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The nocturnal sky shows glimmering nebulae among the splendidmiracleof starseither old extinct systems scattered throughout the universe,cosmicdusttaking shape around a nucleus, or a condition in between destruc-
tionand regeneration.
They are a suitableanalogyfor similar events on the horizon ofan history.
They signify a world of art passing into the formless, while suggesting at the
same time a new formation in the making.
These phenomena of artisticdecline andthe mysterious phoenixlike birth
of new artistic life arising from the process of its destruction are all the more
significant for us, because we are probably in the midst of a similar crisisas
far as we who are living through it (and therefore lacking a clear overview)
are ableto surmise and judge.
At the least, this viewhas many adherents, and in truththereis no lackof
supporting evidence. The only thing that remains uncertain is whether these
signs indicate a general decline arising from more profound social causes, orwhether they suggest conditions that areotherwisehealthy but that have tem-
porarily caused confusion in those fields and human faculties concerned with
discerning and representing beauty. Perhaps sooner or later they will lead to
happier things in this sphere as well and work to the general good and honor
ofhumanity.
The first hypothesis is bleak and unproductive because it denies artists
who subscribe to it any support for their efforts. If the world of art were
collapsing. Atlas himself would be too weak to hold it up; those who find
pleasure in building do notwarn to restrict themselves to tearing down some-
thing rotten.
The second hypothesis, by contrast, is practical and productivewhether
it is right or wrong.
As long as whoever embraces itguards against the presumption of seeing
himself as the founder and savior of a future art, he will view hisworkmore
modestly as something in theprocess of becoming, or rather, as thebecoming
of art ingeneral, and set for himself the following task; to explore within indi-
vidual cases the regularity and order that become apparent in artistic phe-
nomena during the creative process of becomingand to deduce from that the
general principles, the fundamentals of anempirical theory of art.Such an approach will provide no handbook for artistic practice, for it will
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not showhow to createa particular art-form but rather how itcomes into
being.Thework of art will beseenas a resultofallthe factors involvedin its
creation.Technique will therefore bea veryimportant issue to consider,but
onlyinsofaras itaffectsthe principle of art's creation.Norwill this approach
merely produce a history of art. Inpassing through thefield of history,itwill
notapprehendandexplain theworksofart of different periods andcountriesas facts but rather it willexpand upon them,asit were, by identifying in each
the necessarily different values of a functioncomposed ofmanyvariables. I t
will do thisprimarilywith the intention of revealing the inner law governing
theworld of the art-form. J ust as it governs the worldof nature. For nature in
itsinfinite abundance is nevertheless very sparing with its motifs;itconstantly
repeats its basic forms,modifying them a thousandtimes according to the
formative stage reachedby livingbeingsand thevariousconditionsof their
existence. Itshortens some elements and lengthensothers,developssome ele-
mentsfully, thenmerelyalludes to them elsewhere. Nature hasits own evolu-
tionary history, within which old motifs are discernible in every new form. Injust the same way, artis basedona few standardformsand types that derive
from themost ancient traditions; they reappear constantly yet offer infinite
variety, and likenature'stypes theyhavetheir own history.Nothingisarbi-
trary; everything is conditionedbycircumstances and relations.
An empiricaltheoryof art (theoryofstyle) isneither pureaestheticsnor an
abstract theoryofbeauty. The latter considers form assuch;it sees beautyas
thecombination of individualformsto achieve an overall effectthatpleases
and satisfies our artistic sense-
All the aesthetic properties of formalbeautyharmony, eurythmy, pro-
portion,symmetry, and so onare therefore of a collective nature.
Style theory, however, sees beautyas aunity,asa product or a result, not
as a sum or a series. I t looks for the constituent parts of formthat are not
form itself wratherthe idea, the force,the material, and the meansin
otherwords, the basic preconditions ofform.
This routethrough theworld of art presents enormous difficulties. At best
itwill produce results fullof gaps,emptyrubrics,anderrors.Butthe ordering
and comparativemethodnecessary forthis effort togroup related objects,
andto reduce what is derivedtoits simplest essence, at least helps providean
overall view of a vast field that is still mostly fallowandwaiting to be culti-vated by others. For thisreason alone it will not be totally invain.
Our taskalso includes what [Carl Friedrich] von Rumohrappropriately
calledthe "Housekeeping of the Arts," although he originally meant by this
only the ordering and at the same time subordinateroleplayed by architecture
in the creationof works of high art: sculpture and painting. Architecture, in
itsrelationtothe fine arts as well as initsown right,willbe a major themeof
ourconsiderations. Yet these higher realms of art representonlyoneof the
outer limits of the field to be investigated- Inthis fieldwe also encounter those
simpler workstowhichtheartistic instinctwasfirst applied:adornment,
weapons,weaving, pottery, householdutensils in a word, the industrial arts
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or what are also called technical arts.1Our task will embrace these, will
indeedtreatthemprimarily: first,because theaesthetic necessitywith which
weare dealingismost lucid and comprehensibleinthese oldest and simplest
inventionsof the artistic instinct; second, because acertaincodex of practical
aesthetics was established and formulated here prior to the invention of monu-
mentalart, which (as will be shown) adopted from them a preexisting formal
language in addition to being directly influenced by them in other respects;
and thirdand most importantly, because those arts defined by critics asminor
are most severely affected by our present system of education and by theten-
dencies ofthiscentury, and because nothing is more urgent for theintended
improvement of artistic taste in general (and with it art) than to resistthese
forces, particularly in thefieldofthetechnical arts.Forthere canbe no doubt
thatartadriftwithinthemaelstromof conditionshas lost its rudder, its
course,and, most seriously, its motive power. We will have ampleopportunity
toreturn to these issues in the course of this book, and enough has been said
about the book's general tendenciesits plan isoutlined in theintroduction.Therefore, let me conclude this preface with some observations related to
whathasjustbeensaid.
In times whenpeopleadopt theperspective of artistic culture(aperspective
our philosophers consider antiquated), a genuine public educationisidealis-
tic.Atpresentitis precisely the opposite: realistic.The pure scienceshave
come todominate education. Schoolsnolonger systematically educatehuman
beingsas suchbutare solely concerned with producingspecialists.Thissys-
temin particular affects the working class and those people who devotethem-
selves tothearts,andit starts at the earliest stages of schooling.It effectively
killsthe very facultythat isactively responsibleforthe perception and, equally,
the creationof art. I meanthesenseandthe purely human impulse ofbeing
creative as an end to itself andthe giftso indispensable to the artist as well
as to people receptive toartof direct intuitive thinking.1
Fortunately,the secondaryschoolsandtheiraffiliates, thetechnical schools,
have notexistedfor verylongandhave yettocome to terms with theirown
tenets. Hence the results of purely realistic education are emerging in a way
that promisesanotherrevisionof the educationalsystem soon.Forexample,
pupils enteringtechnical schools fromsecondaryschools havetodevote a large
part of their already overlyprescriptivecourse time to the basic sciences, whichare taught withoutregard for their relevance to thestudents' specialization.
But becausethese students think and feel "practically" as a result of what
has been systematically instilled in themfromtheir earliest years, they seek
that rapport of science and their specialty from their first introduction to its
elements. If they failtofind it,theylose interest inthe course,andneither
pressurenor fearofexaminations can put itback. In asense, theyarejustified
inwanting it, since the educational system does not allow thepursuit of
knowledge foritsown sake and thus excludes many disciplines(especially
those mostsuited toshaping and enriching the mind) because theysupposedly
have nopracticalapplication.
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When formerly the arts blossomed, when every artisan was in his own
way an artist or at least strove to beone, when the mind investigated every
conceivableaspect and approach at least as vigorously as today, schooling
(initiallyreligious) had nothingto dowith practice. Whenit did,itstarted
with practice and not with theory. The creative impulse was stimulated and
exercised earlier than was thestudent's receptivityto extraneous exact knowl-
edge. He thereby discovered himself those things he had to know in orderto
continue being creative.Hethus acquired a thirstfor knowledge thatledhim
to scientific studies that may often have been unsystematic butimmediately
compensatedfor this by assumingthe character of research andactive, inde-
pendent creativity.
Knowledge andscientific explanations gathered in this way are self-
acquired property,immediately yielding high interest and profit. They are not
assets conferredthensystematically deposited in the brain of the immature
student with uncertain prospectsforlater yield. The school of life, attended
bythe majorityof those who achieved fame with inventions or in the arts, wasof the former sort. Andgenerally the public education of earlier dayswasvery
similar, even if it was somewhat inadequate inotherways.Although the
formlessnessofsuchconditionsdoesnot commenditself to direct emulation,
it is still the present author's humble opinion that public technical schools, if
they are toaccomplish even part of whatisexpected of them,should follow
this principle as much as possiblebecause it is a principle of nature.So let us
firsthavehumanistic preparatory schoolsthat aimonlyat cultivating theman
in man anddevelopinghis mental and physical abilitiesthat is,precisely the
antithesis of our present secondary and industrial schools.3This should hold
forthepreparatory schools of all classes of society, however much they mightdiffer, as necessarily they must,inthe range andnature of their humanistic
education. Such teaching is not devoted exclusively to the ancient languages
andclassical literaturebutismerelycharacterized by thistendency.
So the first priority ishumanistic preparatory schools.The second should
beworkshopsin which skillsare taught. And finally the thirdisample oppor-
tunity for thestudent to satisfy his thirst for knowledge, stimulated by non-
compulsory creative work.There should be public lectures like those inParis
given by outstanding experts inallfields, offeredto allspecialists without
exception and inparticularto students of the various artistic ateliers of the
Ecole des beaux-arts,
France owes its greater fame and prosperity moreto this extremely liberal
method ofinstructionthanto those celebrated specialty schools that peda-
goguesin other nations are so keen to imitatejust when the Frencharestart-
ing to think ofreorganizingthem. Theyhave achieved fame and undisputed
preeminence in most branches of the industrialartsand their fine art issecond
to none,whereas their lead is being contestedinchemistry, engineering,and
mechanicsby England and America,where there are no polytechnic schools.
Suchfields depend on a very comprehensive and exactknowledgeandstill
require special facilities,but itshouldbepointed outthat a curriculumthat
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appears suitable for them should not be taken as a model forallbranches and
fields of technology, much less for the arts, including architecture and the
applied arts.
This isconfirmed by the above-mentioned conflicts within the French edu-
cationalsystem, whichhas been considered and imitated only one-sidedly in
the reorganization of the schools in Germanyand other countries. Certainlythe oldartacademies in these countrieshavebeen allowed to continue along-
sidethe so-called polytechnicschools,andnextto themmany so-called trade
schools, Sunday schools, and art schools have been set up to teach craftsmen
andartisans- Yet this arrangement has proven far more detrimental than bene-
ficial to art, which cannot flourish under systematic classroom instruction
and the fracturing of its domainwithout a motive power acting from below.
To avoid repetition on these and closely related issues, the author refers
readers to his brochure Wissenschaft, Industrie und Kunst: Vorschlage zw
Anregung nationalen Knnstgefuhles (Brunswick: Vieweg, 1S52).
These conditions would seem less grave, were it notfortheunfortunatefact
that a certain higher necessity comes intoplay,in which they, in company with
contemporaneousobservations in other fields,havetheir roots.
Purescience, for instance, impinges upon present conditions in other ways
far more effectual than those previously indicated: as the guiding force, or
rather as the spiritus familiaris [attending spirit] of the speculative century.
With itsdiscoveries and inventions, science enriches everyday life and expands
the sphere of influence of a business world bent on profit. Such inventions
usedtobedaughters of necessity but now they help to create need artificially
in order to increase sales and acceptance. Productsscarcely introduced areremoved from the market as obsolete before they can be developed techni-
cally, let alone artistically. Somethingnew, butnot necessarily better,always
takes their place.4
The presenthas neither the time nor the leisure to grow accustomed to
the benefits that are being almostforced uponit, but both are absolutely nec-
essarv for the artistic mastery of these gifts. Consumption and invention
have been handed over to practitioners and industrial capitalists to mediate
as they please, butwithout amillennium of popularcustom tocultivate a
suitable style. It requires far greater artistic sensitivity than is commonly
found amongourindustrialists to hit upon (without the benefitof time) the
rightart-form for all thenew things pressing themselves upon our attention.
Such aform wouldbe one inwhichfree human work appears as a necessityof
nature and becomes the generally understood and perceived formal expres-
sionof anidea,
Capitalismcertainly makesevery effort to have the fine arts serve its ends,
just as itborrowsall its technical meansfrom science. Ithasbrought about
the division oflabor(a practice understandably necessary forcoping with the
vast scale of an enterprise) but in a way that is highlydetrimentalto the hoped-
for success. For example, itseparates the so-called ornamental from the for-mal and technical aspects of art in a purely mechanical way, immediately
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betrayingits lackof feeling for and misunderstandingofthe true relationship
betweenthe various meanschc artistuses to produce his work.
Many giftedartistsare permanently employed by English and French indus-
try ina double servitude.Ontheonehand, they serve theemployer,whosees
themnotasequals but rather as troublesome advisers on taste and as embel-
lishersof form; herarely paysthem well. On the other hand,they servethe
fashion of the day,which is the only thing that ensures the sales upon which
the purpose andveryexistence of the industrial plant indeed everything
ultimatelydepends.
Thus artiststakeabsolutely no initiative in industrial production; they are
just one more category ofspecialists employed by manufacturersin the
same way that clay manufacture requires special kneaders or the furnace
needs a head stoker with his staff. The only difference isthat manufacturers
are aware of the inadequacy of their own technical knowledge and allow
kneaders and stokers a relatively free hand, whereas every jackassthinks he
understandssomething about art. The instructions given by artists are unhesi-tatingly criticized, altered, and distorted when they do not suit a manufacturer's
taste, orifa foreman expresses misgivings about their technical feasibility,
doubtfulprofitability, outlay costs,oranything else.
To thismustbe added the low status of these industrialartists: first with
respect totheacademic hierarchy of artthat snubs them; second with respectto
the firmthat claims the honors of success foritselfalone, and out of jealousy
seldomor never credits the artistwho really createdthe workor at leastput
intellectualeffort into it, and third with respect to thepublic,whichshares the
prejudices of the academy andholds the so-called decorative artsinlowesteem.People involvedinhigh artpainters, architects, and sculptors of repute-
have from time to time been called upon to work in craft industries, for
instance, when [Josiah] Wedgwood's famous faience was partly modeled on
[John] Flaxman'smodels and drawings. The porcelain factory at Sevres also
employs artists of stature, who to some extent keep themselvesaloof from
fashionand a concernwithsales. Yet eventhis influence from the heights
ofacademic art generally lacks apractical foundation, as skilled and highly
talented designers and model-makers are not metalworkers, potters, carpet
weavers, and goldsmithsaswasoften thecase before the academies sepa-
rated the arts. For this reason, products made under the guidance of these
men often contribute little to enhance the industrial arts because the results
come nowhere near the intention. Violence is done to the materials in order to
even partiallyfulfillthe artistic intention,and thus the products do not com-
plywith the artists'ambitiousdemands.
Architecture finds itselfin a similar predicament, as speculation and the
machine have taken it over in the same way thatthey have subdued thetechnical
arts. The architect isoften little morethan aninconsequential adviser in mat-
ters of taste and can expect neither esteem norprofit from his commissions.5
The indirect influence of science helps shape our modern artistic condi-tionsinthe ways indicated, but italsoconcerns itself with art as its actual
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object more now than it oncedid.The amount of materialassembledhy sci-
ence and research in the ever growing number of writings and illustrated
works on art, and everything related to it, is already more than we can man-
age. Itis difficult tofind one's way through suchabundancewhile maintain-
inga senseofdirection.
In order to facilitate this, we have divided the wealth of material into cate-gories, around each of which has evolved a self-contained discipline.
There isan overwhelming mass ofbookson aesthetics and the history of
art, nottomention the many books in related fields; thenumber ofbookson
specific subjects in the arts, especially architecture, is enormous-WeGermans
are tireless producers ofstudies of domestic,rural, andchurch construction,
manuals on timber, brick, ashlar, and so on. TheEnglish andtheFrench, on
the other hand, have treated more successfully the actual technology of the
arts.
These works contain an indispensable wealth ofknowledge and experi-
ence,yet the principle of splitting the material into a numberofsciencesor
disciplines that our artistsareexpected to master separatesmorethan it con-
nectsor compares. It only adds to the bewildering state of modern art, or
rather,this variety is one ofthe symptoms of that higher necessity imposed
uponus and our artistic efforts.
Applying what hasbeen said to architecture, we can see these myriad
directions converging in three main schools, which correspond to the three
ways in which science is applied to art, namely,
a. thematerialists,underthe influence ofnaturalscienceand mathematics;
b. thehistorians,under the influence of arthistory and antiquarian studies;
c, theschematists,purists, and so on, under the influence of speculative
philosophy.
The Materialists
Probably the most powerful influence on our present artistic attitude has
come from those textbooks thatshow how to utilize materials for architec-
tural andstructural purposes.
Such textbooks are consistent with the broader practical tendency of our
timeandaresupported and sustainedhythe major building enterprises, espe-
cially railways. They can be cri ticized in general for fetteringtheidea tothematerialtoo much by accepting the false premise that the worldof architec-
tural forms arises solely from structural and material conditions and that
these alonesupplythemeans forfurtherdevelopment.The materialis in fact
subservient to the idea and is by no means the only factor controlling the
idea'sphysical manifestation in thephenomenal world. Although formthe
idea made visible should not be in conflict with the material out of whichit
is made,it isnotabsolutelynecessary forthe materialas suchto he a factor in
artistic appearance. The first part ofthepresent work will further elaborate
upon this important pointanddemonstratethehistoricalorigins and develop-
mentof materialist principlesinarchitecture.
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Those who favor the so-called naturalistic styles of ornament must also be
counted materialists. They often disregard the basic stylistic and structural
principles of adornment.
The Historidsts
The historical school, which isdisintegratinginto various embattled factions,
eagerlytakes as its models certain works of art from times long past or from
other nations and imitates them with the greatest possible critical and stylistic
accuracy. They try to make the demands of the present fit thismold,instead
of(aswould seem more natural) allowing solutions to develop freelyfromthepremises of the present, taking into consideration traditional forms that have
developed over the course of millennia and stood the test of time as irrefu-
tablytrueexpressions and types of certain spatial and structural concepts.
In a certain sense the historicists and the materialists are opposites,
although bothschools depreciate the present and tradition.
Themanydirections inwhich thehistorical schoolmovesso characteris-
tic of ourtime have their startingpoint inthe countlessbooks thatrecordthe
discoveries and artistic studies of every countryofantiquity, of medieval times,
andofthe modern world. Its practitionersthink that a historically accurate
conception and reproductionof themodel guarantee success, and itmust be
said that their achievements, considered as critical and rational imitations,
makea good impression in comparisonwith earlierattemptsofthiskind.
An exceptionally learned and thoroughly critical method, a highly diligent
and prudent classification, an utterly scrupulous examination of all research
sources (libraries, archives, monuments, and art collections) to document the
names of artists, datesof creation,stylistic criteria, structure, iconography,
liturgy,orany other informationall undertaken with little real artistic feeling
or imagination and therefore hardly stimulating the creative instinctthese
are characteristics of the most recent art historical and archaeological litera-
ture,and they are reflected in the artistic achievements of the historical school.
The neo-Gothic offshoot, now the dominant trend, first appeared only
some fiftyyearsagoandwas initiallyencouraged inGermanyby [Johann
Wolfgang von]Goethe and the Romantic poets. Their first attempts were gar-
denpavilions and small country churches that turned outpoorlyenough. Rut
there are also more extensive projects dating from this time, suchasthetwo
Gothic spires placed ontopofthe (Romanesque)towers of the cathedral in
Zurich. The movement didnot reallycome alive, however, until an interest and
widespread support for preserving oldGothic monumentsarose. The restora-
tion of buildings undertaken as a result of this romantic-antiquarianmove-ment provided training for a number of supervisors and craftsmen who have
since hadthe occasionto apply their virtuosityinthis style to new buildings.
History reveals the neo-Gothic movement to berestorationalin origin and
nature.I thas a large number of technical and lay followersthe vastmajor-
ity of the former are the above-mentioned experts, for whom thecompendi-
aria artis[technical shortcut] created by the Gothic style is a desirable vade
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mecum. The movement also finds numerous supporters among materialists
and industrialistsbecause of the structuralprincipte pursued by this stylewith
extreme logic,andbecause of the ease with which its formal components can
be mechanically produced forthe market.Thisis especially truein England,
where the stylehas remained in use,althoughinamost schematic way.
But there are alsohighly talented artistswho subscribe to this school, and
almost all ofthem were convertedto itafter havingacquired their artistic edu-
cationandproventheir talent in quite different styles. Thisisespecially true in
France, where such artists have adopted anearly Gothic style still capable of
further development, whereas inGermany andEngland they pursue a style
that is alreadyossified.
The more prominentmen ofthe neo-Gothic style are closelyconnected
with avery active political and religious party, the same partythat introduced
the depraved J esuit style (using that age's love of ostentation as a lever for their
propaganda purposes) against which theyare now campaigning. This party is
most active in France, probably because of the artistic influence Paris has
always hadonother countries, although the uncertaintyandinstability of this
fulcrum in Paris seems disquieting. Zealots of this tendentious artists' party
treat northwestern andnorthern Europe as a pagan country to be conquered
anewfor Christianity,and they propose thesamemeans of proselytizingused
once before in France to achieve thesame goal (see [August] Rcichensperger's
Fingerzeige [aufdemGebiete der kirchlichen Kunst}).
The correctnessofthe views ofthose who deny it a future, howeverwell
buildings in this stylemightbe conceived andtheirplans duly considered, is
best guaranteedbythis movement's characteristically deliberateand studiedmannerand hy the principleofservitude expressedclearly and decisively in the
programdrawn up by priests andarchaeologists.
For quite opposite reasons the so-called classical school still holds out
prospects for new activity. Archaeology can scrutinize the past as keenly and
shrewdlyas it likes, but ultimately it is left to the diviningsenseof artiststo
reconstructsomethingwhole from themutilated remains of antiquity. This
places the archaeological approach at a distinct disadvantage and deprives it
of its initiative. These uncritical methods and the need to invent where the
information for a servile restoration is lacking are partly responsible for the
factthat all revivals of antiqueartimmediately achieve something new and are
never socompletely bad as neo-Gothic buildings dating from the beginningof
the century. Even the daintysmallrenaissance oftheperiodofLouis XVI and
thelatestHellenisticmovement whosecoryphaeusis [KarlFriedrich]Schinkel
were creative from the start; what was achieved remains the proud possession
of its time. Yet for very different and moredeeplyrooted reasons,antique tra-
ditions willalways exerttheirnewly invigorating force on us; they will out-
lastall the strange and singular things that the richness of time has called
forth.6As for art history, it willtrulylead art onlywhen it moves beyond its
current, critically divisive andarchaeologicalviewpoint to one of comparisonand synthesis.
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oernper
The Purists,Schematists, and Futurists
Philosophy wants to define the concept of beautyanddelimit itssubconcepts
precisely. Second, it takesup moreandmorespace analyzing beautyaccord-
ingto itsattributes. I f,third, it could turntheseresults intoaneffectivetheory
of art, it would haveaccomplished theaesthetic part of its task. It would have
replaced theconfusionand fragmentation presentlysodominant in artwith a
unity ofpurpose and harmoniousfulfillment. Butphilosophy applied toart is
like mathematicsappliedtonatural science; mathematicscancertainlycalcu-
late differentialsofvery complex functions but it rarely succeeds at integration,
especially in physical cases where forces interact incomplexwaysaccording to
laws that still need tobedefined.Butat least mathematicsattemptssuch inte-
gration; indeed,itsees it as its most important task. Modern aesthetics, on the
other hand, simply rejectsverysimilar tasks and problems of art-physics (if I
may use this rather daring expression as an analogy forwhat takes place
betweenthe effectsof natureand art) anddeclares this point of view to be,for-
tunately, a thing of the past (lAdolf] Zeising,A[esthetische] [orschungen],
introduction, 2). By contrast, aestheticians like[Gotthold Ephraim] Lessing
andRumohr,who (eachin his own sphere)reallyknew something aboutthepractical side of art, considered it the basisfrom whichthe artist should learn.
The philosopher of art is simply concerned with solvinghisproblem, which
has nothing in commonwith that of the artist, "who takes the phenomenal
worldas the purpose andaimof his activity;whereasthe aesthetician believes
ideasarethebeginning and theend, thegerm and seed of everythingthatexists,
the fertile force to which all creation, including beauty, owes its existence... ."7
Forthe aesthetician,theappreciation of art is an intellectual exerciseor a
philosophicaldelight, consisting of tracing beauty backfromthephenomenal
world to the idea, dissecting and isolating its conceptual kernels.8
Thus from thisperspectiveart also appears isolated and relegated to a field
especially marked out forit.The opposite was truein antiquity,wherephilos-
ophyheld sway over thisfield aswell. Philosophywasseen as an artist herself
and a guide to the other arts. But in growing old, she turned to analysis and
deviseddead categoriesinsteadof living analogies.
In just the same way,Gothicarchitecture wasthelapidarytransformation
of thescholastic philosophy ofthe twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Similarly, studies of the anatomy of art are of no use to the arts, whose suc-
cessdepends on reawakening inpeoplethecapacity for the undivided direct
perception of artandthe pleasure therein.Nevertheless, speculative aesthetics has significantlyinfluenced our current
artistic conditions: first through the mediation of so-called connoisseurs and
loversof art, whowith the helpofaesthetics have acquired a schematicand
puritanicalart regimen founded inpure caprice,one thathasproduced a
dreary impoverishment of art-form wherever it manages to intrude. This is seen
in the work of a certain school of architecture in southern Germany that unites
thematerialist and constructionaltendencywith aesthetic puritanism.Despite
its praiseworthyresultsin the area of utilitarianbuildings,theinadequacyof
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its means isapparent as soonas it tries todeal withtrulymonumental an.
Themodern mania for principlehasdeprived itof these means. They are to a
large extent erroneously described as inventions of decadent periods, abso-
lutelyinimical to taste, oras anticonstructionat. And judged by this false
accusation, they have beencondemned.These means, in fact,includesome of
the oldest traditions ofarchitecture,whichare fully consistent with the logicof building and with artistic creation in general and which have symbolic val-
ues older than historyvalues that cannot possibly be expressed by some-
thing new.Thisbook will provide ample opportunitytodemonstratethis.
Another effect of speculativephilosophy in thearts canbe seenin the ico-
nography ofart concerned withtrendsand the future,thehunt for new ideas,
theboastful displays of thoughts,profundity,richnessofmeaning, and soon.
Such moralisticappealstononartisticinterests (to which the ecstasy of art
and the often ludicrous mania of connoisseursand archaeologistsforinterpre-
tation respondwithequal dignity) are typicaleither ofbarbarismorofdecline.
Artatits most sublime hates exegesis;ittherefore intentionally shunsit.It veils
it behind themost general, purelyhumanmotives and deliberately chooses the
simplest, most familiar themes. It considers these, like the material from which it
creates (be it clay or stone), solely as a means to an end that is sufficient in itself,
Den Himmel schufichaus Erd'
Und Engel ausWeiberentfaltung,
DerScoff gewinnt ersT semen Werth
Durch kimstlerische Gestakung!
[Thesky I created from the earth,An angel from a woman's incarnation,
Amaterial only gains itsworth
Through artistic creation!
Hemrich Heine,Neue Gedichte}
In this book, the author takes for granted some basic aesthetic concepts. Since
he interprets someofthese concepts in a particular way, he owes his reader, as
an addendum to this preface, a short explanation of his terms.On a more exalted plane, what we mean by terms like "sense of beauty,"
"delight in beauty," "enjoyment of art," and "artisticinstinct" isanalogousto
those instincts, pleasures, and gratifications that govern the way in which we
maintainour telluric existence. Strictly speaking,these can be traced back to
the momentary removal, numbing,or forgetting of pain. J ust as pangs of
hungermake the purely physical individual want to try to alleviate them
purelyfor thesake of survival, just as frost and discomfort force him to seek
shelter,just asthese and other needsleadhim tovariousinventions,to work
hardto secure continued existence and prosperityforhimself and his species,
so we areinstilled withmental sufferingsthat govern the existence and enno-
blementof the human intellect and the human spirit in general.
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Surroundedby aworld fullofwonder andforceswhose laws wemay
divine, may wish tounderstandbutwill never decipher, that touchusonly in
a few fragmentary harmonies andsuspendour souls in a continuous state of
unresolvedtension, weconjureupin playthe perfection thatis lacking.We
make for ourselves a tinyworldin which the cosmic law is evident withinthe
strictest limits, yet complete in itself and perfect in this respect. In such play
we satisfyour cosmogonic instinct.
The imagination creates these images by presenting, expanding, and adapt-
ing individual natural scenes to our mood, so that we believe ourselves ca-
pable of discerning the harmony of the whole in a single event and thus for an
instant have the illusion of having escaped reality. Thisenjoyment of natureis
not very different from the enjoyment of art, just as the beauty of nature
(because it is horn in our receptiveness and even in our active imagination) is
assigned to the general beauty of art as a lower category.
Yetthis artistic enjoyment of natural beautyisby no means the most naive
orthe earliest manifestationofthe artistic instinct. The former is in fact unde-
veloped in simple, primitivehumanbeings, who already delight in nature's
creative taw as itgleamsthrough the real world in the rhythmical sequence
ofspaceandtime movements, in wreaths, a string of pearls,scrolls, round
dances, the rhythmic tones attending them,the beat of the oar, and soon.
Theseare the beginnings out ofwhichmusicandarchitecturegrew, thetwo
highest purely cosmic (nonimitative) arts, whose legislative support no other
art can do without.
But to thesegeneral phenomena of naturewith their sublime terror,
bewildering charms, and unknown inherent orderthere are more active ele-
mentsthatgripoursouland makeitreceptive to the illusionsof art.A never-ending strugglea frightfullawofthestronger according to
which one eats another only to beeatenin turnpervades nature, but itmani-
fests its full crueltyandharshness in the animalworld, which isclosest to us.
It forms the content of our earthly existence and that of history.Thisnever-
ending process of extermination by the living has no end and no design. The
soul,vacillating between hate and pity, numbs itself with the following discon-
solatesentence:Theindividual iscreated onlyasnourishment for the whole.
Moreover, weencounter the accidental, the nonsensical, and the absurd
atevery step alongourearthly path, and each flies contemptuously in the face
of the lawwe thought we had discerned. Then thereisthe deep, unfathomable,stormy world of our own soul: choruses of passions at war with themselves
andwith fate, accident, custom, law. Imagination opposes reality, and folly
contradictsitself and the universe. There is nothing but discordfromwhich the
arts snatch us away momentarilyby sealing off these battles and conflictsand
placingthem ina tightframework, in the endusingthemaselements of atone-
ment.Thesesentimentsgave rise to the lyrical-subjective and dramatic arts.9
Themagic that affects the soul throughartin its most variedformsand
manifestationsenabling art to captivate the soul completelyis called
beauty.Thisisnot so much anattributeof the work as aneffect,in which the
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most diverseelementsare simultaneouslyactive within and without the object
we call beautiful.
These determinants, when they do not emanate from the beautiful object
itself, must still be reflected in it, must still condition its particular formation
[Gestaltung],
Moreover, these determinants must also derive from and be consistent
with the laws of nature. Although artisconcerned only with form and appear-
anceand not with the essence of things, its forms mustfollow what the natu-
ral phenomenonteaches, even if onlybycomplying withthegeneral law that
prevails inevery realm of naturesometimes undeveloped, sometimes in a
more mature form.
This analogy between the general law of formation in nature and art
appears most clearly in what speculativeaestheticscalls the formal elements
of pure beauty.
A phenomenon can manifest itself as such only byisolatingitself from thegeneral as an individual.
This separation from thegenera!isabsolute onlyinthefirst stagesof for-
mation. Moredeveloped plant and animal forms arc distinctive becausethey
reflect, sotospeak, two determinants of form:first,their relation to the gen-
eralin which they arerootedand based; and, second, theirrelation to the par-
ticular,which setsthemup as objectiveorsubjective opposites.
As theprincipleof individuaUzationissymbolized clearlyanddistinctly by
thearrangement of the parts of every phenomenon that claims to be com-
plete,there arc three determinantsofform thatcanbe active in thegenerationofform.In lowerforms theymay acttogether or one determinant maylie dor-
mant. In cases where all threeareactive, these determinants of form corre-
spondto the three spatial dimensions of height, width, anddepth.
With respect to the three determinants of form, the multiplicityof form
must bearranged threefold into a unity; the following three necessary condi-
tionsof formal beauty then emerge:
1. symmetry,
2. proportionality,
3. direction.
Itis just as impossible to add a fourthhomogeneousproperty to these attrib-
utes of beauty as it is to imagine a fourth spatial dimension. This will become
more apparent in what follows-
Prmciple of Formation for Completely Self-Contained Forms Indifferent
tothe External World
These forms relate directlyand only to themselves, therefore their elements
are arranged around a kernel or central point representingtheunity. The parts
mayrevolve around this kernelorradiatefrom it in regular figures or sur-
round itin a composite, radial-peripheral arrangement, correspondingto the
complexity ofthe formation. We meet the most perfect such forms in themin-
eralworld:sometimesasplanimetric designs, like polygons,stars,composite
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considered separately, and most clearly in radial forms such as snowflakes.
Here the radials and their branchings demonstrate proportional develop-
ment;they suggest a striving towardseparation and an isolation from the
small universe of the snowflake.Thereis, so to speak, a polarizationof two
forces:the positiveforceof independent development,as showninA,andat
the center of thefigures thenegative force of dependence on the whole.This arrangement of atoms alongtheradials isinaccordancewith the two
effects just mentioned and is aresultof both forces:thecounteracting energy
centers are mirroredandatthe sametime reconciled in the proportionalartic-
ulation of the radials. To the observer, each radial appears to have an inde-
pendentformal existenceonly if
1. it is considered not as part of a wholebutcompletely separated (iso-
lated);
2. it is in a vertical position with respect to the planeofthe horizon or to
a line that represents the horizon.
In the same way, thesymmetricalprincipleisalready present in latent form
in thatremarkable miniature worldofsnowflakes, flowers, and soon.Here
symmetryevolves fromperipheral regularity, fromeurythmy,and from mole-
cules strungin an orderly way around the centerofcrystallization.Itissimilar
to how we traced proportion back totheradial regularityof theformation.
If we break offa piecefromsuch a regular wreath and consideritin isola-tion,weare comfortable with its appearanceonlyon the condition thatthe
parts are equal in number and position orthat there is a balanceof unequal
parts to theright and left of the lineab,atrightangles to a horizontal linerep-
resenting the plane of the earth'shorizon.If thereis a completeidentityof
elements right and leftofthe vertical lineab,this iscalledstrong symmetry;if
thereisonly a balance of masses, it iscalledweak symmetry [Ebenmaf5\.
The symmetrical arrangement ofatomstakesplace along the horizontal
linecd.The last is, as it were, the invisible balancing pole that gives theform
stability.Itcanbecalled thesymmetrical axis,in contrast tothelineah,whichcan be called theproportional axis,because the proportional arrangement of
parts takes place along this line.
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Eurythmy; Frames
Eurythmy isclosedsymmetryand stands in no direct relation to the observer
but only to a center aroundwhich the elements of the regular form are arranged
andstrung peripherally,
Toestablish a rapportwith the eurythmic figure, the observer has to imag-
ine himself at the center of relations. Verticality and horizontalityarethereforenot basicdemands of the eurythmic figure; its nature isenclosure.It expresses
the absoluteconcept of encirclement symbolically and therefore alludesto the
encircled as the actual object, as the centerofthe eurythmic order.
Door and window frames, for example, are eurythmic enclosures of this
kind, very similar to picture frames, except that the framedcontent isthe per-
sonwhoenters or looks out.Theseexamples of frames show clearly thedif-
ference and separation between those partsthat belongtothe frames as such,
and in which the eurythmic law appearsactive,and those other parts of the
frame that are sometimes active symmetrically,sometimesproportionally,
whereby the frame and its content first appear as an object to the outside
viewer. The latter includes pediments,consoles,and similar accessories.
Theframeisoneofthemost basic formsused in art: no enclosedimage
without a frame, noscale without it. Eurythmycomes into play only when
the frame is used: a regular concentric articulation and order of formalele-
ments that form an enclosedfigurearound theframedobject.
Modifications to the Eurythmic Order
The articulation of eurythmic figuresresults from certain laws of repetition
with cadence and caesuras, with elevations and depressions from which, when
interlinked,theclosed figure emerges.Musicalfigures (melodies) and visual
ones are subject tothesame laws,except that the ear is able to follow and
resolve far more complexarrangements thanthe eye, whichhas to absorb
everything at once. Therefore, within the admittedly infinite variationof eu-
rythmic series, scarcely more thanthreemodifications to the articulationof
visual figurescantake place. UndoubtedlytheGreeks devised the canon for
eurythmy as ingeniously as they did formusic andpoetry. We senseitin the
powerful concurrence of Doric columns, in the cadence of the entablature, in
the continual recurrence of thesamedecorativemembersallof which stim-ulateand sootheus but donottire us. This canon was largely forgotten by the
Roman period when Vitruvius confused eurythmy with proportion and,any-
way, confused all the formal-aesthetic concepts that he probably picked up
by misinterpreting some Greekauthor.The relevant passagesbythiswriter
(bk. 1,chap. 2), far from elucidating the Greek principles of beauty, only
spread confusion.
Eurythmy consists of stringing together uniform segments of space to
forman enclosure.
The first way in which this can be done is at even intervals, so that eachelement is identical to the others. Suchsimpleseries include dentils, fluting,
wreaths, the simplest bead moldings (without reels), and several others.
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Theseries becomesalternatingwhen we separatethe elementswithinter-
mediate elements. This is thecase, forexample, when the simple carved
wreath, in the mannerofthe leaf-and-dart decoration, changesinto a series of
two leaves alternating with one another, or when reels are inserted between
beads.The egg-and-dart molding with its so-called arrowheadsis another
very familiar exampleof an alternating series.Thesame principle of alterna-
tion is evidentinthe wreaths of metopes andtriglyphs.Contrasts in formand
design, as well as color, are necessary to articulate the alternating series. The
principle ofalternation is the recurrenceofunlike parts in eurythmiccadence.
Inaddition to the simple and alternating series, thereisa third,which is
therichest.Itinvolves interrupting a simple or alternating series with periodic
caesuras.
This again wasknownto theGreeks, althoughtheydeliberately used it
sparingly and only on accessories.
Examples: pearl strings with two or more reels (an easily understood alter-
nation of unlike parts), lion heads and masks that punctuate garland deco-
rations in the cymatia of Greek entablatures, Renaissance balustrades, and
especially aspects of barbarian styles as found in Hindu, Arabian, and Gothic
architecture.10Thisintercalationis conducive to the romantic mood and has a
more painterly-musical effect, whilesimpleandalternatingeurythmy corre-
sponds to plastic beauty.
Because intercalation is more painterly than plastic in its effects, it isespe-
ciallyrecommended in polychrome representation and as surface decorations
for carpets, ceramic work, inlaid metal, woodwork, and so on.
More elaborate eurythmic membersareappropriateonlyifarichcon-
fusionor confused richnessshouldappear,such as in curtains,embroidery,
fabrics,shawls,and generally in cases where a strict architectural eurythmy
would looktoo dry and stiff.
The beginning of the chapter ontextiles will provide details on these and
related points. Seealsothe woodcutsin thissection and thecoloredplates in
volume 1, which show instances of all the modifications to the eurythmic
series.
Symmetry
Eurythmy is closely related not to symmetry but to proportion, because sym-
metry ina strict senseisonly a piece, a fragment of a eurythmicwholethat
turns uponitself. Ifone imagines a cut through the earth, the sectionwouldbe
a circular disk, with theobjectson the earth's surface arranged on the outer
edgeinradialformationdirectedtowardtheglobe'scenter. A piece of the
earth's meridian, which the architecturally disposedmindsees aseurythmi-
cally arranged,isasymmetrical series.Itpleases only because we recognizeits
relation to the general, which lends static support to theindividual phenome-
non.Unlikeregular crystal forms that completely isolate themselvesfrom the
universe and are true microcosms, symmetrical forms are not sufficiently con-
sistentin themselvesfortheir form to expressthepossibility of their existence
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beyond the world. Thus they do not have the kind of lower-order perfection
that regular enclosed figures have, yet these are the forms in which organic
nature is clothed, thereby complying with a higher principle of working
together as aunit. Those gracefullyrigidsnow crystalsthatwereso instruc-
tive for the rhythmic lawand its relation to proportion are no longer suffi-
cient for understanding the principle ofsymmetry. The latter's truemeaning
andgreat diversityappear incombination withproportion for the first time inplant forms.
hi this respect it is remarkable that both the beginning and the end of a
plant's life arerepresentedbyself-contained microcosms: globelike plant cells,
flowers, fruit. Buta plant has a macrocosmic relation in itsgrowth; accord-
ingly, a lifeevolves simultaneously that operates in conflict with this macro-
cosmic relation as aprinciple of formation, that is to say,asthe principle of
proportionality.
The application ofthe law ofsymmetry to plants is best dealt with sepa-
rately.The plant, considered as an individual and as a whole, grows vertically
from itsseed alongtheearth's radius. Maintaining this direction dependson
thedistribution of themass ofbranches, leaves, flowers, and fruit aroundthe
stem or, where there is no stem, around a vertical line that defines the center
of gravitytoachieve overall balance. This order is thereforeeurythmic,and its
principle derives from the planimetric property of the ground plane, which
resembles a starlike crystal formation.Only inits vertical projection,that is,
on the retina of the observer's eye, is the image of the plantsymmetrical.The
vertical arrangement of theparts of the formation (the placement of branches
on atree) is independent of the law of balance totheextentthat equilibrium
is notaffected bywhether a ring of branches, balancing each other relative to
the stem, grows from the stem at a high or low point, over or under equally
balanced systems.
It follows that in all plants, and in all natural and artistic forms that obey
the same regular order,there is no symmetry in the form of vertical extension.
Theplantas awholeisactually symmetrical only to the eye; in realityit is
eurythmic. Actual symmetry appears in the individual parts of the plant
accordingto aninherent order that is very instructive, even if its detailsarenot
easily resolved.
A branch may grow out of the stem at right angles wi thout bending
toward thehorizon. I tmay branch out and its twigs terminate in leaves divided
like ferns,whose parts again consist of small leaves. Each part ofthetree,
when taken individually, demonstrates a subordination to the whole in the
symmetricalarrangement of its lesser parts.
Thestem, taken as a whole, is to thebranch what the earth is to the stem:
namely, its closestmacrocosmic relation, evidentin the uniform distribution
of branchings and in themassingofleaves onthe branch with regard to the
stem.Atthe sametime, the branch directly relates to the centerofthe earth,withwhich it shouldcomply in the arrangement and distribution ofits subor-
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dinate members. Horizontal branchings, becausetheyfulfill this dual condi-
tion, are no longerdistributed eurythmicallyaround the branch(aswas the
case with the mainstem, whichsimplyrelated tothe centerof the earth),but
symmetrically,with ahorizontalsymmetrical axis Intersecting the branchat
right angles.Fortwigs, leaves, and leaf parts, each considered as an entity, the
same dynamiclawalways applies. Thus the determinants of symmetrical formaretwofold:specifically, the relation tothe pointfrom which the individual
partgrows, and the general relation to the earthby virtue ofthe attraction
of masses and gravity." Each of these partshasonlyonesymmetrical axis,
alwayshorizontaland directedat right angles to the part from whichit grows.
Forinstance, the symmetryofa leaf, when projected as a line ona sectional
plane, intersectsthestalkatright angles and runsparallelwith themainstem
(whichisvertical). In thesameway, the arrangement ofleavesfrequently dif-
fersaccording to the type of the plant, but it is alwayssymmetricalaroundthe
twig, and again according to thelaw ofhorizontalandlinearequilibrium. Itfollows from this that atwigand its leaves must form a plane, liketheleaf.
Treesthatbranchout horizontally, like cedars, acacias, and beeches,exhi-
bit thissymmetrical arrangement.But the natural law becomes more complex
when the plant shows a different radiation principlefor instance, whenthe
branchesof poplars and cypresses growoutof thestemat acuteangles.
Herethe symmetry ofthebranches with their twigsandleaves again
approximatesthe planimetric eurythmyofthe main stem, yet without being
present in a pure form. The attempt toproduce an equilibriumof mass and
symmetry under suchcomplexinterrelatedcircumstances spursnature, with
its inexhaustible forms, to the infinite variety that the plantworldoffers; here
weintuit ratherthansee the law of symmetry working with proportionality,
more or less spiraling its way through it. This is partially responsible for the
romanticcharm that plants havefor us.
Although the animal kingdomisinfinitely freerandricherinits creationsthan the botanical world, its formal properties arealso moreapparent and
more distinct in their elements.
The kind of symmetry considered so faris planimetric;with animalsitis
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found only in polyps, radial animals, and so on. The symmetry of higher ani-
mal forms is neverplanimetric,as with plants, but linear. In highly developed
animals, sections taken through any ofthe three main axesof spatialexten-
sion, or projected onto them, are never completely regular. The linear sym-
metrical axis of vertebrates and humans is a horizontal line that meets the
directional axis (which will be discussed below) at right angles.Y et animal
forms arenot subject tothe lawsof symmetry, either from belowupward or
from front toreartheformer for the same reasonas plants, the latterfor avery similar one.
Itwouldbepossible topursuethe law of symmetry even into outerspace,
inrelationto the differentlevels of macrocosmic dependenceofcelestialbodies
on one anotherbutthiswould takeustoofar from the point.
Proportionality and Direction(Unityof Movement)
The principle of proportion can be observed first in radiating enclosed crys-
tals, where the individual radii at times appear articulated. This articulation
seems to follow a definite law that is expressed differently according to thenature of thecrystallized fluid and circumstances.
As was noted, we can observe such forms in some of the snow crystals
illustrated on page 84.
But the lawofproportionality emerges as far more developed in organic
forms.
We must assume that a definite force is at work in the developmentofveg-
etal and animal organisms, which to some extent operates independently of
thegeneral forces of nature (attraction and repulsion of masses, etc.},on the
onehand, andofthe will power of living organisms, onthe other. Thisforce
comes intoconflict with both, however, and the lifeoforganic formsdepends
entirely on the felicitous resolution of these conflicts.
In thisstruggleof theorganic vital force against matter,on theonehand,
and will power, on the other, nature produces her most glorious creations.
This can be seen in thebeautiful elastic curve of a palm, whose majestic
crown of leaves reaches vigorously upward while bending to the general law
ofgravity overall and in itsindividualparts (the leaves of the crown).
This struggle is evenmore vigorous inorganisms giftedwith volition, for
example, inArtemis or Apollo as depicted in antique art. Here freedom of
will and movementare inbalance with the requirements of mass and oflife
the greatest diversity brought into unity that the earthly mind can possibly
conceive.
The vital force (or if one prefers,thephysical force of growth), though it
works inall directions,tendsto follow onemain direction, which inplants is
generally directed vertically againsttheforce of gravity. In mostanimals it is
defined by the dorsal vertebrae, which are in most cases arranged horizon-
tally,and thus it coincides with the direction of thewill.With humans it is
againvertical; it does not coincidewiththe direction of the wi llbut forms a
rightangleto it. Thereforeinorganic formation two or three forces are active,
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of movement13(fitnessof direction), analogous to the way in which symmetry
(dependentongravity)relates to vertical proportion,asin plants. For inertia
and medium resistance must be balanced around the axis ofmovement, so
that no involuntarydeviation from the uniformityof direction occurs as a
result of unbalanced distribution of masses with regard to the axis ofmove-
ment (which is normally assumed as horizontal). The arrangement ofparts
alongthedirectionofmovement, however, would notbeaffected at all bv this
principle, for the reasons stated above. Stability is supersededherebyanotherbasic condition of forma! fitnessnamely, mobility, or capacity for move-
ment,together withspeed of movement.14
With many lower animal forms, such as worms, the life axis coincides
completely with the axis of spontaneity. Like plants, they have only two
attributes of form:symmetry,which in section appears as planimetric symme-
tryfeurythmy),andunityof movement.They almost always lack vertical pro-
portionentirely ornearlyso.
Higher animals, suchasquadrupeds and birds, form a very complex inter-
mediate class between this scheme and human beings, in which all three axesof formationtheaxesofsymmetry, proportion, and directionare clearly
distinct from and atright angles to one another, following the coordinates of
spatial extension.
Art, like nature, displays a similar variety of combinations but cannot
exceed nature'sbounds byaninch;its principlesof formal configuration must
bein strict accordance with the laws of nature.
Onthe Principle of Authority in theOriginof Natural and ArtisticForms
Authority is a termVitruvius uses in several places (perhaps referring to a
Greekauthor since lost whose terminology he translated into Latin as besthe
could) to express something for which there is no equivalent word in the
German language.Ttmeans the emphasis given to certain formal components
ofa phenomenon that stand out from the rest, thus becoming what onemight
call thechorus leaders withintheirrealm, the visible representatives of auni-
fying principle. The remaining elements of the plurality, unified in formal
beauty, relate to the authorities as resonant, modulating, and accompanying
tones do to the keynote. According tothe theory developed above,thereare
three formal authorities, namely,
1. eurythmicsymmetricauthority,
2. proportional authority,
3. directional authority.
A fourth authority of a higher order can be added, that ofcontent. I t con-
sists of the dominance of one of the three modifications of beauty in their
combination.
Eurythmic Authority
As I have shown, eurythmy is either stereometric or planimetric symmetry.
Stereometric regular formsinclude the sphere andallregularpolyhedra down
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Naturally only deviations from the strict principle endow proportion with
character, which has as many solutions as nature itself.37
Things become more complex where the proportional axis is not rooted
butmoves freely within a medium along its own directional axis, acondition
that in the foregoing was noted as the second possible combination. This isthe case with mostanimalsthat move horizontally on the earth, in water, and
in the air.Thefishisthesimplestexample of this combination. The goal the
swimmingfish pursues, whetheritis a prey oranyother desired object,is a
pointof attraction that exerts a force quite analogous to that which thecenter
of the earth exerts on the tree or on any other vertically directed form. But
gravity opposes a tree's growth, whereas with the fish the direction of willand
direction oflife(of the spinal column) arenotopposites: both striveuniformly
forward.Therefore,noconflict offorcestakesplaceinthisinstance,andthe
lawof tripartite division no longer applies(seeabove). The authority hereisa
dual one: theheadof thefishrepresentsboth the microcosmic principle of
unity for individual existence and its movement.
Thus far theproportionof the fish is indeterminately two-part: a head
with a tailpiece that becomes indeterminately spool-like toward the rear.
There are, however, other determinantsofform that give theincomplete
phenomenon the character of self-containment and unity:the general law of
the inertia of massesand of the resistance of the mediumin which movement
takes place. The fish's shape must yield to and reflectthese macrocosmic
influences. Thisisachieved by means of imaginary sectional planesthat pass
through the axisof direction at right angles and increase in size from front
toback according to a law that cannot be elaborated here, continuing to
increaseup to a point onthe directionalaxiswhere they reach their maximum
size.Accordingto another law, the sectional planes decrease in sizebeyond
thispoint.Unlike thehead,thegreatest diameter of thefishis a reflectionof
these macrocosmic influences.
Butgravity also influences the proportional formation of the fish; its sec-tional plane, whereveri tpasses through the longitudinal axis atrightangles,
issymmetricalinwidth. luheight, however, itconforms to theprinciple of
upright formationand is proportioned like a spindle or aflame.Macrocosmic
influences, wemay conclude, operate less distinctly thantheydo in cases of
uprightformation.
DirectionalAuthority
Like proportional authority, directional authority isneveractiveonitsownbut only in combination with the macrocosmicandsymmetrical authority,or
with that authority and the proportional authority as well.
The latter case was discussed in the previous section;theformer is most
evident in human beings.
just as the head of the fish clearly and distinctly mirrors the convergence of
two principal axes (the living axis and the directional axis), so the human
head expresses intelligibly the normal position of these two axes at right
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Notes
1. Anexpression that,through itspleonasm, indicatesthefolly of modern artistic
conditions so vividlychat Iam retaining it. It asserts that thereis a broad gulf, unknown
totheGreeks,between the so-called minor arts and the so-called high arts.
2. [Carl Friedrich vonj Rumohr's expression to describe the independentmental
activity that makespossiblethefullconception and apprehension of beauty and crea-
tion in artwithoutthemediation of thecriticalintellect.
3. Bavaria has an ordinance(Ido not know whether ic is enforced), passed by the
artistically learned King Ludwig, according to which no engineer or architect mayenter
stateservicewithout having passedthegymnasium examination.
4. Did it takelong for the masters of the great period toward the endofthe Middle
Ages to learn to use linseed oil to bind paints, to replace older processes they foundtoo
restrictive? Did it take long for the West ro rediscoverthesecret of applying enamelto
faience, which thePersians andSaracensprobably had long known from antiquity?
Not exactly exemplars of Western knowledge and science, [Jan] van Eyck, LucaDelia
Robbia, and [Bernard] Palissy did know how to apply their own discoveries artistically.
Bycomparison, how few modern painters are masters of the means and refinements
in paint offered so profuselyby chemistry.Wesee(completely ignoring actual artistic
matters) the deformation, whitening, and cracking of paintings after only a few years,
whereas those pictures by Italian and Flemish old masters are immortal in thesepurely
technical respects. Eventhough theymayhave darkened andbecomethickly covered
with the sedimentof the centuries, they nevertheless maintaintheir condition andindeed may even have improved with age-
5. The use of architectural competitions,which is catching on everywhere, greatly
encouragesthisunfortunateseparation of architectureas an art from working practiceand
itis(atleastin itspresentarrangement)oneof theleading causes ofarchitecture'sdecline.
6. The danger in continuing with Renaissance architecture, whichalong with the
painting and sculpture of the cinquecento is unsurpassed, is that itunlike Gothicis
incompleteand allows further refinement, and in fact can bepracticed only by a truly
artistichand. Yet when done hastily, as we nowadays demand, it degeneratesinto the
mosttrivial vulgarity of form. The so-called Gothic style, by contrast, insists on unifor-
mity in richness, which makes the difference between the noble and vnlgar less striking.
Even thekind oftaste.thatcanperceive thesedifferencesisstill fairly unreceptiveto
thembecause of the novelty of taking up this style again.
7. A[dolf] F. Zeising,A[esthetische\ F[orschungen],introduction.
8. Words of a poet and connoisseur:
Speculative aesthetics, whichiswidelypracticed, is almost as harmful for theartist
and builderasit isfor theviewer ofart.This aesthetics lacks a concreteunderstand-
ingof beauty. It may have generated much artistic rhetoric but little artistic sensitiv-
ity.Ithas not found the sourceofformal beauty; as a rule it hasto becontentwith
distilling only the abstract spirit of the idea from the full grape.
Sinceart has been placed underthisspeculativecontrol, thesensefor creating a
beautiful space has not revived, nor have the nerves become more receptiveto the
vis superba fomfae [sublime power of beauty]. Direct intuitive thinking is byno
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emper
means encouraged bythis aesthetics. Speculative aestheticsfinds its support in the
inabilityofso many people to find pure enjoyment in beauty as such.Itfeeds this
inabilitybytranslating what is intended fortheeyeortheear,in transforming art
into nonart, forms into concepts, the pleasure of beauty into God-knows-what kind
of pleasure, and artistic jest and humor into pedantic seriousness. But if form, color,
and quantity have tobereduced to categories before they canbe correctly per-
ceived,if the sensual assuchcan no longer make sense,ifthe bodily, as in thisaes-thetic, has to be disembodied inorder to revealits wealth doesn't art loseits
reasonfor independent existence?
Much could also be said about art journals, which more orlessechospeculative
and aesthetic handbooks. They also overemphasizematerial interests. Thewhat
dominates thehow, opinion,theappearance.
Thus speculative aesthetics in many respectsrecalls natural philosophy.Exact
science will succeed naturalphilosophy inthe same way that empiricalaesthetics
willsucceed speculative aesthetics.
9. Art has the same goal as religion: namely, relief from imperfect existence, the
forgetting of earthly woes and struggles with an eye to perfection.Butthe two are
opposites in that faith, through the mystery of miracles, immerses itself in the inexplic-
able,in formlessness, whereas art gives form to the formless and lets the miracle in a
work of art seemnatural, indeed necessary.In the same way, the instinctofknowledge
andthe urgefortruth are a third form of the same striving for perfection. But here the
goal is unattainable; the realm of the unknown stands in contrast with the circle of
what has been exploredinthai it yields no formal support and quantitativestandard-
both of which are partially granted to the workof art inits external aspect. Thus sci-
ence will always remain imperfect and incomplete in terms of form. Knowledgedoes
notsatisfy, only the striving for it does.Yetthe highest in art, as long as it becrays inad-
equateskill and an unfulfilled wish, mustbeinferior tothemost limitedworkofart
when the latter is consistent with the fully attained goal of striving for perfection that
lies at the heart of every work of art. Both religion and philosophy leave their sphere,
indeed surrender theirtruenature, when they accept the art-form.Sucha unity of the
three manifestations ofspiritual striving,however, offersthemost favorable conditions
forartistic creation, which was the case withtheGreeks.10. Christian architecture very early abandonedthe simple columnrhythmof
antique buildingsinfavor of theintercalationofalternating columnsand piers, cer-
tainly as much for aestheticasfor structural and liturgical reasons.
11.Thislaw isespecially evident in the plants of the primeval world and theirsur-
vivingdescendants: ferns, horsetails, palms, and so on. Later plant types more often
show abalance of masses insteadofsymmetry.
12. Only partially,because the plant'sorgansand their mutual relations arefirst
conditioned by their purpose, as tools of nourishment and reproduction.
13. This proportion in che direction of movement or will is different inprinciple
from a proportion inthedirection of vertical formation, for which reason it forms a
specialcategory of formal beauty. But clearly thereis afar closerrelation between both
thanbetween each of them and symmetry.
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Prolegomena
Here an example fromtheheavenly dynamic might be permitted, in whichthe
author believes he recognizes the close link between proportional formation and
motion formation,aswell as the relationship and the difference of the forms resulting
from both of them. It is generally accepted that a comet'stailis an atmosphere that is
created by the partial evaporation or burning of the heavenly body when it iscloseto
the sun. This tail is thus affected in shape and direction hy two conflicting forces, very
similar to or even the same as those mentioned in the text.
If the starwere suddenlytostand still when close to the sunthatis,if itsmovement
around the sun ceasedthe burning caused by the sun would produce a flame likethat
of a burning candle. Thelighter,heated, and giowing exhalations would penetrate the
noncombustible medium that surrounds the core andfillsthe universe, in the shape of a
flame. The direction of this emanation, both luminous and illuminated, would be aStraight line running from the sun through the star. But the movement of the comet is
addedas a form-determining element, through which theaxisand shape of thetail
undergo a change. I t takes the form of a curved, widening bundle of light, with the
lower part nearest the core turned away from the sun radially, a form that can be con-
structed graphically. This direction is probably also modified by the resistance ofthe
ether in which thecometfloats, hi explanation,let meinsert the graphic representation
of thepathof the comet of 1680, from [Isaac] Newton's third book of thePrincipia
philosophic}nat\uralis\mathematicalaccording towhich itstail,atvariousobservedpoints in its orbit, corresponds exactly with the hypothesis in form and direction.
Before coming close tothe sun at pointi thetail isshortand bent in a veryweak
concavecurve against the axis oftheorbit, because the curvature of the partof the
orbit that the comet had previously describedwasonly slight andtheemanations of
vapor proceeded very slowly. The part of the column between ; andkemanated from
the core when it was passing through the section of orbit betweenkand ;, while the
upperpart ofthe tail consistsofvapors that had previously been emitted by the star
beyondk.But at the other side of the perihelion atmthe vapor columnisvery long and
thepreceding section of orbic is sharply curved. Therefore the vapor column (whose
upper regions consistofparts that the comet emitted in the direction of the rays of the
sun when it found itselfon partsof the orbit through which it had traveled long before)
is strongly curved, andindeed at the point dictated by the construction, withthe con-
vexside against the axis of the orbit. If one divides the tailmdinto four sections, then
thelowest belongs to those points on the orbit betweenmanda;the second section
radiates from the comet betweenaandb';thethird emanates from the region between
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