use weapon
Hit, beat
Stab, cut
Bomb
Arson
Sexual
Types of Threats (%)n= 1,865
Percentages for 1,865 threat cases from 785 schools. One case can involve more than one victim.
68
15
13
7
4
0 20 40 60
Student
Teacher
Whole school/group
Staff/administrator
Other
Intended Victim (%)n = 1,865
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Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 10
School Violence
97.7
2.6
0.7
0 20 40 60 80 100
Threat NotAttempted
Attempted andAverted
Threat CarriedOut
Threat Outcomes (%)n = 1,865 cases
84
8
5
1
2
0 20 40 60 80
No Change
Transferred to alternativeschool
Homebound instruction
Transferred to regularschool
Other
School Placement Outcome (%)n = 1,865 cases
Percentages for 1,865 threat cases from 785 schools. One case can involve more than one outcome.
53
44
16
5
3
3
1
1
0 10 20 30 40 50
Reprimand
Suspension out of school
Suspension in school
Expulsion reduced to…
Detention after school
Placed in juvenile detention
Arrested
Expelled
Disciplinary Outcome (%)n= 1,865
No statistically significant differences for White vs Black or White vs Hispanic students
45
15
0.5 0.7 0.8
46
18
1.4 1.2 0.7
43
16
1.5 0.8 00
10
20
30
40
50
Suspension Change inPlacement
Expulsion Arrest Incarceration
Percent of Studen
ts
No Racial Differences in Disciplinary Outcomes for Students Receiving a Threat Assessment
n = 785 schools
White
Black
Hispanic
Research Needs 1. Improve threat assessment training.
2. Improve fidelity of implementation of threat assessment.
3. Show longitudinal impact for students and schools.
4. Demonstrate impact of wider school climate improvement efforts.
We can prevent violence by helping all students to be
successful in school.
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Dewey Cornell, Ph.D. 11
School Violence
http://youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu