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Sibbald Library Internship Report

2012-2013

The library of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, today known as the

Sibbald Library, is among the oldest and most important medical libraries in Britain, and

has been continually functioning for over 330 years. Though its mission has recently

changed from advanced medical research library to heritage-based special collections

library, it has not diminished in importance or prestige among extant medical libraries.

According to the Sibbald Librarian, Iain Milne, the catalogue contains over 55,000

monographs, 1,000 journals, and an extensive manuscript collection, all housed on-site.

The library dates to 1682, when Sir Robert Sibbald, a Fellow and founding

member of the newly established Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (RCPE),

donated “a presse with three shelfs full of books”, amounting to roughly 100 books.1

Within a year and a half of the founding of the library the positions of Librarian and

Deputy Librarian had been established, underscoring the importance of an active and

useful library to the mission of the RCPE.2 The library grew rapidly in volume as well as

significance, and soon became the repository for a large number of influential scientific

treatise including first editions of paradigm changing works such as Sir Isaac Newton’s

Principia Mathematica and Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of the Species. Though we

regard these books as rare today, it is critical to understanding the historic role of the

library as a cutting-edge research institution to remember that when these books were

published and acquired by the library they were at the forefront of scientific

understanding. Because of the acquisition of these works as they were being published, in

addition to the enormous amount of scholarly work being done by Fellows of the RCPE,

1 Antonia J. Bunch, Scottish Studies Vol. 3: Hospitals and Medical Libraries in Scotland (Edinburgh: Macdonald Printers Limited, 1975), 19.2 R. Passmore, Proceedings of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Tercentenary Congress (Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 1982) 156.

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the RCPE library was among the most important medical research libraries in Europe

during the Enlightenment.3

The RCPE library remained at the forefront of medical libraries until 1964 when

the United States run Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS)

was launched, providing the first computerized bibliography of current medical literature.

In 1971 this database was renamed MEDLINE, an acronym for MEDLARS On-Line

System, and was expanded to include all current medical literature. MEDLINE was made

available online to select publishers who would then provide access to the contents of the

database for a fee. This access was the first step in what led to the decline of all medical

libraries as research institutions. The final blow came in 1997, when the United States

government passed a law stating that all the information on MEDLINE would be

accessible to anyone, free of charge.4 This effectively spelled an end to the role of

medical libraries for up to the minute medical research centers.5

The RCPE library was among the first to understand the implications of the

availability of MEDLINE as a free resource and in the later 1990s began cancelling

subscriptions to journals, ceasing to purchase modern clinical books, and to start

transitioning to a heritage based special collections library. Other medical libraries

followed suit, and today a movement is underway to forge a path for medical libraries in

3 Morris McCray, Physicians and Society: A History of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2007), 79.4 U.S. National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health website, “Milestones.” Last updated 15 March, 2011, http://apps.nlm.nih.gov/175/milestones.cfm Accessed 27 February, 2013.5 Julie J McGowan, “Evolution, revolution, or obsolescence: an examination of writings on the future of health sciences libraries,” Journal of the Medical Library Association. 100 (2012), 5-9.

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general to become special collection libraries, in order to prevent the total decline of

medical libraries.6

The RCPE is, and always has been, an institution for which up-to-the-minute

medical knowledge is critical to their mission. As such, financially supporting a library

that is not engaged in the acquisition of current medical literature has been difficult for

the RCPE. Additionally, maintenance and preservation of the RCPEs facilities, the

beautiful and historic Physicians Hall at 9 Queen Street, is extremely expensive,

spreading what the RCPE can afford to spend on heritage even thinner. The RCPE is

funded through a mixture of fees from RCPE fellows, a small amount of investments and

charitable donations, income generated through examination fees for medical specialists,

educational fees, a small amount of grant money, and from renting out their facilities for

events. From this the library receives an annual subvention that covers salaries and

upkeep of the library materials and archives. This amount is limited to approximately 5%

of revenue earned by the RCPE, and thus the library has undertaken outreach projects to

generate needed additional income. 7 The library has brought in lecturers and other

presentations under its Edinburgh History of Medicine Group project, and has expanded

and re-focused their website toward medical heritage. Additionally, the library makes

appeals to the wider community for donations to support on-going projects such as

conservation and acquisition of archival materials. As a result of budgetary constraints

the library has just three full time employees, one of whom is salaried by the Wellcome

6 Michael A Flannery, “Advocating for history of the health sciences libraries and librarians: a position paper by the History of the Health Sciences Section, Medical Library Association,” Journal of the Medical Library Association. 98 (2010), 9-11.7 Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. “Annual Report and Accounts for the year ended 31st January, 2012.” http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/annual-reports/annual-report-accounts-2011-12.pdf Accessed 5 March, 2013.

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Trust. The renaming of the RCPE library to the Sibbald Library five years ago was done

largely as a marketing manoeuvre. In the never-ending quest for funds it was hoped that

the new name would alert the public to the illustrious legacy of the library and raise

awareness of it as a heritage institution, thus drawing in new users and hopefully

monetary donations.

Despite the fact that the contents of the Sibbald Library no longer relate to the

current medical research that is a critical mission of the RCPE, it is still an important part

of the RCPE as it is one of the most significant special collections libraries in Britain,

thereby raising the prestige of the already well-respected RCPE. The library’s long and

noteworthy history, combined with its unique collection and historic venue, set it apart

from medical libraries the world over. In its new capacity as a heritage operation the

Sibbald Library continues to be an integral part of the RCPE. The Sibbald Library has

been ahead of the curve regarding the changing nature of medical libraries since the

1990s, and with the guidance of the librarian and support of the RCPE its role will not

diminish.

Part of the new focus of the Sibbald Library is regular participation in RCPE

events. The library organizes heritage displays in conjunction with conferences held at

the Physicians Hall. This is where my role as intern at the Sibbald Library was fulfilled.

The internship focused on researching the provenance and intertextuality of eighteenth

century print and material culture relating to the history of medicine in Edinburgh,

specifically as it relates to the RCPE.

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During the first part of my internship I researched and organized a temporary

installation of physicians’ canes and other associated material culture for a symposium

held at the RCPE. I then took material from that installation and created a permanent

display. The second part of the internship was research-focused. I researched the role of

William Cullen in the development of the RCPE, both in policy and material culture,

including his involvement with the library and the building of a new Physicians Hall. The

findings from this research are being developed into a paper that Iain Milne will be

presenting at the upcoming event “William Cullen and the Medical Enlightenment: An

International Symposium.”8

The main body of the work I have done for the Sibbald Library relates to a

collection of nine physicians canes dating to the 18 th and 19th centuries, mostly.

Traditionally, canes and physicians had a close association. In Greek mythology the deity

Asclepius, who was associated with medicine and health, wielded a rod with a serpent

wound round it. The physicians cane came into vogue in Britain in the eighteenth-

century, after the fashion of cane carrying crossed the Channel from France. The cane

was associated with the professions, emphasising the masculinity of intellectual

rationality rather than physical prowess. Physicians’ canes were often passed from one

physician to the next, some for centuries. Their popularity began to decline in the early

nineteenth-century, but the tradition of the physicians cane carried over into the

twentieth-century, mostly through portraiture.

Provenance for some of the canes was already known. I conducted research into

the various individuals who owned the canes, drawing from a number of resources that

8 See http://www.cullenproject.ac.uk/news.php

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included primary and secondary sources from within the Sibbald Library and its archives,

and external secondary sources. While I have used all of these types of sources for

research before, I had not connected that research with material culture at the micro-level

that I have done for these canes, which has provided me with a new skill set and a better

understanding of the relation between material culture and archival documentation. From

this micro-history base I have been able to illustrate connections between the canes and

incidents that occurred in Edinburgh locally, such as the physicians row that led in 1793

to one physician thrashing another with his cane, and events that were effecting the

British Empire on a larger scale, such as the cane that temporarily belonged to, among

others, Dr. Richard Bright, an RCPE Fellow known as the father of nephrology (the study

of kidney diseases), and Dr. Charles Murchison, an RCPE Fellow who travelled

extensively within the British Empire; this cane is a symbol of the worldwide influence

that eighteenth and nineteenth century Scottish medicine had.

With these findings I prepared a temporary display, which was exhibited at the

52nd Saint Andrews Day Symposium on 6-7 December 2012.9 The display consisted of

four cases in which all nine canes were displayed. 10 I recovered associated artefacts from

within the library’s collection to add to the display, including such disparate material as

engravings from a 1838 first edition of John Kay’s Original Portraits (published

posthumously) featuring eighteenth century Edinburgh physicians with their canes,

pamphlets published by the two physicians involved in the cane beating, and a first

edition of The Gold Headed Cane, a book published in 1827 about a physicians cane

9 See http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/journal/abstracts/st-andrews-12/St%20Andrews%20Day_Abstracts_2012.pdf10 See Appendix A, Figures 1 - 5.

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from the collection of the Royal College of Physicians of London. I wrote a short

description for each object to be included in the displays; most of the descriptions were

under 50 words, which studies have shown is about the maximum amount of information

a person will be able to absorb per object in a museum setting.11 This undertaking

provided me with knowledge of what goes into the apparently simple task of labelling

objects for museum display. I found that I enjoyed the challenge of saying something

meaningful about an object in a concise and understandable way.

From this initial display I created a distilled version featuring four of the canes I

thought most representative of the collection, along with new versions of the labels. This

smaller exhibit is permanently on display in the Physicians Hall.12 Because of this

experience I have realized that I would thrive in a curatorial position, a job I never before

thought suited me.

My second project involved researching Dr. William Cullen’s involvement in the

RCPE. I went through muniments and meeting minutes from the entire time Cullen was a

Fellow of the RCPE between 1756 and 1790, as well as secondary sources, researching

Cullen’s influence on the RCPE during the period he was an active member, the time

when the RCPE was solidifying its role as a leading institution in the world of western

medical practice. This research is being used by Iain Milne in a paper he is presenting at

the at the first international Cullen symposium, noted above, which is being held on 5-6

April 2013. My role as research assistant to the librarian is one that I am particularly

11 Jane Marie Litwak. “Label Length and Title Type as Determinants in Visitor Learning.” (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, April 8-12, 1996). 12 See Appendix A, Figure 6.

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excited about, as it is a direction I would like to take as I finish my master’s degree and

move into the professional world.

This internship has given me experience not just in the practical and theoretical

spheres of research and museum display, it has also provided a position from which I

have been able to interact on an operational level with the staff of the Sibbald Library,

and by extension the RCPE. I have participated in both short and long-term heritage

projects that aim to bring a greater awareness not just to the history of the RCPE but also

to the very presence of the Sibbald Library and its collection. I have relished my time as

an intern at the Sibbald Library, and taken upon myself the role of unofficial

spokesperson for the library, recruiting other MSc students to conduct research in the

library’s archives in the dual attempt to raise awareness of the library within the

community and educate my fellow students about the vast and unparalleled collection the

library holds. The entire experience has been invaluable to me on many levels, not least

of which is that it has provided me with a professional association with a prestigious

organization; an association I can take into any future endeavour.

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Bibliography

Unpublished Sources:

Milne, Iain. Sibbald Librarian at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Personal communication. 15 February 2013.

Published Sources:

Official Publications:

Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. “Annual Report and Accounts for the year ended 31st January, 2012.” http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/annual-reports/annual-report-accounts-2011-12.pdf Accessed 5/3/2013.

Articles:

Brown, Ruth, Kaye Lasserre, Jill McTaggart, Liz Bailey, Ann McKibbon, Megan Clark, Gerald J. Perry, Jeanette Murphy, “International trends in Health Science Librarianship: Part 1 – the English speaking world.” Health Information and Libraries Journal 29 (2012).

Litwak, Jane Marie. “Label Length and Title Type as Determinants in

Visitor Learning.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996). http://www.eric.ed.gov.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/PDFS/ED401199.pdf accessed 11/3/2013

McGowan, Julie J. “Evolution, revolution, or obsolescence: an examination of writings on the future of health sciences libraries.” Journal of the Medical Library Association 100 (2012).

O’Brien, Kevin. “Medical Heritage Library.” Journal of the Medical Library Association 100 (2012).

Welch, Jennifer, Susan D. Hoffius, Brooke Fox. “Archives, accessability, and advocacy: a case study of strategies for creating and maintaining relevance.” Journal of the Medical Library Association 99 (2011).

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Books:

Flannery, Michael A. “Advocating for history of the health sciences libraries and librarians: a position paper by the History of the Health Sciences Section, Medical Library Association.” Journal of the Medical Library Association. 98 (2010).

Bunch, Antonia J, Scottish Studies Vol. 3: Hospitals and Medical Libraries in Scotland. Edinburgh: Macdonald Printers Limited, 1975.

McCray, Morris. Physicians and Society: A History of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Birlinn. 2007.

Passmore, Reginald. Proceedings of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Tercentenary Congress. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 1982.

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Appendix A

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Figure 1: three of the four display cases from the St. Andrews Day Exhibition.

Overview Label:

Why Canes?

Traditionally, canes and physicians had a close association. The physicians cane came into vogue in the eighteenth-century, after the fashion of cane carrying crossed the Channel from France. The cane was associated with the professions, thus the emphasis was on manliness that espoused intellectual rationality rather than physical prowess. Physicians canes were often passed from one physician to the next, some for centuries. Their popularity began to decline in the early nineteenth-century, but the tradition of the physicians cane carried over into the twentieth-century, mostly through portraiture.

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Figure 2: Case containing the Presidential Cane

Label Text:

Presidential Cane

This cane was presented to the president of the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh in 1831 by Dr. William Montcreiff, Fellow and Librarian of the College. This cane has appeared in numerous portraits of physicians associated with the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh.

A Mechanical Account of Poisons in Several Essays, by Richard Meade, 1702

A Short Discourse Concerning Pestilential Contagion, and the Methods to be used to Prevent it , by Richard Meade, 1720

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Richard Meade was the second owner of the famous Gold Headed Cane of London. He was the most successful physician of his time and wrote a number of treatises, including the two displayed here.

John Kay’s Originals, 1837

John Kay was a late eighteenth-century Edinburgh artist of immense local popularity. He created nearly 900 etchings of notable Scotsmen from his era, most of them from the Edinburgh area.

One of these etchings depicts Dr. Gregory with his cane, presumably the one he assaulted Dr Hamilton with. The other is Dr. Hamilton (on the left) supporting the aged Reverend John Wesley.

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Figure 3: Case containing Bright’s Cane, the Plaited Snake Cane, and Holms’ Cane.

Bright’s Cane

This cane originally belonged to Dr. Richard Bright (1789-1858). Bright is considered the father of nephrology and was an early pioneer of administering medicine with a gentle touch.

Plaited Snake Cane

The history of this cane is unknown but its symbolism is strongly Scottish. Note the well worked thistles and woven tweed-like appearance. The snake connects it to the medical profession.

Holmes’ Cane

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This cane belonged to Matthew Holmes (1879-1818), a well-respected Scottish physician. He was resident surgeon at the Chalmers Hospital for Children in Edinburgh from 1903-1906, after which he moved to New Zealand.

Reply to Dr. Gregory, by James Hamilton 1793

And

Answer to Dr. Hamilton, by James Gregory 1793

Dr. Gregory and Hamilton were physicians who were active in Edinburgh in the late 18 th and early 19th centuries. They had a vitriolic professional relationship that carried over into their personal lives. In 1793 Gregory was charged with assaulting Hamilton with his cane and ordered to pay a £100 fine. When he paid the fine he is reported to have said he would gladly pay twice that for the chance to thrash Hamilton again. These two books, each aimed at discrediting the other doctor, are likely to be part of the lead-up to the assault.

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Figure 4: Case containing the two Gold Headed Canes and the Walking Cane.

Gold Headed Canes and The Walking Cane

The provenance of these three canes is unknown, however, they have been in the collections of the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh for some time. The rubber foot on The Walking Cane suggests that it was used for more than ceremonial purposes.

The Gold Headed Cane by William MacMichael, first edition, 1827

The Gold Headed Cane was written in 1827 from the perspective of perhaps the most famous of the physicians canes, The Gold Headed Cane of the Royal College of Physicians London.

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Figure 5: Case containing Cullen’s Cane and the Morrison Cane.

Cullen’s Cane

This cane belonged to William Cullen (1710-1790), an influential Enlightenment physician. Cullen was a prominent teacher at the Edinburgh Medical School and published a number of important medical treatises.

Morison Cane

This cane was inscribed in 1923 commemorate 100 years of Morison Lectures at the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh.

Snakes and Canes

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A snake twined around a cane has been a symbol of medicine since the Classical period. In Greek mythology the deity Asclepius, who was associated with medicine and health, wielded a rod with a serpent wound round it.

The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body , 1797 by Matthew Baillie

For a time, Matthew Baillie owned the Royal College of Physicians London’s Gold Headed Cane. He was the first person to publish a systematic study of pathology in any language with the 1797 publication of The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human. The book was dedicated to Dr. David Pitcairn, who Baillie received the cane from.

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Figure 6: Permanent display in 9 Queen Street.

Labels:

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Physicians Canes

Historic Symbol of the Professions

Traditionally, canes and physicians had a close association. In Greek mythology the deity Asclepius, who was associated with medicine and health, wielded a rod with a serpent wound round it. The physicians cane came into vogue in Britain in the eighteenth-century, after the fashion of cane carrying crossed the Channel from France. The cane was associated with the professions, emphasising the masculinity of intellectual rationality rather than physical prowess. Physicians’ canes were often passed from one physician to the next, some for centuries. Their popularity began to decline in the early nineteenth-century, but the tradition of the physicians cane carried over into the twentieth-century, mostly through portraiture.

Presidential Cane

This cane was presented to the president of the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh in 1831 by Dr. William Montcreiff, Fellow and Librarian of the College. The detail on the head of this cane has made it possible to identify it in numerous portraits of physicians associated with the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh, on display throughout the College. It is associated with the legacy of the College.

Holmes’ Cane

This cane likely belonged to Dr. Matthew Holmes (1879-1818), a well-respected Scottish physician. He was resident surgeon at the Chalmers Hospital for Children in Edinburgh from 1903-1906, after which he moved to New Zealand and was a Lieutenant in WWI. Holmes died in New Zealand during the great influenza epidemic of 1918.

Cullen’s Cane

This cane originally belonged to Dr. William Cullen (1710-1790). Cullen was an influential figure in the Scottish Enlightenment, and his social circle encompassed Edinburgh literati including David Hume and Adam Smith. He became a fellow in the Royal College of Physicians in 1756. Cullen published a number of important medical treatises.

Bright’s Cane

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This cane originally belonged to Dr. Richard Bright (1789-1858). Bright was an innovative and influential physician, and was made licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians in 1816. He is considered the father of nephrology and was an early pioneer of administering medicine with a gentle touch. The kidney condition today known as acute or chronic nephritis was historically known as Bright’s Disease.

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Internship research bibliography

Unpublished Sources

Bell, John. Letters on professional characters and manners: on the eucation of a surgeon, and the duties and qualifications of a physician: addressed to James Gregory, M.D. Correspondence. Unpublished (1810). From Sibbald Library.

Inventory of the Muniments of the Royal College of Physicians Edinburgh. Unpublished. 1914. From: The Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Sibbald Library, shelfmark 6611.M5

Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Minutes, Vol II, 1720-1754. Unpublished.

Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Minutes, Vol III, 1754-1776. Unpublished.

Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Minutes, Vol IV, 1776-1806. Unpublished.

Published Sources

Articles

Berry, Diana. “Bright, Richard (1789–1858).” Diana Berry In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed., edited by Lawrence Goldman. Oxford: OUP, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/3423 (accessed March 23, 2013).

Bynum, W.F. “Cullen, William (1710–1790).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed., edited by Lawrence Goldman. Oxford: OUP, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6874 (accessed March 23, 2013).

Cohen, Michele, ‘Manliness, effeminacy and the French: gender and the construction of national character in eighteenth century England’ in Hitchcock, Tim and Michele Cohen (eds.) English Masculinities: 1660-1800 (London: Longman, 1999).

Coriat, I ‘The Symbolism of the Gold-Headed Cane’, Annals of Medical History 5 (1923) p.126-130.

Doyle, Derek. “Notable Fellows: James Gregory (1753-1821)” Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 39. 2009: p 89.

Doyle, Derek. “Notable Fellows: James Hamilton (1767-1839)” Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 42. 2012: p 188.

Gibbs, D “When a Cane Was a Necessary Complement of a Physician”, Journal of the

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Hamlin, Christopher. “Murchison, Charles (1830–1879).” Christopher Hamlin In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed., edited by Lawrence Goldman. Oxford: OUP, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/19554 (accessed March 23, 2013).

Royal College of Physicians of London, 33, 1 (Jan/Feb 1999).

Jordanova, L ‘Portraits, People and Things: Richard Mead and Medical Identity’, History of Science, 41 (2003).

Stallard, Ray. A Brief History of the Eye Infirmary. From: Wolverhampton History & Heritage Website. http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/articles/EyeHospital/EyeInfirmary.htm accessed 6/11/2012 accessed 6/11/2012

Wellington City Council, “Cemeteries: Matthew Holmes, Medical practitioner.” http://wellington.govt.nz/services/community-and-culture/cemeteries/karori-cemetery/graves-of-note/matthew-holmes accessed 6/11/2012.

Withers, Charles W. J. “Sibbald, Sir Robert (1641–1722).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed., edited by Lawrence Goldman. Oxford: OUP, May 2006. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/25496 (accessed March 23, 2013).

Willenhall History Society Website (19/01/2008). http://www.shercliff.demon.co.uk/whs2008/drtonks.htm accessed 6/11/2012

Books

Craig, W.S. History of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 1976.

Dingwall, Helen, David Hamilton, Iain Macintyre, Morris McCrae, David Wright. Scottish Medicine: An Illustrated History. Edinburgh: Birlinn Ltd, 2011.

Doig, A., J.P.S. Ferguson, I.A. Milne and R. Passmore. William Cullen and the eighteenth century medical world. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 1993.

Emery, Alan EH and Marcia LH Emery, Medicine and Art London: Royal Society of Medicine Press in association with the Royal College of Physicians. 2002.

Gregory, James. Answer to Dr James Hamilton, Jr. Pamphlet. Edinburgh: unspecified printer (1793). From Sibbald Library, Simpson Collection.

Gregory, James. Dr Gregory’s Defense. Pamphlet. Edinburgh: James Ballentyne & Co (1808). From Sibblad Library.

Hamilton, James Jr. Reply to Dr Gregory. Pamphlet. Edinburgh: unspecified printer (1793). From Sibbald Library, Simpson Collection.

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http://www.shercliff.demon.co.uk/whs2008/drtonks.htm

http://wellington.govt.nz/services/community-and-culture/cemeteries/karori-cemetery/graves-of-note/matthew-holmes

http://wellington.govt.nz/services/community-and-culture/cemeteries/karori-cemetery/graves-of-note/matthew-holmes

http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/articles/EyeHospital/EyeInfirmary.htm%20accessed%206/11/2012

http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/articles/EyeHospital/EyeInfirmary.htm%20accessed%206/11/2012


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Hart, Gerald David. Asclepius: The God of Medicine. London: Royal Society of Medicine PressLtd, 2000.

Macmichael, William. The Gold Headed Cane. London: John Murray, 1827.

McCrae, Morris. Physicians and Society: A History of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 2007.

Passmore, Reginald. Fellows of Edinburgh's College of Physicians during the Scottish Enlightenment. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 2001.

Passmore, Reginald. Proceedings of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, Tercentenary Congress. Edinburgh: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 1982.

Paton, Hugh. A series of original portraits and caricature etchings by the late John Kay, Miniature Painter, Edinburgh, with Biographical Sketches and Illustrative Anecdotes. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 2 vols. 4to, 1838.

Young, A.J., The Making of Classical Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002.

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