On Your Small Index Card…
Name
! Major/Concentration
! Why are you taking this class?
! One defining and/or interesting fact about yourself.
4
About MeName: Melanie Tannenbaum
!Background: I’m originally from NY. I graduated from Duke with a B.A. in psychology (concentrating in educational psychology) in 2009, and I’m about to receive my Ph.D. in social psychology from UIUC (I’m defending my dissertation this semester). I’ve researched achievement goals, persuasion, motivation, and the use of “scare tactics” in behavior change.
!Interesting Fact: This isn’t all I teach! I’m also a group fitness instructor in my free time; I teach PiYo (Pilates/Yoga), Zumba, and SurfSet. I also like competing in mud runs ☺ I’ve done 2 5Ks, 3 Super Spartans, 3 Tough Mudders, and participated in the TM Beta Test this year to pick the new obstacles for 2015!
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Goals Take a moment to reflect on why you are taking this class.
! Do you want to be a teacher?
Do you want to go into policy?
Do you want to go into research?
! Even if you are taking this class because of a requirement, you should never only be taking a class because it’s a requirement.
! Take advantage of this opportunity to build your skillset, improve your own life, and maximize your own educations.
Goals
I really want you to reflect on what YOU want to get out of this course, and keep those goals in mind with every choice that you
make throughout the class.
ReadingsYes…there is a lot of reading.
Do I want you to do all of it? Of course!
However…
I will emphasize (in class) which readings are “most important” for the coming week and which ones can be skimmed.
Reading response papers do not have to address all of the readings for that week.
Before the midterm/final exams, I will make sure you know what concepts you need to feel comfortable with. It’s up to you to read/study the materials appropriately.
You have freedom in writing your essays to choose which topics you want to focus on.
Readings There are two books required for this class. They are both short, easy reads, but I strongly recommend you try to fit them in throughout the semester rather than the week they are assigned.
! The Stupidity Epidemic is available at the UNR bookstore.
!The Learning Gap is available on Amazon for very cheap.
!Other than these 2 books, the readings are all articles or book chapters that will be posted on WebCampus.
Reactions You have to submit ten reaction papers via email by 5 PM on the Monday of the week in which we will be discussing those papers.
There are 13 weeks of content in class, so this allows you to skip 3 weeks.
There is no length minimum or maximum — I expect around 1 page, double spaced.
Undergraduates must discuss at least 2 of the readings. Graduate students must discuss at least 3 of the readings. (Unless it’s a week with only 2 readings. Then, 2 readings. Just use your head.)
ReactionsWhat makes a good response paper?
Keep in mind what the goals are.
! Keep you accountable/on track with the readings.
Provide us with discussion material, questions, concerns, connections, etc. for class so we don’t sit around awkwardly silent for an hour.
Let me know ahead of time what people in the class found confusing, interesting, upsetting, intriguing, etc. so I can tailor our class discussion or prepare to answer any specific questions ahead of time.
ReactionsThey will be graded from 0-10.
!For the most part…
!0 = Didn’t send it in.
!5 = Sent it in late or only discussed 1
reading, that sort of thing.
!10 = Fulfilled requirements (discussed
2-3 readings), clearly read the material, put in a good faith effort.
Essays Because this is a capstone course, you are required to do at a significant amount of writing over the course of the semester.
You will have to turn in three essays in order to pass this class.
Essays should be double spaced with 12-point Times New Roman font and 1” or 1.25” margins.
Each essay should be between 2,200 and 2,800 words long (roughly 9-12 pages).
EssaysWhat makes a good essay?
Keep in mind what the goals are.
! Demonstrate relative knowledge.
! Understand, integrate, and draw connections between assigned (and other) materials.
! Show that you have taken a topic from the course that you find interesting and really explored it in depth.
Exams There will be two exams — one midterm & one final.
Most likely, they will be short answer questions. I may include multiple choice, matching, or true/false questions.
The main focus of these exams will be getting you to think, make connections, and synthesize/analyze the information on your own. I want to know what you think and what you have learned & retained.
So, the exams will likely not be a strict regurgitation of information we’ve covered in class — but if you have a good grasp of the material, it should all make sense.
Attendance 10% of your grade is “class participation,” which basically just means attendance.
! I don’t want to penalize people for using the drop/add period, so I will start taking attendance on February 3.
! You will get 3 “free” absences. After 3 absences, I will subtract 2 points from your participation grade (out of a possible 100) for each subsequent absence.
Important Points
Sociology Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
!Psychological Sociology
!Social Psychology
!Other Important Concepts
Important Points
Sociology Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
!Psychological Sociology
!Social Psychology
!Other Important Concepts
Functionalist Theory
Society is like a machine; parts interact to produce the energy to make society work
Functionalist Theory
Education gives people common, shared values &
socializes them into roles to maintain social order.
Functionalist Theory
Émile Durkheim
!Industrialization, urbanization, and modernization led to the breakdown of traditional rituals & methods of social control.
!!This led to the breakdown of social solidarity & cohesion.
!!Anomie: Normlessness in society.
“Society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child, from the beginning, the essential
similarities that collective life demands.”
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Émile Durkheim
“But, on the other hand, without a certain diversity all cooperation would be impossible; education assures the persistence of this necessary
diversity by being itself diversified and specialized.”
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Émile Durkheim
“Education is, then, only the means by which society prepares, within the children, the essential conditions of its very existence…We come, then, to the following formula: Education is the influence exercised by adult
generations on those that are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical,
intellectual, and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and the special milieu for which he is
specifically destined.”
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Émile Durkheim
Functionalist Theory
Talcott Parsons
Order & stability in society are the result of the influence of certain values (not a certain structure)
Stable, supportive families are the key to successful socialization
Sexual Division of Labor
Families will operate most efficiently with clear-cut sexual divisions of labor
Women should perform expressive (care/security) roles, and men should perform instrumental (breadwinner) roles.
Functionalist TheoryAll of society hangs together organically
Different institutions fulfill different functions
Everything is in the service of maintaining the existing social order
Education = Societal Reproduction
Provides society with the workforce/labor it needs
Creates the mindset that keeps society together
Provides training to make people useful members of society
Functionalist TheoryStability
Education trains the next generation
Existing inequalities are reproduced because they function well
Democracy
Education as the “great equalizer”
Generates potential for innovation
Allows social mobility & opportunity
Functionalist TheoryProblems
The relationship between schooling, skills, and jobs is not as rational as functionalists suggest
!The role of schools in providing equality of opportunity is more problematic than functionalists suggest
!Large-scale research casts doubt on the idea that more schooling brings about more meritocracy
Conflict Theory
The class system separates owners from workers (the
proletariat), and workers from the benefits of their own labor.
Conflict Theory
Class struggle is inevitable; in the end, the proletariat
(working class) will rise up and overthrow the capitalists.
Conflict Theory
Karl Marx
Didn’t write much about education, but intellectual founder of conflict theory.
!The class system makes class struggle inevitable.
!Critique of modern capitalism; the proletariat (working class) will eventually rise up and overthrow the capitalists, and establish a socialist society.
!Dominant groups impose values/ideas on subordinate groups.
Conflict Theory
Max Weber
Power relations between dominant & subordinate groups structure societies, BUT class differences alone can’t capture & explain everything.
!Status Groups derived from…
Class ($$)
Power
Culture (Race, Education, Religion, Ethnicity…)
!Education is used as a “marker” of having the right values (i.e., the values that the existing high-status/high-power people want you to have).
Conflicting interests of the “haves” and “have nots”
Economic (Marx)
Economic, Cultural, Prestige, or Political (Weber)
Dominant groups want to maintain hierarchy through education
Marx: Economic Structure ! Culture ! Action
Education reproduces inequality (to advantage the powerful)
Weber: Economic Structure ! Action | Culture ! Action
“Status Culture”
Cultural ideas (independent of economic structure) shape who is awarded prestige & power
Conflict Theory
Code Theory
Basil Bernstein
Language
Credentialism
Randall Collins
Earned Status Markers
Cultural Capital
Pierre Bourdieu
Participation in High Status Culture
Modern Conflict Theories
The language people use in everyday conversation both reflects and shapes the assumptions of a certain social group.
Relationships established within the social group affect the way that group uses language, and the type of speech that is used.
Restricted vs. Elaborated Code
Restricted: Speak using “insider” knowledge; phrases interjected into the middle or end of a thought to confirm understanding.
“You know,” “You know what I mean,“ “Right?”
Elaborated: Longer, more complicated sentence structure.
Complete thoughts providing all necessary details.
Restricted = More common in lower- and working-class backgrounds; impacts ability to do well in school, especially language subjects.
Modern Conflict Theories: Code Theory
Democratic society has competition between different groups
Social Classes
Professions
Educational requirements help groups maintain power
Keep control with the professional (high status) group
Gatekeeping
“We decide who joins”
The higher the entrance requirements, the higher the prestige
Does it really matter that you went to Harvard/Yale/Princeton, or does it just matter that you have the “name brand” on your resume?
Modern Conflict Theories: Credentialism
“Capital” includes much more than just money.
Economic Capital ($$)
Social Capital (Networks, friends, family members, peers)
Cultural Capital (Educational attainment, knowledge, attitudes)
Cultural Capital includes…
Embodied (Language style, personality, way of thinking, character)
Objectified (Scientific instruments, works of art, books, classy stuff)
Institutionalized (Academic credentials, qualifications)
There are a lot of “things” that we can possess that make us higher/lower status, higher/lower class, etc. that aren’t just our bank accounts.
Modern Conflict Theories: Cultural Capital
46Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1937
Unskilled Professions
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1967
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1937
Semiskilled Professions
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1967
47Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1937
Skilled Professions
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1967
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1937
Clerical Jobs
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1967
48Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1937
Managerial Jobs
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1967
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1937
Professional Jobs
Less Than HSHS DegreePost-HS VocationalSome CollegeCollege DegreeGraduate Degree
1967
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1965
% 17 Year Olds with HS Diploma% of 18-21 Year Olds in College% 15-24 Year Olds with BA Degree% 25-34 Year Olds with MA Degree
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1965
% 17 Year Olds with HS Diploma% of 18-21 Year Olds in College% 15-24 Year Olds with BA Degree% 25-34 Year Olds with MA Degree
Why is education becoming more
necessary in society?
Technical-Function TheoryThe skill requirements of jobs in industrial society are always increasing because of technological change.
The proportion of low-skill jobs goes down.
The proportion of high-skill jobs goes up.
The same jobs get upgraded in skill requirements.
Formal education provides the training (specific skills & general capacities) necessary for higher-skilled jobs.
Educational requirements for employment are always rising, and more of the population must spend more time in school.
51
Technical-Function TheoryThe skill requirements of jobs in industrial society are always increasing because of technological change.
The proportion of low-skill jobs goes down.
The proportion of high-skill jobs goes up.
The same jobs get upgraded in skill requirements.
Formal education provides the training (specific skills & general capacities) necessary for higher-skilled jobs.
Educational requirements for employment are always rising, and more of the population must spend more time in school.
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Serious issues with this explanation.
Technical-Function TheoryThe skill requirements of jobs in industrial society are always increasing because of technological change.
!This only accounts for a little bit of the educational rise.
!15% of the increase in education of the US labor force during the 20th century can be attributed to shifts in occupational structure.
!The other 85% occurred within job categories.
53
Technical-Function TheoryFormal education provides the training (specific skills & general capacities) necessary for higher-skilled jobs.
!Better educated employees are not generally more productive, and are sometimes actually less productive (Berg, 1970)
!Graduates of vocational programs are no more likely to be employed than HS dropouts (Plunkett, 1960; Duncan, 1964)
!Most skilled manual workers acquire skills on the job or casually; formal retraining is used only for a small number of jobs (Collins, 1969; Bright, 1958)
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Technical-Function TheoryEducational requirements for employment are always rising, and more of the population must spend more time in school.
!Even in nonmanual jobs, there is questionable utility for school.
!Only a small percentage of knowledge people gain in courses is retained through next few years (Learned & Wood, 1938)
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Credentialism!Randall Collins
!Educational credentials (like college diplomas) serve more importantly as status symbols than indicators of real achievement.
!Society isn’t becoming more expert; education is just being used more and more by the dominant groups to secure more advantageous places in society for themselves & their children.
Institutional Theory!John Meyer
!Democratic belief that “civilized societies” have expansive, highly developed educational systems.
!Educational expansion often precedes labor market demands.
Symbolic Interactionism
Focus on Human Agency
Social structure shapes individual action, BUT…
Individual action also shapes social structure
Focus on Self; “Social Construction of Reality”
Everything is a function of active individual & societal meaning-making & interpretation.
Nothing just “is.”
Inequality is created and reproduced through individual action and interpretation.
Interactionist Theory
Individual Action & Social Construction
Cognitive Interpretation
Subjective Meaning
Socialization, Everyday Encounters
Empathic Understanding of Social Actors
Not much emphasis on causality
Qualitative, not Quantitative
Participant Observation, Ethnography
http://youtu.be/jFQIIM8IRZU
Symbolic Interactionism
Power of the SituationProximal Forces Distal Forces
• Here & Now !!
• Immediate Situation !!
• Perceptions/Construal !!
• Perceiving/reacting to immediate situation
• Removed in Time !!
• Culture/Socialization !!
• Evolution !!
• Shapes behavior on a broader scale
Construal: Interpretations & inferences about stimuli or situations.
!What is this symbol?
The Role of Construal
Construal: Interpretations & inferences about stimuli or situations.
!What is this symbol?
The Role of Construal
Construal: Interpretations & inferences about stimuli or situations.
!What is this symbol?
The Role of Construal
Many times, the actual situation itself is not as important as
how you interpret it.
!!
Construals determine how we perceive and judge the world around us & social situations.
The Role of Construal
Symbolic InteractionismExample: Race & gender as “social constructs.”
People’s assumptions about race/gender impact how they interact with others.
!Teachers call on & praise boys more often (Jones & Dindia, 2004)
!When teachers think that students are smart, they spend more time with them, call on them more often, and praise them more when they are correct (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968)
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Symbolic Interactionism
!Development of gender roles within classroom interactions
!Teachers’ expectations of pupils’ abilities impact how much they actually learn.
!Social interactions that occur within schools shape how children are socialized and impact society on a much broader level.
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Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
Education socializes children & prepares them
for life in society.
Education produces & reproduces societal
inequality.
Focuses on interactions during schooling & their
outcomes.
Teaches knowledge & also values, ethics, beliefs,
habits, and norms.
Requiring certain credentials can be a tool
for discrimination.
Subjective meanings people put on objects,
events, & behaviors.
Education provides occupational training.
Education can confer status, “upper class”
culture, etc.
People behave based on what they believe, not
just “truth.”
Education keeps kids “off the streets” and out of trouble; provides social
control.
Educational is often used to signal having the
“right” attitudes/values.
In the process of social interaction, people develop & rely on
subjective meaning.
Important Points
Sociology Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
!Psychological Sociology
!Social Psychology
!Other Important Concepts
Wide-Spread Approach
Individual characteristics as a function of position in social structure
Correlational
Psychological Sociology
A B B A
A BC
? ?
? ?
Working ClassMiddle Class
Trait
% S
elec
ting
Trai
t as
Mos
t Des
irabl
eMelvin Kohn
Parental values depend on social class
Important Points
Sociology Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
!Psychological Sociology
!Social Psychology
!Other Important Concepts
Individual Focus
Social Cognition, Perception, Motivation, Attitudes, Stereotypes…
!Intra- and Inter-Individual Processes
“How do stereotypes influence social judgment?”
!Individual = Cognitively Limited but Motivated Actor
!Quantitative Methods & Experiments
Social Psychology
Experiments
Manipulate independent variable (A), keeping all else constant
Observe effects on dependent variable (B)
Random assignment to experimental conditions
Allows for causal conclusions
Variation in A causes variation in B
Potential Problems
May be too contrived, artificial
Generalizability from college students?
Social Psychology
“In short, psychology needs something real to study, and education provides it; education needs a scientific methodology for addressing its
problems, and psychology provides it.”
75
Mayer (2001)
Hypothesis: Children need to have phonological awareness (awareness that words can be broken down into sound units & sound units can be
combined to form words) in order to learn how to read.
Evidence:
1. Students who have difficulty learning to read also score lower on tests of phonological awareness.
2. Students who lack phonological awareness when they enter elementary school are also less likely to be strong readers later on.
3. 5- and 6-year-olds who received specialized phonological awareness training for 2 years were 5 times more likely than a control/comparison
group to be able to read words containing 2 or 3 sounds after the training.
76
Mayer (2001)
Hypothesis: People understand passages about history by relating the new material to relevant prior knowledge.
Evidence:
“In 1763, Britain & the colonies ended a 7-year war with the French & Indians.”
Most students lack useful/relevant background knowledge to really understand this passage, what it means, or why it’s important.
By re-writing the passage to clarify that Britain and France both wanted the same piece of land in North America, which resulted in the conflict known as the
French & Indian War, students were able to activate their conflict schema — prior knowledge that conflicts occur when two people want to own the same thing.
Students who read the revised passage scored over 50% higher on an essay test.
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Mayer (2001)
CorrelationCorrelation Coefficient: A statistical value that indicates how well you can predict one variable using another
A number between -1.00 and +1.00
!All of these correlation coefficients COULD have come from a correlational design or an experimental design.
!Also... CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION!
The ability to say one variables CAUSES the other comes from the type of research design, not the type of results.
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Understanding CorrelationsMagnitude
The size of the correlation
0.8 is “stronger” than 0.2
Correlation between IQ and final grade: 0.8
Correlation between SAT score and final grade: 0.2
Final grade & IQ have a stronger correlation than final grade & SAT score
Direction
Whether the correlation is positive or negative
-0.8 is negative; 0.8 is positive
Correlation between IQ and final grade: -0.8
Having a higher IQ is related to having a lower final grade
Correlation between IQ and final grade: 0.8
Having a higher IQ is related to having a higher final grade
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Understanding Correlations!Magnitude
How strong is the relationship?
How closely are the two variables related to each other?
Doesn’t matter if one goes up when the other goes down.
!Direction
Do the variables go in the same direction (as one gets bigger, the other gets bigger) or do they go in opposite directions (as one gets bigger, the other gets smaller)?
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Problems with Correlations!Reverse Causality
X may cause Y
Y may cause X
!!Third Variable Problem
X and Y may BOTH be caused by some unmeasured variable Z
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Causality
We should only make causal claims (“X causes Y”) if we have conducted an experiment that includes:
Manipulation of Independent Variables
Random Assignment
Control Conditions
!These factors take care of concerns with both reverse causality and third variable problems.
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Experimental Design
Independent Variable (IV)
The variable that is manipulated by the researcher
Hypothesized to cause changes in the DV
Assignment to different levels must be random.
!Dependent Variables (DVs)
The variable(s) that are measured — Grades, scores, etc.
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Experimental Design
Control Condition
A group assigned to some inherently meaningful level of an IV
Often “0” (the absence of the IV) but sometimes not
Used as the comparison group
!Random Assignment
Assigning participants to different groups such that they are just as likely to be placed into one group as another.
85
Random assignment to a manipulated independent variable (IV) is the hallmark of experimental design.
This ensures that people are evenly distributed across conditions.
“Cancels out” pre-existing differences between subjects.
!Allows us to conclude that different levels of the IV actually cause differences in the DV.
No longer need to worry about reverse causality or third variable problems.
86Importance of Random Assignment
Importance of Random Assignment
Hypothesis: Being in an accelerated class increases motivation.
87
Motivated Students
Unmotivated Students
Initial group
Accelerated Class
Basic Class
Does random assignment solve all of our concerns?
No!
You can still get biased samples for various reasons.
It’s important to replicate findings (ideally with different subject populations and different measures).
!Overall, if a result replicates while using random assignment and manipulating IVs, we’re comfortable making claims about causality.
!Causal logic should not be a black-and-white “yes/no” decision.
90Importance of Random Assignment
Reliability & Validity Reliability
Does the measure consistently give you the same assessment of the underlying variable?
If you take an IQ test four times over a year, will you get the same results (or pretty close) each time?
!Validity
Does the measure accurately capture the variable?
Is an IQ test the best way to capture everything important that we want to know about intelligence?
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Reliability & ValidityWeighing yourself on a scale…
You “really” weigh 150 pounds
You weigh yourself every day for 1 week
!Scale #1: Reliable but not valid
120, 121, 119, 120, 120, 123, 117
Consistent, but nowhere close to 150
!Scale #2: Valid but not reliable
150, 140, 160, 145, 165, 130, 170
Averages out to 150, but very inconsistent
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Reliability & Validity
Example: Intelligence & IQ
!If IQ is a reliable measure, you should get (roughly) the same IQ score every single time you take an IQ test.
!If IQ is a valid measure, it should correlate very strongly & positively with your GPA, SAT/ACT scores, teacher evaluations, and scores on other intelligence tests, like the Cognitive Reflection Test.
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Important Points
Sociology Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
!Psychological Sociology
!Social Psychology
!Other Important Concepts
Social StructureRelatively stable patterns of social interaction that characterize human social life
Micro Structures
Status
Social Roles
Macro Structures
Social Institutions
Social structures are created by individuals and
Individuals are shaped by social structures.
Social InteractionBasis of social structure
Critically important for psychological life
Characteristics
Social Structure
Dynamic
Mutual Influence
Behavioral & Cognitive Aspects
Situational/Environmental Factors
Expectations
The Thomas TheoremIf people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.
Objective Reality
Subjective Understanding
Subjective Response
Individual Behavior
Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (Study 1)
Is women’s math performance affected by the presence of men?
!If so, how?
Wom
en’s
Acc
ura
cy
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Math Scores Verbal Scores
Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (Study 1)
Women do worse on math (but not verbal) tests
in the presence of men
Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev (Study 2)
Wom
en’s
Ma
th P
erfo
rma
nce
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1 woman 2 men
2 women 1 man
3 women 0 men
Important PointsSociology
Functionalist Theory Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
Psychological Sociology
Intra- and inter-individual processes as a function of position within society
Social Psychology
Intra- and Inter-individual processes
Other Important Concepts
Social Interaction
Social Structures
104Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism
Do you think that you are learning skills in
college that you will use in your job
someday?
In your opinion, what is the value of a college degree? Why did you
go to college? Why do you think most people
go to college?
What do you think are some examples of classroom objects/
situations that students might interpret
differently?
Do you think that some majors teach more practical skills than others? If so, how?
Other than the examples already discussed, can you think of any more examples of non-
monetary “capital”?
How & why do you think teachers form
expectations of students?
What are some examples of things
learned in the classroom that help
society function well/effectively?
Which groups benefit the most from the
current higher education system? How could this be
changed?
What are some “big things” other than
gender roles that might be socialized through
classroom interactions?