Intro to research
Research Problem
Related Literature
Methodology
Presentation Analysis and Interpretaion
Summary Findings, Conclusion and Recommendation
LESSON 1
Research is a key to progress, without research there will be no
progress in all human endeavor. –Calderon (1993)
Research could offer solution to our numerous, biological,
social, educational, cultural and behavioral problems. Our
health, economy, security depends largely on research.
4
Research is basic and it is paramount important in any
development at all times.- Bermudo et.al. (2010)-
Research is a course, fundamental requirements for a degree
Why study research?
Research is a process of gathering data or information to
solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific
manner (Manuel and Medel,1976 )
Research is a systematic process of collecting and
analyzing information or data in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we are
concerned or interested in (Leedy &Ormrod, 2001)
5
Research is a systematic, testable and objective
nature of research permits careful examination of
the process and results (Allyn and Bacon, 2008)
What is Research?
What is Research?
Research is a scientific investigation of phenomenon which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
facts that links on man’s speculation or assumption with reality
(Calmorin, 2010)
Research is a careful, systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of certain phenomenon which
involves accurate gathering and recording and critical
analyses and interpretation of all facts about the
phenomenon for theoretical or practical end (Ardales,nd )
6
RESEARCH is derived from the old French word cerchier
meaning to “ seek or search”, SEARCH meaning to investigate.
The prefix RE means again and signifies of the search. Literally
this mean to “ investigate again” (Garcia et.al.,2011)
To serve man and provide a good life
Discover more facts about unknown
phenomena
Find answer to the problems by existing
methods and information
Improve existing techniques and
develop new instruments or
products
Discover unrecognized
substance
Discover pathways of action
Order related, valid generalization into
systematized science
Provide basis for decision making
To satisfy researcher’s curiosity
To find answers to queries
Acquire better and deeper
understanding
To expand and verify existing knowledge
Improves efficiency, efficacy and quality
Improves exportations of
goods
Respond to economic recovery
& austerity
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
EMPERICALDirect experience or
observation
LOGICALValid procedure and
principles
CYCLICALStarts with problem & ends
with problem
ANALYTICALUtilizes proven analytical
procedures
CRITICALExhibits careful and precise
judgment
METHODICALUses systematic method
and procedures
REPLICABILITYRepeated to arrive at valid
and conclusive results
Charactersitics of Good Research
It provides hard facts which will bases for further research
It obtains knowledge for practical purposes
Develops and evaluates methods that tests concepts and theories
It develops and evaluates our concepts, practices and theories
It gathers information on subjects or phenomenon we lack or limited knowledge about it
Research corrects perceptions as well as expand them
9Functions of Research
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
Qualities 5 4 3 2 1
1. Research Oriented- researcher
continuously searches for knowledge with open
mindedness, novelty and solve existing problems
systematically
2. Efficient-produces results without wasting
time and resources
3. Scientific- exhibits principles and scientific
methods of science
4. Experiential- takes actual action, data,
information experimentally on field
5. Active- takes immediate action rather than
contemplation or speculation
SCALE:
5 EXCELLENT 3 SATISFACTORY 1 NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
4 VERY SATISFACTORY 2 FAIR
10
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
Qualities 5 4 3 2 1
6. Resourceful - meets situation, capable of
devising ways and means to solve specific problem
or arriving at a desired result
7.Creative - creates quality novel facts,
information or problems
8. Honest- establishes legal forms and
requirements free from fraud or deception
9. Economical-marks careful , efficient and
prudent use of resources
10. Religious - manifests faithful devotion to
acknowledge ultimate reality or deity
SCALE:
5 EXCELLENT 3 SATISFACTORY 1 NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
4 VERY SATISFACTORY 2 FAIR
11
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
INTERPRETATION:
1.00-1.80-NEEDS IMPROVEMENT
1.81.2.60-FAIR
2.61-3.40-SATISFACTORY
3.41-4.20-VERY SATISFACTORY;
4.21-5.0 EXCELLENT
12
Selective Observation Made up observationHindrances of Effective
Research
13
1. Traditions- accepted norms, beliefs,
practices and superstitions are true and
are part of the daily lives of men.
2. Authority- Accepting without question, an
opinion of someone who is considered in
authority on the subject.
3. Inaccurate observation- describing
wrongly what is actually observe
HINDRANCES OF EFFECTIVE RESEARCH14
4. Overgeneralization- establishing pattern out of few instances
5. Selective Observation – Persisting to believe an observed pattern from overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent pattern
6. Made-up information – making up information to explain away confusion.
HINDRANCES OF EFFECTIVE
RESEARCH15
7.Illogical Reasoning – attributing
something without logical bases.
8. Ego-involvement in understanding–
giving explanation when one finds
himself in an unfavorable situation.
9.Mystification– attributing to
supernatural power, phenomena
that cannot be understood.
16HINDRANCES OF EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
Idea Generating Phase
Problem-Definition Phase
Procedure Design Phase
Data Collection Phase
Data Analysis Phase
Interpretation Phase
Communication Phase
Research Problem
Statement of the Problem
Hypothesis
Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study
19
Where does idea come from?
Courtesy of youtube
Research Problem is any significant, perplexing situation, real or artificial solution that requires reflective thinking
Helps determine the direction of subsequent inquiry
A problem that someone would like to research
Source: Bermudo, et.al., (2010). Research Writing Made Simple. A Modular Approach for Graduate Students
Ho
w t
o D
isco
ve
r a
nd
Id
en
tify
R
ese
arc
h P
rob
lem
s
Reading a lot if literature in your field of concentration and be critical to what you read
Attend professional lectures
Being a keen observer of situation and happening around you
Thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lesson taken in content courses
Conducting mini-researches and note taking on the obtained findings
Compiling researches
Visiting various libraries for possible discovery of researchable topics
Subscribing to journals
Building up a library of materials in your field
Source: Bermudo, et.al., (2010). Research Writing Made Simple. A Modular Approach for Graduate Students
STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM
Describes the general statement of the whole
problem followed by specific questions or
subproblems into general problem
Formulated at the beginning of the study
STA
TEM
EN
T O
F T
HE P
RO
BLE
M
Source: Bermudo, et.al., (2010). Research Writing Made Simple. A Modular Approach for Graduate Students
EXTERNAL
CRITERIA
1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary
duplication. Concerned with newness
2. Importance in the field
3. Availability of data
4. Choice of method
5. Funding support or sponsorship
6. Facilities and equipment
7. Ethical Considerations
INTERNAL
CRITERIA
1. Interest/ Experience of the researcher
2. Training
3. Cost
4. Time
SOURCE OF
PROBLEMS
1. Actual problems encountered
2. Technological changer and curricular
development
3. Graduate’s academic experience
4. Consultations
5. Specialization
6. Analysis of an area of knowledge
7. Consideration of exisitng practices and needs
8. Repetition or extension of investigation
Source: Bermudo, et.al., (2010). Research Writing Made Simple. A Modular Approach for Graduate Students
WHY? ( Aim or purpose of the problem
for investigation)
WHAT? (the
subject matter or topic to be investigated)
WHERE? (the place of locale where
the research is to be
conducted)
WHEN? (The period or
time of the study during
which the data are to be gathered)
WHO? OR from whom?Population or universe from
whom the data are to be collected)
Research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or
study is to be conducted or that a problem is ready for
investigation, inquiry or study . (See et.a., 2000)
Source: Bermudo, et.al., (2010). Research Writing Made Simple. A Modular Approach for Graduate Students
WHY? ( Aim or purpose of the problem
for investigation)
WHAT? (the
subject matter or topic to be investigated)
WHERE? (the place of locale where
the research is to be
conducted)
WHEN? (The period or
time of the study during
which the data are to be gathered)
WHO? OR from whom?Population or universe from
whom the data are to be collected)
WHY Aim/Purpose To determine the status of ...
WHAT Subject Matter The Teaching of Mathematics
WHERE Place or Locale National High Schools in General Santos City
WHEN Period or Time School Year 2009-2010
WHO Population/Universe The respondents are implied ito be teachers or pupils or both
TITLE:The Teaching of Mathematics in National High Schools in General Santos City
During SY 2009-2010
The Teaching of Mathematics in National High School in General Santos City
GU
IDELI
NES in
th
e s
ele
ctio
n o
f R
ese
arc
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rob
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or
Top
ic1. The topic must be chosen by the researcher
It must be within the interest and specialization of the researcher
It must be within the competence of the researcher tackle
Within the ability of the researcher to finance
Data must be manageable
Are an available and accessible
Meet standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability
Answers specific questions
Hypothesis formulated are testable can be accepted or rejected
Equipments and instruments are available and can give valid and reliable results
Completed w/in reasonable time
Significant, important and relevant to present time and situation, timely and of current interest
Results are practical and implementable
Original, critical and promotes reflective thinking
Delimited to suit the resources of the researcher
Contribute to national development goals & human knowledge
Not undermine moral and spiritual values
Not advocate violence but peaceful means
Return of investment ( monetary, advancement of position, promotion, improve specialization, competence and skills in professional work.
GU
IDELI
NES IN
FO
RM
ULA
TIN
G
GEN
ER
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PR
OB
LEM
1. General Statement of the
problem and sub-problems
should be formulated first.
2. State specific problems in interrogative
form.
3. Each specific questions must
be clear and unequivocal
4.Each question must be
researchable
5Questions must be based on
known facts and phenomena
6Questions can be interpreted
apart from other questions
7Answers must contribute to
complete development of
the study
8Specific questions should
be enough to cover the
development of the entire study
9There should be a general
statement of the problem and
broken into sub-problems
SA
MP
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RESEA
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H S
TUD
Y
Research Title
•LOCAL FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT : ITS EFFECT ON THE DELIVERY OF BASIC HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES AND SATISFACTION OF BENEFICIARIES IN GENERAL SANTOS CITY
Statement of the Problem
•This study describes the financial management of the City of General Santos and its effect on the delivery of basic health and social services and satisfaction of beneficiaries in General Santos City as perceived by both implementors and beneficiaries. Specifically , the answered the following questions:
Specific Problems
•1. What are the perceptions of implementors on the handling of financial resources for the delivery of basic health and social services to General Santos City constituent?
•2. How is the delivery of the basic health and social services perceived by the implementors and beneficiaries?
•3. What is the level of satisfaction of the beneficiaries in the availment of basic health and social service?
•4. How has the city’s financial management affected the delivery of basic health and social services?
•5. How has the delivery of basic health and social services affected the satisfaction of the beneficiaries?
•6. What are the problems encountered in the delivery and availment of the basic health and social services?
•7. How have the problems encountered in the delivery and availment of basic health and social services affected:
• a. the delivery of the basic services by the implementors?
• b. the satisfaction of the beneficiaries?
WHY( Aim or
purpose of the
problem)
WHAT(IndependentVariable)
WHAT(Dependent
Variables)
WHEREPlace or
locale where
the research
is to be
conducted
WHENPeriod or time
of the study
during w/c the
data are to be
gathered
WHOPopulation or
universe from
whom the
data are to
be collected
Find the
perceived
effect on
delivery and
satisfaction
Financial
Management
System
Delivery of
Services
Satisfaction of
Beneficiaries
General
Santos City
Implementors
and
Beneficiaries
SA
MP
LE
RESEA
RC
H S
TUD
Y
Research Title
•ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE, CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY AND EFFECTTO TEACHER’S PERFORMANCE AMONG SECONDARY TEACHERS OF GENERAL SANTOS CITY DIVISION: BASES FOR TEACHERS’ COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
Statement of the Problem
•This study aimed to design a Teacher’s Competency Development Program for the secondary schools teachers in General Santos City Division. Specifically, this study attempted to answer the following questions;
Specific Problems
•What is the teachers’ degree of adaptation to organizational change in secondary schools of GSC Division as perceived by the teachers themselves and their administrators in the areas of
2.1.External Change;
2.1.1Demographics characteristics
2.1.2.Political Pressures
2.1.3.Social Pressures
2.2. Internal Change?
2.2.1.Emergence of Human Resource Problems
2.2.2.Managerial Behavior
2.2.3.Decision making
What are the organizational changes that affect the performance of secondary teachers in General Santos City Division?
Are there significant difference in the degree of teachers’ adaptation to organizational change as perceived by themselves and the administrators in secondary schools of GSC Division?
WHY( Aim or
purpose of the
problem)
WHAT(IndependentVariable)
WHAT(Dependent
Variables)
WHEREPlace or
locale where
the research
is to be
conducted
WHENPeriod or time of
the study during
w/c the data are
to be gathered
WHOPopulation or
universe from
whom the data
are to be
collected
Design a
teachers
competency
development
program
Org. Change
Culture
Technology
Teachers
Performance
Secondary
Teachers in
General
Santos City
Division
Secondary
Teachers and
Administrators
Is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated
guess about the answer to a specific questions
HY
PO
THESIS OPERATIONAL FORM
Stated in affirmative and that there is a difference between two
phenomena
NULL FORMstated in negative and that there is no
difference between two phenomena. In other words it expresses equality between
two phenomena
GU
IDE
LIN
ES
in
fo
rmu
lati
ng
h
yp
oth
es
is
Experimental investigations,
hypothesis have to be
explicit, they have to be
express also in comparative
and correllational
studies
In descriptive and historical investigation, hypothesis is
seldom expressed if not entirely
absent
It is usually stated in
null hypothesis
It is formulated from the specific
questions upon which
they are based.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The rationale, timeliness and relevance of the study
Possible solutions to existing or improvement to unsatisfactory
conditions
Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited
Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge
Possible implication
SIG
NIF
ICA
NC
E
OF T
HE S
TUD
Y
GUIDELINES IN WRITING SCOPE & DELIMITATION
Brief statement of the general purpose of the
study
The subject matter and topics studied and discussed
The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the
entity to which the data belong
The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be
large to make generalizations significant.
The period of the study, this is the time, either months or
years, during which the data were gathered.
SC
OPE A
ND
D
ELI
MIT
ATI
ON
Review of Related Literature
Review of Related Studies
Conceptual Framework
Definition of Terms
• A Literature review is helpful in two ways.
• It will not only help researchers clean the ideas of others interested in a particular research question,
• but it also lets them read about the results of the other studies.
Why Literature is of value?
RESEA
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TYPES O
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GENERAL REFERENCES -are the sources researchers often refer to first. Like articles, monographs, books and other documents that deals directly with the research question. Most general references are either indexes, which list the author, title and place of publication of articles
•Education Index-
•Current Index to Journals
•(ERIC)Resource in Education (RIE)
•Psychological Abstracts
PRIMARY SOURCES -
are publication in which
researchers report the
results of their studies. Authors communicate their findings
directly to readers, most of these are
journals
SECONDARY SOURCESrefer to publications in which authors describe the work of others like textbooks.
• Encyclopedia of Educational Research
• Handbook of Research on Teaching
• National Society for the Study of Education Yearbooks
• Review of Educational Research
• Review of Research in Education
• Subject Guide to Books in Print
STE
PS I
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LITE
RA
TUR
E
SEA
RC
H
STEP 1: Define The
research problem as precisely as
possible
STEP 2: Look at relevant
secondary sources
STEP 3: Select the peruse
one or two appropriate
general reference works
STEP 4: Formulate search terms (keywords
or phrases) pertinent to the
problem or question of
interest
STEP 5: Search the
general references for
relevant primary sources
STEP 6:
Obtain and read relevant primary sources and note and summarize
key points in the sources.
SEA
RC
HIN
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OR
G
EN
ER
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REFER
EN
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If there are any articles related to topic under the descriptors then list the bibliographical data of pertinent articles on
bibliographic cards (5x8 inch index card) write the researchers topic, the author, title, page, publication date and publication source . A separate note card should be used for
each reference listed.
Research Topic:
Author:
Title of the Book:
Publication Date:
Publication Source:
Pages:
===========================================
===
(Write your data/ information searched)
Research Topic:
Author:
Thesis / DissertationTitle:
Publication Date:
Name of the University:
Pages:
==============================================
(Write your data/ information searched)
HO
W T
O O
BTA
IN
PR
IMA
RY
SO
UR
CES
Reading the primary source. When all the desired journal articles are gathered together, the review can begin
It is good idea to begin with the most recent articles and work backward.
Read the abstract or summary first. This will tell whether the article is worth reading in its entirety.
Record the bibliographic data at the top of a note card
Take notes on the article or photocopy the abstract or summary. Almost all research articles follow approximately the same format. They usually include an abstract; an introductory section that presents the research problem or question and reviews other related studies; the objectives of the study or the hypotheses to be tested; a description of the research procedures including the subject studied, the research design.
LEADING SEARCH ENGINES
Altavista (http://www.altavista.com) fast, powerful and comprehensive. It is extremely good in locating obscure facts
and offers the best field-search capabilities.
Excite ( http://www.excite.com) particularly strong on locating current news articles and information about travel
Google (http://www.google.com) Increasingly popular. A very detailed directory. Good place to go first when doing a search
on the internet
HotBot (http://www.hotbot.com) very easy to use when searching for multimedia files or to locate websited by
geography.
Lycos (http://www.lycos.com) offers very good websites reviews. Has a very good multimedia search feature.
Teoma (http://www.teoma.com) very good review and easy to use
LEA
DIN
G S
EA
RC
H
EN
GIN
ES
The Introduction
The body of the review
The summary of the review
Any conclusions
the researcher
feels
A bibliography
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Writing Review of Related Literature and Studies
The Introduction briefly describes the nature of the research problem and states the research questions. The researcher also explains in this section what led him or her to investigate the question and why it is an important question to investigate
The body of the review briefly reports what others have found or thought about the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed together, grouped under subheads. Major studies are described in more detail, while less important work can be reffered to several studies that reported similar results in a single sentence, somewhat like this : “Several other small scale studies reported similar results (Adams,1976; Brown,1980; Cartright,1981; Davis,1985)”
The summary of the review ties together the main threads revealed in the literature reviewed and presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date. Findings may be tabulated to give readers some idea of how many others researchers have reported identical or similar findings or have similar recommendations
Any conclusions the researcher feels are justified based on the state of knowledge revealed in the literature should be included. What
does the literature suggest are appropriate courses of action to take to try to solve the problem?
A bibliography with full bibliographic data for all sources mentioned in the review is essential. There are many ways to format reference lists
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A tentative explanation of phenomenon
problems that serves as basis in
formulating research hypothesis.
Considered as central
theme, focus, and main
thrust of the study
INPUT
• Qualified Teachers
• Effective Methods
• Adequate Facilities
• Adequate Supervisory Assistance
PROCESS
• Science
• Instructional
• Program
OUTPUTs
• Superior Science Knowledge and skills of the students
VA
RIA
BLE
A variable is defined as something that varies or any observation/
characteristics which assume different values. Additionally, variables
may represent persons or objects that can be manipulated,
controlled, or merely measured in a research study. In contrast
to a variable, the value of a constant is fixed.
1. Qualitative Variables – This type of variable differ in kind rather than in degree or magnitude (ex.
marital status, gender, nationality)
a. Dichotomous variable – having only two categories
Real dichotomy – like sex : Female/Male
Artificial Dichotomy – like slow learners/ fast learners
a. Multinomial variable – This type of variable having three or more categories (Ex.
Educational status)
1. Quantitative variables – this type of variable differ in degree or magnitude rather than kind (Ex.
Income, age)
a. Discrete / discontinuous –has fixed values(whole numbers )
ex: # of children / siblings
for nominal and ordinal
a. Continuous – with decimal point or any value in the scale
- examples : weight, grade, age (16 ¾), size, distance
VA
RIA
BLE
According to Scale / Level of Measurement
Nominal
This provides categories for labeling or classifying objects or events
For mutually exclusive categories (observation assign in category but differ in kind only.
For example : sex , marital status , religion , tribe , sections
They can be measured only in terms of whether the individual items belong to certain
distinct categories, but we cannot quantify or even rank order the categories
Nominal data has no order, and the assignment of numbers to categories is purely
arbitrary. Because of lack of order or equal intervals, one cannot perform arithmetic (+, -,
/, *) or logical operations (>, <, =) on the nominal data
1. Ordinal
This provides a system for ranking observations, items or objects (< or >)
Examples: yr level, honors, sizes of blouses, sectioning- homogenous.
Ordinal data have order, but the intervals between scale points may be uneven.
Because of lack of equal distances, arithmetic operations are impossible, but logical
operations can be performed. A typical example of an ordinal variable is the socio-
economic status of families.
Ordinal scale data are very frequently used in social and behavioral research.
VA
RIA
BLE
Interval
This incorporates all properties of nominal or ordinal scale but
go beyond in that categories consist of equal intervals, which
mean that the distance of each individual is known.
Ex : pressure/ calendar/ scholastic grades/Celsius/time
1. Ratio
This is a special form of interval scale that has true zero point at
which the
characteristics is presumed to be absent.
Examples : age, weight/Kelvin/length/pitch/height
VA
RIA
BLE
According to their Function in Research
1. Independent Variable (IV)
It is the variable that is referred as the “assumed
cause or treatment” of a problem and the reason for
any change in the dependent variable.
It may also be referred as stimulus, control,
explanatory, predictor, or manipulated variable
A predictor variable/ controlled or manipulated by the
researcher
factors that are thought to be explanatory (x- axis)
Ex : IQ, Study Habits, Sex
VA
RIA
BLE
According to their Function in Research
Dependent Variable (DV)The variable that is referred as the “assumed” effect
of another variable which is being measured as an
outcome of the study It may also be referred as,
response, or explained variable criterion variable or
variable being measured (y-axis)
Ex : Academic Performance, OpinionIt is the “assumed effect or outcome, response” of
another variable
VA
RIA
BLE
Dependent Variable (Y)
Intentionally left alone
Measured
Vary at unknown rate
Response
Effect
Synonymous to:
outcome, response variable
Independent Variable (X)
Intentionally manipulated
Controlled
Vary at known rate
Stimulus
Cause or treatment
Synonymous to
control, predictor variable
VS
COMPARISON between Independent Variable and Dependent Variable
Intervening or Moderator Variable
This variable attempts to work and clarify the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. As a result,
it may weaken or strengthen the effect the relationship of
independent on dependent variable. .For example; this might bea concept such as self – efficacy or social accountability.
--Why did the intervention have an effect?
Abstract
Reasoning AbilityAcademic Achievement in Math
“The Relationship Between Abstract Reasoning Ability and Academic
Achievements in Math Among High School Students”Independent Dependent
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Terms should be defined
operationally, that is how they are used in
the study.
The researcher may develop his own
definition from the characteristics of the
term defined.
Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books,
magazines and newspaper articles, dictionaries and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his sources. Definitions taken from published
materials are called conceptual or theoretical
definitions.
Definitions should be as brief, clear and
unequivocal as possible.
Acronyms should always be spelled
out fully especially if it is not commonly
known or if it is used for the first time.
DEFIN
ITIO
N
OF T
ER
MS
Research Design
Respondents and Sampling Techniques
Research Instruments
Research Procedure
Statistical Treatment
WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN ?
Task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the research project, popularly known as the “research design".
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
52
Chapter 3 Research Method
Meaning of research design
1
• A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
2
• Blueprint of the study. It guides the collection, measurement and analysis of data
3• A plan or
structure of the investigation in order to obtain answers to research questions. It outline what the researcher would like to do until the final analysis of the data
53
Chapter 3 Research Method
Sampling Design
Which deals with
the methods of
selecting items to be observed
for the study.
Observational design
Which relates to
the condition
under which the
observation are to be
create
Statistical Design
Which concern the question of the of How
the information and data
gathered are to be
analyzed ?
Operational design
Which deals with
techniques by which
the procedures satisfied in sampling .
Parts of Research Design
54
Chapter 3 Research Method
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the following features.
The mean of obtaining information.
The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any.
The objective of the problem to be studied.
The nature of the problem to be studied .
The availability of time and money for the research work.
Features of Good RS
55
Chapter 3 Research Method
Different research design
In case of
Exploratory
research study
in case of descriptive
and diagnostic
research
In case of hypothesis-
testing research
studies
exploratory research method are also termed as formulative research studied.
The main purpose is that of formulate the research problem .three methods are
1. The survey of concerning literature
2. The experience survey
3. The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating
in case of descriptive research study –one those studied which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular Individual , or a group.In diagnostic research study determine the frequency which some thing occur
hypothesis-testing research studies known as experimental studies are those researcher tests the hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.
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Chapter 3 Research Method
Difference between
formulative= descriptive/diagnostic
Flexible design
Judgmental sampling
No pre-determined design
No fixed decision about the operational procedures
No flexibility
Random sampling
Pre-determined design for analysis
Advanced decisions
57
Chapter 3 Research Method
Type Purpose Time frame Degree of control
Examples
Experimental Test for cause/
effect relationships
current High Comparing two
types of treatments for anxiety.
Quasi-experi-mental
Test for cause/
effect
relationships
without full control
Current or past
Moderate to high
Gender differences
in visual/spatial abilities
Non-
experimental -
correlational
Examine
relationship
between two
variables
Current
(cross-
sectional)
or past
Low to
medium
Relationship
between studying
style and grade
point average.
Ex post facto Examine the
effect of past
event on
current
functioning.
Past &
current
Low to
medium
Relationship
between history of
child abuse &
depression.
Research Designs/Approaches
58Chapter 3 Research Method
Research Designs/ApproachesType Purpose Time frame Degree
of controlExamples
Non-
experiment
al
correlation
al
Examine
relationship bet 2
var. where 1 is
measured later.
Future -
predictive
Low to
moderate
Relationship bet
history of
depression &
development of
cancer.
Cohort-
sequential
Examine change
in a var. over
time in
overlapping
groups.
Future Low to
moderate
How mother-
child negativity
changed over
adolescence.
Survey Assess opinions or
characteristics
that exist at a
given time.
Current None or low Voting
preferences
before an
election.
Qualitative Discover
potential
relationships;
descriptive.
Past or
current
None or Low People’s
experiences of
quitting smoking.
59Chapter 3 Research Method
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTSOne of the most important components of a
research design is the research instruments
because they gather or collect data or information.
These research instruments or tools are ways of gathering data. Without them, data would be impossible to put in hand.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Questionnaire -The most common instrument or tool of
research for obtaining the data beyond the physical reach of the observer
CLOSED FORM OR CLOSED ENDED OR OPEN FORM/ OPEN ENDED
Guidelines in Using
the Questionnaire
1. Clarity of
language
2. Singleness of
purpose
3. Relevant to the
objective of
the study
4. Correct
grammar
Advantages Disadvantages
Facilitates data gathering
Is easy to test data for
reliability and validity
Is less time-consuming
than interview and
observation
Preserves the anonymity
and confidentiality of the
respondents’ reactions and
answers
Printing and mailing are costlyResponse rate maybe lowRespondents may provide only socially acceptable answersThere is less chance to clarify ambiguous answerRespondents must be literate and with no physical handicapsRate of retrieval can be low because retrieval itself is difficult
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Interview -It is in a sense of an oral
questionnaire. Instead of writing the response, the interviewee gives the needed information orally and face-to-face. With a skillful interviewer, the interview is often superior to other data-gathering device.
The purposes of interview are :
- to verify information gathered
from written sources
- to clarify points of information
- to update information and
- to collect data
TYPES
1. Structured or
standardize
2. Unstructured or
unstandardized
3. Telephone
Interview
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Rating Scale -It involves
qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or traits of a person.
TYPES
1. Thurstone Tehnique
2.Likert Method
3.Semantic Differential
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Checklist- The simplest of the devices, consists of a
prepared list of items. The presence or absence of the item may be indicated by inserting the appropriate word or number. Use in descriptive and historical researchers
Sociometry- Technique for describing the social relationships among individuals in a group. In a indirect way it attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations
Document or Content Analysis- Used as a main tool of research or a subsidiary tool Main tool in historical research but a subsidiary tool in descriptive research and less used in experimental research
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Scorecard- A rating that may yield a total weighted score that can be used in evaluating communities, buildings, sites, schools, or textbooks. Similar in some respect to checklist and rating scale
Teacher or Research Made Tools- Very popular in research. Part of the overall instruments used in research studies. It combined with other standardized tests in the assessment of individuals’ operations and situations
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Tape Recorded Data - Observe through the ear as well as through the eye. Also use video tape recorder or radio cassette recorder
Tape Recorded Data - An information form that attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. Also known as attitude scale
Observation - Perceiving data through the senses: sight, hearing, taste touch and smell. Most direct way
used in studying individual behavior
Participant and non-participant observation
Structured and unstructured observation
Controlled and uncontrolled observation
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
Psychological Test- An instrument designed to describe and measure a sample of certain aspects of human behavior. E.g. performance, achievement, personality and projective devices
Ready to Use Instrument of Standardize Test- Product of long years of study. Tend to be highly reliable and cover a wide range of student performance level.
Criteria for Measuring
1. VALIDITY- measure what is intends to measure
2. RELIABILITY- stability in maintaining consistent
measurement in a test administered twice
Matching methods to research paradigm
Method Quantitative QualitativeWritten
Instrument
Standardized Instrument
(validity and reliability
established)
Constructed survey or
interview guide (Use some
questions from other surveys;
construct new questions). May
determine validity and
reliability after administration
No predeveloped questions in survey
or interview guide
Predeveloped questions – may be
administered in no established order;
questions may be added depending
on circumstances.
Predeveloped questions – established
order
Observation Structured observation –
predetermined items are
counted in terms of frequency,
duration, occurrence,
permanent product, etc.
Open-ended observations – trying to
identify themes and patters
Content
analysis
Structured counting of a pre-
determined phenomena in
terms of frequency, etc.
Open-ended analysis; themes and
patterns are identified.
SAMPLING DESIGNSampling is a process of choosing a representative portion of
a population to represent the entire population.
Sample. It is a proportion, an element or a part of the
population which is scientifically and randomly drawn that
actually possesses the same characteristics as the population.
This implies that every person has an equal opportunity to be
selected for your sample
Sample size is the number of subjects in your study.
Margin of Error is the allowable error in percent due to the use
of the sample, instead of the population
Sampling Error is the error attributed to chance difference
between a random sample and the chosen population. It
does not result from measurement or computation errors but
contributory to inaccuracy of data.
SAMPLE VS POPULATION
As follows are some reasons why researchers use a sample
rather than the entire population in the conduct of their study.
Sometimes population is difficult to identify who makes up the
entire population.
Sample is cheaper, faster, more accurate and can yield to
more comprehensive information.
Getting the population is too costly in terms of human
resources and other expenses, and time consuming.
In population, there is a lot of error to control and monitor.
Sometimes lists are rarely up to date.
Keys to Good Sampling Defective Sampling
formulate the aims of the study
decide what analysis is required
to satisfy this aims
decide what data are required
to facilitate the analysis
collect the data required by the
study
Sampling that is too small or not
a representative will be biased,
invalid and unreliable.
The sampling becomes very
complicate if the population is
too large or has many sections
and subsection.
The sample (respondents) should
have common characteristics in
order to eradicate faulty
conclusions.
The sampling becomes biased
and unrepresentative if the
researcher does not possess the
necessary skills and technical
know-how of the sampling
procedure.
Types of Sampling Technique
Non-probability Sampling (Non-
scientific). This type of sampling
does not provide every member
of the population an equal
chance of being selected as part
of the sample.
Probability Sampling (Scientific
sampling). In this type of
sampling, the researcher follows
a procedure that assures that all
elements in the population are
given equal chance of being
selected as a sample unit
Purposive sampling is
Quota sampling
Convenience sampling,
Simple random sampling
Systematic random sampling
Stratfied random sampling
Cluster random sampling
Multi-stage sampling
Data Processing
Sample Table Results
DATA PROCESSING
Data which are correct, accurate,
consistent and complete
Data which are coded, organized and
easily stored.
Tables, graphs and other data presentation
which are easily generated.
Statistical analysis and outputs which can
be easily and quickly made.
is the process of categorizing, organizing and presenting
data in order to have efficient processing of statistical
analysis and accurate interpretation.
STE
PS IN
DA
TA
PR
OC
ESSIN
G
RAW DATA
EDITING
CODING
PREPARATION OF DATA/ TABLE/ GRAPH
DATA ANALYSIS
REFERENCES: ( Rebustes, 2002 and Bermudo et.al,2010)
RA
W D
ATA
An information or data taking from sources can either be taken from different sources like
a. Questionnaires
b. Interview data
c. Documents
d. Observations
e. Focus Group Discussions
Source: Catane, Juliet( 2000). Conducting Research. A Practical Application
ED
ITIN
GThe researcher should first edit the retrieved questionnaires, interviews or observations conducted to detect errors or omissions and correct them when possible to assure that the minimum data are
(1) accurate
(2) consistent with other information
(3) uniformly entered
(4) complete and
(5) arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
CO
DIN
GA process of groupings and assigning numeric codes to facilitate analysis of respondents responses to questions. The following are some tips in coding data.
Determine whether the responses to the questions asked are names or numbers. If the responses are names, then the researcher can use numeric codes.
Always place the code for each variable at the bottom part of the questionnaire or data matrix and mark it “legend”
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Pre
pa
ratio
n o
f
Da
ta M
atr
ix
The researcher should prepare a data matrix or template to facilitate preparation of tables before analyzing the data. For computer-generated data, the researchers are advised to follow the steps in the preparation of the data matrix (Bermudo et.al, 2010).
Determine the variables used in the study
Count the number of variables as found in the questionnaire. The number of columns in the matrix or worksheet should be the same os the number of variables found in the questionnaire.
Pre-numbered the questionnaire retrieved. If your respondents are grouped then, number them chronologically from 1 to n. Do this for the rest of the group.
Enter the responses for each respondent in the matrix using the code you previously decide to use
The columns represents the variables or the study and the rows represent the respondents. Thus, all responses of the respondents are entered in one row.
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Pre
pa
ratio
n
of
Tab
les
The researcher will now organized the data into logical, sequential and meaningful categories and classification in order to make them amenable to analysis and interpretation (Rebustes,2002).
TABLES provide a more precise description of the results and figures makes it easier to see trends or patterns in the
data. Whichever the researcher chooses, trends must be discussed in the text itself. The highest and least figures or findings of the study normally highlighted in the textual presentation. Data from these tables are integrated into the textual discussion. In framing the table, the researcher must be guided by specific questions as presented in statement of the problem. The table should clearly define the problem to be answered. It should bear captions and headings to ensure facility in understanding data aimed to answer questions posed (Bermudo et.al,2010)
GRAPHS. Data presented in graphs add clarity, more impact and color to the study. Graphs however, becomes useful if the research tries to compare one data from the other.
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Da
ta A
na
lysi
s &
Inte
rpre
tatio
n
During the interpretation of data, both the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study are considered. It is in this part where the researcher looks for theories or earlier studies, findings of which substantiate or repudiate the findings of the present research being discussed.
When certain elements of the theoretical backgrounds do not conform the researcher justifies why this is so relating to theories, principles, related literature and studies or conditions attributed to the present study.
The following levels of interpretation of data may be observed (Bermudo et.al,2010).
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Da
ta A
na
lysi
s &
Inte
rpre
tatio
n
Level 1 TRENDING
The interpretation of the findings of the investigation focuses mostly on qualitative description i.e. ranks, order, ratio and others which established implications as to skewedness, distribution and other features showing direction, heaviness, preferences or strength, among others, but independently
LEVEL 2
CLASSIFYINGFindings of the study are categorized given meanings, where implications of the study are drawn.
LEVEL 3
SERIATINGFindings of the study are categorized, given meaning and scaled as to magnitude, degree, enormity or importance, among others
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Da
ta A
na
lysi
s &
Inte
rpre
tatio
n
LEVEL 4
CORRELATING Findings of the study are categorized given meaning, measures and compared with other factors to established variation or relationship
LEVEL 5
THEORIZING
Findings of the study resulted to a statistically defined steady associations of factors, path and relationships where logical constructs and generalization explains the phenomenon investigated resulting to a theory.
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Variables Frequency Percent
Age
63-69
56-62
49-55
42-48
Total
Ordinal Variables:
like age, number of
years in service
and monthly salary.
Sex # of
Respondents
(n)
% (n/N x100)
Male 40 40
Female 60 60
Total 100 100
Frequency and
Percentage
Distribution. It consists
of summarized data &
the information
derived from such can
tell the relationship
between a part to its
whole.
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Leadership Skills Weighte
d Means
Verbal
Interpret
ations
Rank
Human Skills 4.583 Very
High
2
Technical Skills 4.382 High 3
Administrative
Skills
4.623 Very
High
1
Institutional Skills 4.302 High 4
Interpretation: Through ranking, it is
shown that the middle
managers were best in
Administrative Skills
(Rank 1) followed by
Human Relation Skills
(Rank2), Technical
Skills (Rank 3) and last
in Institutional Skills
(Rank 4).
Indicators WM INTERPRETATION
1.Punctuality 3.583 VS
2.Tardiness 4.293 O
Weighted Mean 3.938 VS
Weighted Mean. This is
used when the
options to the items of
the questionnaire are
assigned points.
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Inferential Statistics – deals with the description of the parameters
based on the characteristics of a representative sample. It consists
of procedures for making generalizations about characteristics of
the population, based on information contained in a sample taken
from the population. When the entire population is studies there is no
need to use inferential statistical method since the parameters of
interest in the population can be exactly computed.
Parametric Tests (require normal distribution and utilize both interval
and ratio data)
Mean z-value p-value Decision remarks
Method A 70
-4.27 0.070 Reject Ho
Method B is
more
effectiveMethod B 74.0
z-test – used for testing significance for n>30 (greater than)
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Parametric Tests (require normal distribution and utilize both interval
and ratio data)
GROUP Mean
Gain
Score
SD No of
Items
t-stat p-value remarks
Experiment
al
4.11 2.78 27 4.33 0.000025 Significa
nt
Control 0.92 3.51
t-test - used for testing significance for n<30 (less than)- used to test the significance of 2 independent samples
- used to compare 2 means (before and after treatment)
Source of
Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit
Remarks
Between
Groups 73.6875 3 24.5625
10.62162 0.001075 3.490295
significa
ntWithin Groups 27.75 12 2.3125
Total 101.4375 15
F-test or Analysis of Variance or ANOVA - This is used to test the means of 3 or more independent samples
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Parametric Tests (require normal distribution and utilize both interval
and ratio data)
Indicator Model
Instructional Competence Y=4.057 - 0.013(CL) + 0.081(UIT) -0.093(IL)
Professional and Personal
Characteristics
Y=4.266 +0.018(CL) + 0.063(UIT) -0.091(IL)
Punctuality and
Attendance
Y=3.949 - 0.057(CL) - 0.162(UIT) +0.188(IL)
Organizational Technology on Teacher’s Performance
Source: Bermudo et.al. 2010
Non- Parametric Tests (don’t require normal distribution and utilize
both nominal and ordinal data)
Chi-square Test (
CHI-SQUARE TEST- is a test of difference between the
observed frequencies and expected frequencies
Kruskal-Wallis Test or H-Test -this is used to compare 3
or more independent groups… an alternative for
Anova in parametric test
Source of
Variation df H P-value H crit
Remarks
Teaching
oriented
2 19.17566
40.001075 9.21 significant
Teachers
Administration
Oriented
Research
Oriented
Total
Data Processing
Sample Table Results
Overview of the Contents. First introduce the chapter by providing an overview of contents.
Resume of the Study. Provide a brief resume of the study indicating the main problem and specific problems, the research methods used, the tools used in gathering the data, the respondents of the study, methods used and how the data were statistically treated. All these parts must be explained/ described briefly in just one paragraph.
Summary of Findings.This section includes the summary of findings which are based on the statement of the problems or objectives. If the study has five (5) specific problems, there must be also five major findings of the study. However, the researcher should not limit their findings to the number of specific questions. The subheadings under specific questions being answer will give clarity and coherence of the presentation. This will accommodate several related findings under one specific problem. However, a summary of all the findings to be problem be presented under one heading.
Conclusions. Write down the conclusions drawn from the findings of the study. This part gives the direct answers to the problems posed in the study. As mentioned previously, generally, if the study has five (5) specific questions, it must also have 5 conclusions. No further elaboration is required in writing the conclusions. Here are some guidelines in writing conclusions (Rebustes, 2002).
1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implication,
interpretation, general statements and/or generalizations based upon findings.
They should not contain any numerals because it will limit the forceful effect or
impact and the scope of the generalization. No conclusions should be made
that are not based upon findings
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer specific questions raised at the
beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement
of the problem.
3. It should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. No conclusions
should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet they
convey all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by
specific questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated
categorically. They should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and
correct. They should not give any hint that the researcher have some doubts
about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as probably,
perhaps, may be and the like should be avoided as much as possible.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the populations, area or subject of the study.
7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis.
They may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently
and they should convey the same information as the statement recapitulated.
Conclusions. Write down the conclusions drawn from the findings of the study. This part gives the direct answers to the problems posed in the study. As mentioned previously, generally, if the study has five (5) specific questions, it must also have 5 conclusions. No further elaboration is required in writing the conclusions. Here are some guidelines in writing conclusions (Rebustes, 2002).
Recommendations. Recommendations should follow the same logical flow as the findings and interpretations; presenting each around the major theme or results of testing in the same order (Creswell, 2004). Recommendations are suggestions for actions, how leaders can apply the results of the study, for whom, when, and where. Recommendations state who needs to pay attention to the research results, and how the results might be disseminated (Simon, 2006). Relate each recommendation back to the problem. Include a narrative of topics that need closer examination to generate a new round of questions. Be sure to make specific recommendations for leaders in the field and policy makers. Below are the characteristics of a good recommendations (Rebustes,2002)
1. Recommendations should aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in
the investigation.
2. No recommendations should be made for a problem or anything for that
matter that has not been discovered or discussed in the study.
Recommendations for things not discussed in the study are irrelevant.
3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good
practice or system or even recommendations for its improvement. This is to
ensure a continuous benefit being accorded to the universe involved.
4. Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible,
practical, doable or attainable. It is useless to recommend the impossible.
This, of course depends upon the situation.
5. Recommendations should be logical and valid.If the problem is the lack of
facilities, it is only logical to recommend the acquisition of the lacking
facilities
6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies or
offices who or which are in the position to implement them.
7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in
other places to verify, amplify or negate the findings of the study. This is
necessary so that if the findings are the same, generalizations of wider
application can be formulated.
Offer areas for further research. These are topics to be researched which are usually offshoots of the present investigation. The topics to be suggested should be those which have bearing to the study investigated, replication of the study to be conducted in other places and some possible gaps which the researcher failed to include but which were found important in the holistic solution of the problem.
Magandang Gensan!