7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
1/230
Ten Key Factors thatInfluence SuccessfulBilingualism and
Multilingualism
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.Know-It-All Switzerland
September 2013
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
2/230
1. Benefits ofbilingualism andmultilingualism
2. Game:Myths ofMultilingualism
3. State of the research
4. Questions andgeneral discussion.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
3/230
BackgroundBA and BS from Boston University in InternationalRelations and Mass Communication (magna cum
laude). Masters from Harvard University inInternational Education and Development anddoctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University (cross-disciplinary approach comparing findings inneuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, culturalanthropology and linguistics).
Director of the Institute for Research and EducationalDevelopment, Universidad San Francisco de Quito,Ecuador.
Author of Raising Multilingual Children (2001), TheMultilingual Mind (2003), and Living Languages (2008).New book on neuroscience and language 2014.
Teacher (pre-kindergarten through university) with 24years of comparative research based on family casestudies (Japan, Ecuador, USA, Canada, France,Switzerland, Germany) and work in 24 differentcountries.
Three children (raised in English, Spanish, German and
French).
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
4/230
Three children (raised in English,
Spanish, German and French)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
5/230
Cognitive benefits:
Social benefits:
Economic benefits:
Personal benefits:
Communicationbenefits:
Cultural benefits:
Academic benefits:
Enhanced higher thinking skills (metalinguisticawareness, creativity, sensitivity to
communication, inhibitory control, flexiblethinking). Integration, appreciation of other cultures
Marketability of bilingual skills, government- andbusiness- recognized need.
Psychological well-being, self confidence, senseof belonging, enhanced identity with roots.
Literacy in three languages enables access towider literature and a wider communicationnetwork of family, international links.
Greater tolerance, less racism, bigger interculturalsense.
Easier to learn the third language, increasedcurriculum achievement--impact on othersubjects.
Linguist John Maher, of International Christian University in Tokyo (2002). The Practical Linguist: Make the most ofthe bilingual advantage. The Daily Yomiuri. Japan. Reformatted by Tokuhama-Espinosa 2005.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
6/230
(Neuro)linguistics:
Benefits of bilingualism
Bilingual children learn have higher levels of abstraction atearlier ages than monolinguals. (1)
Bilinguals learn to manage language rules at an earlier agethan monolinguals. (2)
Bilinguals learn to inhibit (ignore information calling forattention) earlier and with faster speed that monolinguals,
which directly relates to executive functions (3). Bilinguals use more of their brains than monolinguals. (3).
1. Suzanne Flynn professor of linguistics and second-language acquisition at the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology; Ellen Bialystok, professor of psychology at York University in Toronto. 2. Adele Diamond, director of theCenter for Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Waltham. 3.Patricia Kuhl of the University of Washington .
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
7/230
No disadvantages
Our findings suggest that early bilingualism offers nodisadvantages; on the contrary, young bilinguals may beafforded a linguistic and a cognitive advantage.
Early dual language exposure is also key to skilled readingacquisition.
Moreover, learning to read in two languages may afford
an advantage to children from monolingual homes in keyphoneme awareness skills vital to reading success.
Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20
*VIDEO 2: Does learning language make kids smarter?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxE (1:38 mins)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxEhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxEhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfNXtUFUbxE7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
8/230
Children who experience early, extensive, and systematic
exposure to both of their languages quickly grasp the
fundamentals of both of their languages and in a manner
virtually identical to that of monolingual language learners.
Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20
*VIDEO 3: More Evidence Bilingualism Aids Thinking Skillshttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspx (4:03 mins)
http://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspxhttp://www.everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspx7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
9/230
One minute paper on
-Languages-Bilingual Education -The Multilingual Brain(or any related title)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
10/230
Have a look at the paperson your seats. Which are
myths of multilingualism andwhich are true statements?
*Also see: Harvard lecture on Bilingualism andMultilingualism, Jan 2013 (Tokuhama-Espinosa) :http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=420EHD4TfOU
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
11/230
The Ten Key Factors
1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity)2. Aptitude3. Motivation4. Strategy
5. Consistency6. Opportunity and support (home, school, community)7. Linguistic and historic relationship between
languages
8. Siblings9. Gender10.Hand-use as a reflection of cerebral dominance for
languages11.. and?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
12/230
True and False Quiz
Do you believe thestatement is true or false?
Why?
(Origins: These arestatements made by
teachers, doctors andparents I met while doingmy research.)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
13/230
True or False?
1. By learning
more than onelanguage achild can suffer
brain overload.
Nitsch, C., Franceschini, R., Ldi, G., Rad, E.-W., 2006; Hirsch, 1997.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
14/230
True or False?
2. Somelanguages areeasier to learnthan others.
Baker, 2004; Pinker, 2000.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
15/230
True or False?
3. Bilinguals are
more creativethanmonolinguals.
Kharkhurin, A.V. (2012); Ricardelli, 1992
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
16/230
True or False?
4. Bilingualism
can causeproblems suchas stuttering
and dyslexia.
Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
17/230
True or False?
5. It is impossible
for an adult tolearn a newlanguage as fast
as a child.
Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
18/230
True or False?
6. It is impossiblefor an adult tolearn a newlanguage without
an accent.
Harley 1989; McLaughlin 1992.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
19/230
True or False?
7. When a childlearns hislanguages frombirth he iseffectively learning
them as two firstlanguages.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
20/230
1. Languages are separate and dont overlap(firewall model).
2. The second language is learned on top of thefirst.
3. The two languages are separate but overlap in
some areas (overlap hypothesis).
L1 L2
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
21/230
Two languages in one brain:
Brain scans show that peoplebrought up bilingual from birth havelanguages in the same area of thebrain as monolinguals.
People who learn languages afterthe first seven months or so actuallyuse different areas for processingsounds, or simply do not perceivesounds, which are notrepresentative in their nativelanguage at all.
Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto, 2008; Fennell, Byers-Heinlein & Werker , 2006.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
22/230
AntonioRodriguez-Fornells,
Michael Rotte,Hans-JochenHeinze, TmmeNsselt andThomas F. Mnte
(28 February2002). Brainpotential andfunctional MRIevidence for how
to handle twolanguages withone brain. Nature
415, 1026-1029doi:10.1038/4151026a
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
23/230
Humans have a unique ability to learn more
than one language-a skill that is thought tobe mediated by functional (rather thanstructural) plastic changes in the brain.
Mechelli, A. and J. T. Crinion and U. Noppeney and J. Ashburner and R. S. Frackowiak and C.J. Price (2004).
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
24/230
True or False?
8. All people
have the samearea of theirbrain to speak
differentlanguages.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
25/230
True or False?9. It is notrecommended that
children learnliteracy skills in twolanguagessimultaneously
(children should notlearn to read in twodifferent languagesat once).
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
26/230
Steps TowardsMultiliteracy Skills:
1. Understand the use of thewritten word
2. Learn the phonemicalphabet
3. Acknowledge exceptionsin sound to letter relation
4. Acknowledge exceptionsbetween languages
5. Practice: Familiarity,Repetition and Frequency
O l Skill Lit Skill
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
27/230
Oral Skills
(Basic Communication)
Literacy Skills(Academic)
Time 1 Average 2 years to reach
native languageequivalent (however, thisis highly influenced by theage and motivation ofthe learner)
Average 5-7 years to
reach nativelanguage equivalent
Definition 2 Playground language Classroomlanguage
Characteristics 3
Origins
Supported byinterpersonal cues suchas gestures, facialexpressions andintonation.
Anglo-Saxon
De-contextualizedlanguage
Graeco-Latin
1. Cummins (1981); 2. Gibbins (1999); 3. Corson (1993, 1995)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
28/230
True or False?
10. The general
research findingsexamining trilingualsbrains to date point to
no pattern formultilingualism.
Nitsch, Franceschini, Ldi, Rad, n/d
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
29/230
True or False?
11. Multilinguals
are shown to befaster at workingmemory tasks
thanmonolinguals.
Baddeley, 2001
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
30/230
True or False?
12. Bilingual students
achieve higher results
on English-language
proficiency tests than
their Anglophone,monolingual peers.
Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
31/230
The Facts and Studies-The Benefits of Multilingualism
Bilingual students achieve higherresults on English-language
proficiency tests than theirAnglophone, monolingual peers_:
Significant effects of bilingualismwere found on four of fivemeasures, i.e., listening, speaking,writing, & vocabulary/grammar.No significant effect on readingability was observed.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
32/230
True or False?
13. A nine-year-old has the samesize brain as an adult; thereforethey learn foreign languages in
the same way.
Suddath, Christison, Torrey, Casanova & Weinberger, 1990.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
33/230
True or False?
14. The more
languages youknow, the easier it
gets to learn an
additional one.
Government of Canada, 2003; University of Oxford,2003
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
34/230
True and False?
15. The quality of the first language
impacts the quality of the secondlanguage, and the quality of thethird language depends on thequality of the second language.
Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
35/230
True or False?
16. Most of theworld ismonolingual.
Nitsch, 2004
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
36/230
There are roughly2,500-6,000lanagues in the
world.
The most widely spokenlanguages withapproximate number of
native speakers are thefollowing, totaling a littlemore than half of theworlds population:
Native languages speakers
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
37/230
Myths
A child should first study his native language, thenafter he has mastered this, then learn a new one.A child who learns two languages simultaneouslywill be confused and have lower intelligence.
A child with two languages will never feelcompletely secure in either.A bilingual child will always have identity problemsand feel a lack of belonging to his cultures because
he will never fully be a part of either.Bilinguals tend to translate from the weakerlanguage to the stronger.True bilinguals never mix their languages.
Gutierrez, s.f.; Kandolf, 1998; Narvez, 2009
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
38/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
39/230
Benefits of bilingualism
Myths of multilingualism Video: Bilingualism (Benefits and Myths)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8 (3:18 mins)
Should an Autistic child be bilingual? Autistic Children BenefitWhen Allowed to Remain Bilingualhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Y (3:14mins)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=96Rga_OkC5Yhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk8http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vSysdTOyk87/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
40/230
The Ten Key Factors that influence
successful bilingualism andmultilingualism
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
41/230
The Ten Key Factors
1. Timing (Windows of Opportunity)
2. Aptitude
3. Motivation
4. Strategy
5. Consistency
6. Opportunity and support (home, school, community)
7. Linguistic and historic relationship between languages
8. Sibllings
9. Gender
10. Hand-use as a reflection of cerebral dominance forlanguages
11. and?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
42/230
1. The Windows of Opportunity
1. First: 0 a 9 months
(A window-and-a-half: 9 a24-30 months)
2. Second : 4 a 8 years
3. Third: 8 years + (fromold-age and back)
Language Milestones*2-3 Normal Mixing Stage3-4 Labeling of Languages5+ Cognizant of translation
concept
4-10 syntactic conservationism
*Remember that children can varyby as much as a year in eitherdirection related to languagedevelopment!
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
43/230
2. Aptitude
Something one is born with
Approximately 10% of the
population
Measuring
MFLAT
Gardners definition of Intelligence
Levines neurodevelopmentalconstructs
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
44/230
3. Motivation
Internal vs.External
Positive vs.
Negative
Positive (+) Negative (-)
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
45/230
4. Strategy 5. Consistency
Seven most practicedstrategies
Do not have to besimple
They should be
consistent (especiallyfor younger children).
Sample Strategies
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
46/230
Sample Strategies
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
47/230
6. Opportunity and Support
How many times a daydoes the child have thechance to use the targetlanguage(s) in a given
day?At HomeIn SchoolWithin the Community
Who takes responsibility for
language learning? (TheChild himself? The School?The Community? TheFamily?)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
48/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
49/230
Sample language families (Europe)
Proto-Indo-European Languages Indo-Iranian
Iran (Persian, Kurd) Indo-Aryan (Hindu, Urdu, Bengali, Nepalese)
Indo-European Latin (French, Spanish Portuguese, Italian,
Rumanian)
Dutch (German, English, Dutch, Danish,Swedish)
Czech-Slovak (Czech, Slovak, Polish,Serbian-Croatian, Ukrainian, Russian)
Celtic (Gaelic, Gales) Baltic (Lithuanian, Letn) Greek Albanian Armenian
Other European languages Ugrians (Finnish, Hungarian, Estonian) Basque Caucasus (Georgian, Chechen)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
50/230
Koryakov Y.B. Atlas of Romance languages. Moscow, 2001
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
51/230
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languages
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
52/230
Sample language families(Africa)
African languages
Afro-Asian Semite (Arabic, Hebrew)
Chadic Bereber
Cushitic
Egyptian
Nilo-Saharan (Masai)
Niger-Congo Yoruba
Bantu (Swahili, Bantu)
Hoisin (Nama)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
53/230
Sample language families(Asia)
Asian Pacific languages Dravidic (Tamil) Munda (Khmer, Vietnamese) Burushaski
Altaic (Mongol, Turkish, Tungus) Japanese Korean Sino-Tibetan (Chinese, Tibetan,
Burmese)
Thai (Thai) Austroasian (Malay, Bahasa,
Hawaiian, Tagalog)
Papua Aborigine Australian
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
54/230
Sample language families(America)
American languages Esquimalt - Aleut (Inuit, Greenlandic)
Na-Deme
Athabasca (Navajo)
Algonquin (Other native languages)
Iroquoian
Siouan
Ute-Azteca (Nahuatl , Quechua )
Quechua Tup-Guaran
Jvaro
Ticuna
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
55/230
Linguistic typologies
Based on Greenberg, 1966, Typological Ensembles
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
56/230
First and second languagesinfluences on the acquisition of
a third language
Typology (similarity between languages)
Speakers level of proficiency Linguistic awareness
Time spent on language
Education level of the student
Age when language is learned Parent involvement
Teacher qualifications
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
57/230
Typology
This appears to be the most importantvariable in determining the likelihood of
language transfer_ Similarity between languages
Languages that share grammar (aswith Latin roots), vocabulary, or have a
similar phoneme base are easier tolearn.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
58/230
8. Siblings
Positive influences
Negative influences
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
59/230
9. Gender
Are there differences betweenboys and girls (men andwomen) related to language?
How are these measured?
What does this imply in terms ofchildren learning foreign
languages?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
60/230
10. Hemispheric dominancefor languages
Reflection of cerebral dominance
95% of right-handed people and 70% of left-handedpeople have Broca and Wernickes Area in the lefthemisphere.
What does this mean for teaching materials that are
developed for the majority?
http://www.mariarc.liv.ac.uk/small.jpg7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
61/230
11. What other factor is missing?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
62/230
The Ten Key Factorsin Raising Multilingual Children
1. Timing and The Windows of Opportunity
2. Aptitude for Foreign Languages
3. Motivation
4. Strategy
5. Consistency
6. Opportunity and Support (Home, School and Community)
7. Language Typology and Similarities
8. Siblings9. Gender
10. Hand Use
11. ????
Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2000
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
63/230
Individual influences
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
64/230
Time spent on language
The more language is practiced, the moreproficient one becomes.
Amount of exposure has a strong effect
on the likelihood of both positive andnegative language transfer_
The role of linguistic exposure functionssimilarly in L2 and L3 acquisition.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
65/230
Education level of the student
[Language] learners who have highlydeveloped language skills (such asreading, writing and richness ofvocabulary) in their native language willmost likely find that these skills facilitate
second language acquisition, thoughthis has been less explored in L3 learners.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
66/230
Age when language is learned
Human beings can and do learn foreignlanguages throughout the lifespan.
Some considerations:
In a comparison of children in grades 2, 6 and 9, it
was found that the older children used morelanguage transfer (displaying greatermetalinguistic awareness)_. The younger thechildren; the general guideline is that child
learners are less likely to draw on the L1 the ages 4-10 are marked by syntactic
conservationism during which children tend tostick to one syntactic pattern, whereas adults are
more flexible.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
67/230
Speakers level of proficiency
There is a general consensusamong researchers that languagetransfer is more likely to occur atlower levels of proficiency whenthey use L1 or L2 to fill in language
gaps in L3.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
68/230
Linguistic awareness
characterized by increased meta-linguisticawareness, greater creativity and cognitive
flexibility, and more diversified mental abilities._
Awareness is not limited to linguistic structure andsemantics but also affects phonological,pragmatic, and sociolinguistic knowledge_
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
69/230
Individual learning strategies
The degree of proficiency, time and order offoreign language learning are less important
than motivation and interaction with thetarget language.
Furthermore, proficiency and degree ofactivation are more important than
typological similarity with target language.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
70/230
Individual learning strategies
Metacognition
Role of First, Second Languages in Third
Language AcquisitionUse of inference
Vocabulary acquisition
Motivation and frequent use
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
71/230
Metacognition:The Multilingual Mind
The manner in which word forms are connected to the otherwords in the multilingual minds: is this connection is mediatedby the first language or not. It has been found that firstlanguages do not necessarily play a privileged role in theacquisition of subsequent languages. The reaction timesmeasured showed that despite the claims in the literature,first language does not seem to have a determining role inthe development of a third language.
Findings suggest that both L1 and L2 have a role: L1 is thedefault supplier during transfer lapses and L2 duringinteractional strategies.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
72/230
Metacognition:The Multilingual Mind
Parasitism as a default mechanism in L3vocabulary acquisition (Christopher J. Hall andPeter Ecke) presupposes that new words areintegrated into existing lexical network with leastpossible redundancy and as rapidly as possible inorder to become accessible for communication.The authors propose that the multilingual lexicon
admits cross-linguistic transfer (CLI) from all possiblesource languages and at all representationallevels.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
73/230
The Mother Tongue Dilemma
The questions:Can a child develop strong
second language skills ifthey have a weak mothertongue (as in when theycome from poorerbackgrounds and have notbeen properly schooled inthe home language)?
Amount of exposure has astrong effect on the
likelihood of both positiveand negative languagetransfer1
Part of the answer:
[Language] learners whohave highly developedlanguage skills (such asreading, writing and
richness of vocabulary) intheir native language willmost likely find that theseskills facilitate secondlanguage acquisition2
1. Dewaele, J. (2001). Activation or inhibition? The interaction of L1, L2 and L3 on the language
mode continuum;2. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
74/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
75/230
The Facts and Studies
4. The more languages you know, the easier it gets tolearn an additional one_.
5. Third-language learners are highly successful; theylearn more language faster than second languagelearners of the same target language; and (2) theirbehaviours are those of the self-directed learner_.
6. Semilingualism is a relatively rare phenomenonand is defined by a lack of dominance in any of thelanguages one is acquainted with_.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
76/230
The Facts and Studies
7. In 2000, more than a third of thepopulation of Western Europeunder 35 was of immigrant origin,according to a recent UNESCOreport on linguistic diversity in
Europe.
8. A study done in The Hague in1999 showed that in a sample of41,600 children aged between 4and 17, about 49% of primary
and 42% of secondary schoolpupils use a language otherthan Dutch at home, such asTurkish, Hindi, Berber or Arabic.
One-half to two-thirds of the
world is bilingual ormultilingual.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
77/230
School influences.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
78/230
Aspects of a good teacher
training program: Train teachers in English language instruction;
Have regular meetings for discussing instructional issuesand exchanging ideas;
Develop an activity-based and thematic syllabus; Program co-ordinators observe classrooms several times a
year;
Apply a formative evaluation using Portfolios
Observation
An attitude survey of teachers, parents, and administrators A teacher survey, and
English language testing.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
79/230
What does a good multilingualschool look like?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
80/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
81/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
82/230
Guidelines for Assessing Bilingualand Trilingual Children
Assessment must be developmentally and culturallyappropriate.
The child's bilingual linguistic background must betaken into consideration in any authenticassessment of oral language proficiency.Bilingualism is a complex concept and includes
individuals with a broad range of speaking, reading,writing, and comprehending abilities in eachlanguage. Furthermore, these abilities are constantlyin flux.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
83/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
84/230
Guidelines for Assessing Bilingualand Trilingual Children
A fully contextual account of the child's language skills requiresthe involvement of parents and family members, the studentsthemselves, teachers, and staff in providing a detailed pictureof the context of language learning and the resources that
are available to the child (Nissani, 1990).
What is called for is a description of the child's languageenvironment, of the extent to which significant others-adults orchildren-provide language assistance by modeling,
expanding, restating, repeating, questioning, prompting,negotiating meaning, cueing, pausing, praising, and providingvisual and other supports.
Assessment of the child needs to take into account the entirecontext in which the child is learning and developing.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
85/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
86/230
Seven observations of good
multilingual programs*
1. First, successful multilingual programs startforeign language instruction early, normally in
elementary school.
2. Second, successful multilingual programsteach through coherent, well-articulatedframeworks, which are careful to scaffold their
learning in a developmental style.
*Elizabeth Clayton, Center for Applied Linguistics
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
87/230
3. Third, the successful multilingual schools typically
enjoy strong leadership, and have enthusiastic
backing from key stakeholders.
4. Fourth, successful multilingual programs teach
languages as core subjects, (unlike the American
tendency to make foreign languages electives).
5. Fifth, successful multilingual school teachers
receive rigorous preparation and are trained how
to manage students from different languagebackgrounds. They also make language a priority,
giving it equal status with prestigious courses like
Math, Physics and Core Language.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
88/230
T dditi l h t i ti f
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
89/230
Ten additional characteristics ofsuccessful multilingual schools*
1. Successful multilingual schools ensure that
language basics, including phonemic
awareness, phonic fluency, age appropriate
vocabulary, text comprehension and grammar
are taught explicitly.
2. They emphasize good oral skills and encourage
active, authentic language use by students.3. Successful multilingual schools integrate the
students family in a positive way.
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2007
4 They use a variety of assessment tools and
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
90/230
4. They use a variety of assessment tools andconsider the product, the process and theprogress of the student.
5. Some of the most successful schools use thematicsyllabi and work within dual-immersion structuresin which all students take pride in their homelanguage while learning a second or third.
6. The most successful schools conduct linguistic
and ethnic audits and know their clients(students) well. When possible, they hire staff thatspeak the home languages of the families theyserve and make every effort to keep clearchannels of communication.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
91/230
7. Successful schools conduct regular teachertraining to ensure that teachers keep an up
to date toolbox of activities handy.
8. They also have high expectations of theirstudents.
9. The best multilingual schools allow a portionof their budget to be invested in multilingualmaterials and media.
10. Successful multilingual schools do their best
to create a significant learning experiences,which relate new information to priorknowledge, and give students a certain levelof autonomy (control and choice).
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
92/230
An overview of the most
effective language programsin multilingual schools
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
93/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
94/230
Partial immersion
Characteristics:
There is some initial instruction in the
childs primary language, thirty to sixtyminutes a day,
This is usually limited to the introduction
of initial reading skills. All otherinstruction is in the second language.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
95/230
Dual immersion
Characteristics:
Two languages are taught to the same group,normally divided by native vs. non-native
speakers.
Normally taught by two different team teachers.
Can be conducted from 30-70 to 50-50 model
(time in designated languages).Need for qualified teachers.
High level of peer teaching.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
96/230
(E)SL Pullout
Characteristic:
Students are taken out of regular classtime for support in the secondlanguage.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
97/230
(E)SL Sheltered
Characteristic:
Students remain in class with the otherstudents, but are given a tutor in theclass.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
98/230
Early English Immersion
All instruction is in English
English is taught through the contentareas (as well as a separate subject)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
99/230
Early Exit Programs
There is some initial instruction in the childs
primary language, thirty to sixty minutes a
day,This is usually limited to the introduction of
initial reading skills. All other instruction is in
English.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
100/230
Late exist programs
Receive a minimum of forty-percent oftheir total instructional time in Dutch.
Students remain in this program throughsixth grade, regardless of when they arereclassified as fluent-English proficient.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
101/230
Results: Comparing programs
Children in immersion programs had comparabletest scores regardless of the school theyamended; the same was true for students in theearly-exit programs (Ramirez et al., 1991, Vol. II, p.96).
In sum, after four years [K-3] in their respective
programs, limited-English proficient students inimmersion strategy and early-exit programs (asdefined in this study) demonstrate comparableskills in mathematics, language, and readingwhen tested in English. (ES, p. 20)
Different growth curves
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
102/230
Different growth curvesbetween immersion strategy,
early-exit, and late-exit students
While the growth curves for immersion strategy and early-exitstudents show growth for first to third grade in mathematics,English language, and reading skills, they also show a sawingdown in the rate of growth in each of these content areas asgrade level increases. This deceleration in growth is similar tothat observed for students in the general population.
Different growth curves
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
103/230
Different growth curvesbetween immersion strategy,
early-exit, and late-exit students
In contrast, the growth curves for students in the late-exit
program from first grade to third grade and from third gradeto sixth grade suggest not only continued growth in theseareas, but continued acceleration in the rate of growth,which is as fast or faster than the norming population. That is,late-exit students appear to be gaining on students in the
general population.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
104/230
Virginia Colliers Model
When first language instructional support cannot be provided,the following program characteristics can make a significantdifference in academic achievement:
Second language taught through academic content
Conscious focus on teaching learning strategies needed todevelop thinking skills and problem-solving abilities
Continuous support for staff development emphasizingactivation of students' prior knowledge, respect for students'home language and culture, cooperative learning, interactiveand discovery learning, intense and meaningfulcognitive/academic development, and ongoing assessmentusing multiple measures.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
105/230
Teachers role
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
106/230
Characteristics of a good teacher
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
107/230
Characteristics of a good teacher
In groups:
Put the characteristic in order of importance:
CaringKnowledgeable
ExperiencedIntelligent
Planner
OrganizedJust
HappyDedicatedBalanced
Good valuesCreative
ProfessionalConcerned
Reflective
RespectfulActive
SureDidacticDynamic
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
108/230
The Facts about Teacher Importance
The quality of the teacher is the singlemost important factor influencing student
success.
In research on Third Language Acquisition,Cenoz and Lindsay (1994) highlight thevital role of the teacher.
Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994; Aarts & Verrhoeven, 1999; Marzano and pickering, 1998.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
109/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
110/230
What motivates students?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
111/230
1. Teacher enthusiasm2. Relevance of the subject3. Organization of course
4. Appropriate difficulty level5. Active participation bystudent
6. Variety of activities andmethodology
7. Personal link between teacherand student
8. Use of appropriate, concreteand clear examples.
According to Sass (1989), the eight most influential factors thatmotivate students and that are controlled by the teacher are:
Sass, E. J. "Motivation in the College Classroom: What Students Tell Us." Teaching of Psychology, 1989,
16(2), 86-88.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
112/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
113/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
114/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
115/230
Question:
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
116/230
Ques o :Teacher translation
Regarding translations, we donot have any specific guidelinesabout what to do. We
encourage teachers to useEnglish for classroommanagement and to translateutterances in Dutch into Englishand recast it. We always givethe advice that a child needs tobe understood first andforemost.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
117/230
Quality of the Teacher
High EFL (EAL) teacherqualifications means:
Being versed in appropriate teachingmethods
Understanding of students nativelanguage structure (or being able tospeak it)
Understanding of learning styles
Owning a good toolbox of
motivational skills Appropriate use of evaluation and
feedback mechanisms
Respect for other cultures
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
118/230
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
119/230
Teaching practices-What to do
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
120/230
g p
Teacher should make classes
student-centered and try
NOT speak most of the time,
nor initiate the majority of theexchanges by asking display
questions, but rather seek out
student-initiated requests.
Musumeci, D. (1996). "Teacher-Learner Negotiation in Content-Based Instruction: Communication at Cross-
Purposes." Applied Linguistics 17(3): 286-324.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
121/230
Teaching practices-What to do
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
122/230
g p
Teachers should not
only modify their own
speech in response to
students' requests(verbal or non-verbal),
they should also request
modifications of the
students' speech.
Musumeci, D. (1996). "Teacher-Learner Negotiation in Content-Based Instruction: Communication at Cross-
Purposes." Applied Linguistics 17(3): 286-324.
Teaching practices-What to do
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
123/230
g p
Sustained negotiation - in
which teachers and
students verbally resolve
incomplete or inaccurate
messagesshould occur
frequently.
Musumeci, D. (1996). "Teacher-Learner Negotiation in Content-Based Instruction: Communication at Cross-
Purposes." Applied Linguistics 17(3): 286-324.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
124/230
The person who does the
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
125/230
The person who does the
work is the person who learns.
A paradigm shift:
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
126/230
A paradigm shift:
The teacher doesnot have to answerall the questions:
The art ofanswering aquestion with aquestion.
The science ofgetting students toanswer each other.
Student-Centered Learning
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
127/230
Before: Teacher-centered From the sageon stage to the guide onthe side
Now: Student-centered(Subject-centered)The students are theprotagonists, and theteachers work is primarilyin the planning, not theexecution, of classactivities.
Classroom strategies: Methods
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
128/230
Classroom strategies: Methodsfor better language learning
1. Cooperative learning and other groupingstrategies (allow for native language use)
2. Task-based or experiential learning3. Inter-disciplinary activities (authentic learning)
4. Push for vocabulary development (grammarfollows natural samples)
5. Use of graphic organizers/portfolios to trackdevelopment.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
129/230
Steven Zemelman, Harvey
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
130/230
Daniels, y Arthur Hyde (2002):
Best practices1. Student-centered2. Experiential3. Holistic4. Authentic5. Expressive6. Reflective7. Social8. Collaborative9. Democratic
10. Cognitive11. Developmental12. Constructivist13. Challenging14. (fun)
Emotional aspects of learning
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
131/230
Emotional aspects of learning
When aconcept fightswith an emotion,the emotionalmost always
wins.
Sousa, D. (2002). Cmo aprende el cerebro, p.53.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
132/230
Classroom strategies:Methods for better third
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
133/230
Methods for better third
language learning Cooperative learning and other grouping
strategies (allow for native language use)
Task-based or experiential learning
Whole language strategies
Push for vocabulary development (grammarfollows natural samples)
Use of graphic organizers/portfolios to trackdevelopment.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
134/230
DAILY PRACTICE
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
135/230
L. Dee Fink (2003) Creating Significant Learning Experiences, p.22
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
136/230
Socratic Method
Never tell what you can ask.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
137/230
Characteristics of a person who thinks critically
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
138/230
Characteristics of a person who thinks critically
Intellectual curiosity
Intellectual courage
Intellectual humility
Intellectual empathy
Intellectual integrity Intellectual perseverance
(intellectual generosity)
Faith in reason
Act justly: Have the disposition and
be conscience of the necessity to
consider improbable outcomes.
Paul (1992) cited in Muoz & Beltrn 2001, tranalated by the author
Examples of activities thatstimulate critical thinking
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
139/230
stimulate critical thinking
1. Debate
2. Problem-based learning
3. Case studies
4. Stories, fables
5. Dramatization
6. Role play
7. Crossword puzzels8. Questioning
The Art of Questioning Essential Questions
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
140/230
The 5 Es
5 Es:l l i
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
141/230
Engage, Explore, Explain,
Elaborate, EvaluateLinks:
Constructivism and the 5 Es from the Miami Museum of Sciencehttp://www.miamisci.org/ph/lpintro5e.html
The 5 Es from the Afterschool Training Toolkit, SouthwesternEducational Development Laboratoryhttp://www.sedl.org/afterschool/toolkits/science/tk_5Es.htmlOnline
Cursos para profesores: La evolucin de la enseanzaexcelentesejemplos de la utilizacin de las cinco Es en una unidadde PBSOnline http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/educators/course/
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
142/230
E1: Engage
Each class should begin with
an event that captivates
the attention of the
students.
This awakens the natural
curiosity that they might
have about the topic and
helps them make links with
past knowledge.
E2: Explore
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
143/230
E2: Explore
Students then do an activitythat allows them to explore anew concept or skills.
Students looks for solutions to
problems or to explain aphenomena in their ownwords.
This stage permits students togather a group of sharedexperiences and worktogether to find a solution.
E3: Explain
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
144/230
3: p a
Only after the studentshave explored the concepton their own should theteacher then explain usingthe correct terminology.
Remember: Explanationsafter the experience!
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
145/230
E4: Elaborate
In this stage give the studentsto deepen their
understanding and to applywhat they have learned tonew situations.
Here, be sure to allow
students to discuss theirideas.
E5: Evaluate
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
146/230
The final unit of the class hastwo objectives:
First that students develop aclear understanding.
Second, to evaluate whatthey think they can now do.
At this point it is logical toevaluate key concepts andskills.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
147/230
Evaluation and Assessment
Guidelines for Assessing Bilingualand Trilingual Children
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
148/230
and Trilingual Children
Assessment must be developmentally and
culturally appropriate.
The child's bilingual linguistic background
must be taken into consideration in anyauthentic assessment of oral language
proficiency. Bilingualism is a complex
concept and includes individuals with a
broad range of speaking, reading, writing,
and comprehending abilities in each
language. Furthermore, these abilities are
constantly in flux.
Guidelines for Assessing Bilingualand Trilingual Children
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
149/230
and Trilingual Children
The goal must be to assess the child's
language or languages without
standardizing performance, allowing
children to demonstrate what they
can do in their own unique ways. Assessment must be accompanied
by a strong professional
development component that
focuses on the use of narrativereporting, observations of language
development, and sampling the
child's language abilities.
Guidelines for Assessment
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
150/230
Guidelines for Assessment
A fully contextual account of the child's language skills requiresthe involvement of parents and family members, the studentsthemselves, teachers, and staff in providing a detailed picture ofthe context of language learning and the resources that areavailable to the child (Nissani, 1990).
What is called for is a description of the child's languageenvironment, of the extent to which significant others-adults orchildren-provide language assistance by modeling, expanding,restating, repeating, questioning, prompting, negotiatingmeaning, cueing, pausing, praising, and providing visual and
other supports. Assessment of the child needs to take into account the entire
context in which the child is learning and developing.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
151/230
Guidelines for Assessing Bilinguald T ili l Child
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
152/230
and Trilingual Children
PRODUCT
PROCESS
PROGRESS
Assessment must bedevelopmentallyand culturally
appropriate.
McLauahglin, B., Blanchard, A.G., & Osani, Y. (1995). Assessing Language Development inBilingual Prechool Children. NCB Program Information Guide Series, Number 22, Summer 1995.
EVALUATION
PRODUCT
PROCESSPROGRESS
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
153/230
Backward Design
Grant Wiggins and JayMcTighe (1998/2005).
Understanding bydesign. Alexandria, VA:Association forSupervision andCurriculum
Development.
Three steps to ensuring understanding(backward design)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
154/230
Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.
Step 1. Identify desired results
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
155/230
Start with the end in mind.
Think of competencies (knowledge, skills and attitudes):What should students know, understand and be able todo?
Determine important knowledge (facts, concepts,principles, dates, formulas).
Determine important skills (processes, strategies andmethods).
Determine important attitudes (e.g., empathy, intellectualhonesty, perseverance)
Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.
St 1 Id tif d i d lt
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
156/230
Step 1. Identify desired results
Determine what content area will be the focus ofevaluation.
Why it is important to do so? What is the enduring understanding that is the object
of the teaching?
Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.
Global
Knowledgeformulas,
datess, facts,names, etc.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
157/230
Objetives
Global
Specific CompetenciesSkills able to do"
Attitudesvalues,
perspectives
Step 2. Determine AcceptableEvidence (Evaluation activities)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
158/230
Evidence (Evaluation activities)
Backward designs focus forces usto think about each unit of theclass in terms of assessmentevidence to document and
validate desired learningobjectives.
How do we know if the studentsare achieving the results wedesire and the standards we
need?What will we accept as evidence
of learning (the achievement ofthe competencies)?
Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.
Philosophy of evaluation
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
159/230
Philosophy of evaluation
1. What is the purpose ofevaluation?
2. What is the difference betweenevaluation and feedback?
3. Should we evaluate students
based on standards, or on astudents individual potential inyour subject?
How do we choose the
http://members.tripod.com/~fono/cerebro.gif7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
160/230
right evaluation methods?
Criteria:
1. Is the evaluation method the mostappropriate to measure progresstowards the objective?
2. Can the instrument bedifferentiated?
Types of informal and formalevaluation methods
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
161/230
evaluation methods
(summative and formative)
Observations, conversations and feedback
Tests and exams
Academic hints
Projects, simulations
Essential questions(examples)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
162/230
(examples)
How do you cultivate and sustain cultures of highexpectations and goodness?
Why do we need to learn a foreign language?
Why do we need to learn how to add (read)?
Why care?
Why is sound important?
Why do we read, write and tell stories?
Why do we need to learn about different countries?
How does energy change?
The art of questioning
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
163/230
Paradigm shift:
The teacher does not
have to answer all the
questions.
Start a habit of answer a
question with a question.
Habit of centering all
classes on the student
(on learning vs. on
teaching)
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
164/230
Step 3. Lesson Plans (Activities,E i d I t ti )
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
165/230
Experiences and Instruction)
What activities will provide students with theknowledge and skills needed in this subject (in this
unit, in this class)? What should be taught and how should I teach it
in order to reach my stated goals? What materials are needed to conduct the
activities?
Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by
Desi n
Good Learning Environments
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
166/230
g
Seven factors in good learningenvironments:
1. Safe environment
2. Intellectual freedom3. Respect
4. Self-directed
5. Paced challenges
6. Active learning7. Feedback
Billington. Seven Characteristics of Highly Effective Learning Programs, 1997.
Three considerations inki b i
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
167/230
making rubrics
1. Holistic or analytic?
2. Generic or specific?
3. Scale?
Holistic or analytic?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
168/230
Holistic or analytic?
Whole product Divides product into
various characteristicsand awards each part.
For example, in a math class the teacher can choose togive a grade based on the final answer, or to givepartial credit for steps in the resolution of the problem
Holistic Analytic
Generic of specific?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
169/230
Generic of specific?
Use the same rubric to gradedaily activities
While specific rubrics
are designed for aspecific activity.
For example, a language teacher can design a rubricfor class participation which is used on a daily basis, orshe can design a rubric for a specific classpresentation.
GENERIC SPECIFIC
Scale?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
170/230
Scale?
Scales be from 1 to1000, dependingon the localcriteria.
The decision aboutthe number ofpoints isdetermined by therange of you want
to reflect.
Typical: 5 points,but4 is better!
Applications
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
171/230
Options:
Some teachers give rubrics to
student at the beginning of the
semester or unit.
Others give rubrics at the start
of each graded activity.
Others develop the rubric with
the students.
What are evaluationsaccommodations?
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
172/230
According toA Mind at aTime:
Accommodations are small
adjustments in the way weteach or grade in order tohelp each student findsuccess in class.
(If they are extreme, theyneither help the student northe teacher, however.)
Source:: Mel Levine, 2000.
Simple accommodations
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
173/230
SPACE: Change a students seat (to improveconcentration).
PERSON: Permit feedback or evaluation in smallgroups or by peers, parents or the student himself.
TIME: Give more time to the student (so long as
the task is not time-dependent). (For example, ifthe purpose is to value the quality of writing, doesit really need to be timed?)
Source:: Mel Levine 2000.
To differentiate in evaluation
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
174/230
1. Start with a good diagnosis: Whataspect of learning troubles the student?
2. Choose the correct evaluation toolbased on the objectives(competencies).
Use rubrics to consider Product,Process and Progress.
3. Apply accommodations.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
175/230
Final Big Ideas
Semilingualism
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
176/230
Semilingualism
The termsemilingualism is often used to describe thelanguage situation of immigrant and language minority
populations whose native language may be different fromthe standards of their native country, yet whose secondlanguage is also considered substandard.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
177/230
What kind of an Issue?
Identity?
Linguistic?
Political?
Ex.: Does English as a thirdlanguage help or hurt
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
178/230
immigrants in Holland?
English as a high prestige language: Europeslingua franca in 2005.
Bilinguals performed better learning English (as a
third language) than monolinguals.
The more languages you know, the easier it getsto learn an additional one. Third-languagelearners are highly successful; they learn morelanguage faster than second language learnersof the same target language; and (2) theirbehaviours are those of the self-directed learner.
English as a third languageHELPS low income children in
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
179/230
Holland when
School programs are accompanied by
(1) Home stimulation and support for all threelanguages with special emphasis on nativelanguage fluency;
(2) Parents' motivation for schooling is high and thegive value to their childrens efforts; and
(3) Children's self-esteem is integrated into theacademic, social, cultural and cognitive goals of
multilingualism.
Future challenges
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
180/230
The practical obstacles include
Continual increase in immigrant community growth.
Shortage of teachers who can teach with knowledge ofstudents native languages
A complex set of legal, administrative and funding issues inurban school districts that balance the needs of schools
The political obstacles include
Wariness and lack of support among substantial portions of
the population. Rights of new immigrants a priority?
Threat to the status of Dutch
UNESCO recommendation
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
181/230
Mother tongue education and multilingualism are increasinglyaccepted around the world and speaking ones ownlanguage is more and more a right. International MotherLanguage Day, proclaimed in 1999 by UNESCO and markedon 21 February each year, is one example.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
182/230
National Language Policy
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
183/230
Language is a sensitive political issue, as it is aprofound symbol of national and personalidentity.
In the Netherlands, itself containing a highpercentage of immigrants, research has beguninto the common challenges facing both "old"and "new [language minorities]. Whether or not
the EU is willing to include the thorny issue ofimmigration in a future language policy remainsa point of debate
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
184/230
Questions?
Thank you for coming!
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
185/230
Based on: Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2000). Raising multilingual
children: Foreign language acquisition andchildren. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2003). The multilingualmind: Questions by, for, and about people livingwith many languages. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2008). Living languages:Multilingualism throughout the lifespan. Westport,CT: Praeger.
Aarts, R. & L. Verrhoeven (1999). Literacy attained in a second language submersion context.
Applied Psycholinguistics 20(3), 377-394.
Abbott, J. & Ryan, T. (1999). Constructing knowledge, reconstructing schooling. Educational
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
186/230
Abbott, J. & Ryan, T. (1999). Constructing knowledge, reconstructing schooling. Educational
Leadership, 57(3), 66-70.
Abdelrazak, M. (2001). Towards more effective supplementary and mother-tongue schools. London:Resource Unit.
Abramson, S., Seda, I., & Johnson, C. (1990). Literacy development in a multilingual kindergarten
classroom. Childhood Education, 67, 68-72.
Allen, R. (2002). Honing the tools of instruction: How research can improve teaching for the 21st
century. Curriculum Update 8, 1-3.
American Psychological Association. ( ). Learner-centered psychological principles: Guidelines for
school redesign and reform. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association,
Ames, C. (1992). Classroom goals, structures, and student motivation.Journal of Educational
Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.
Ames, R., & Ames, C. (1990). Motivation and effective teaching. In B. F. Jones and L. Idol (eds.),
Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction. Hillsdale, N. J.: ErIbaum..
Angelo, T. A. (1991). Ten easy pieces: Assessing higher learning in four dimensions. In T. A. Angelo
(ed.), Classroom research: Early lessons from success. New directions for teaching and learning,
46. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Asher, J. J., & Price, B. S. (1967). The learning strategy of a total physical response: Some age
differences. Child Development, 38, 1219-1227.
Atkins, B. T. S. & Varantola, K. (1998). Language learners using dictionaries: The final report of the
EURALEX- and AILA-sponsored Research Project into Dictionary Use. In Using dictionaries: studies
of dictionary use by language learners and translators, ed. Atkins B. T. S. Tbingen: Niemeyer.
Bain Ken (2004) What the best college teachers do Cambridge: Harvard University Press Baker, C. (2000). The care and education of young bilinguals. An introduction for
professionals. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Baker, C. (2004). A parents and teachers guide to bilingualism. Clevendon, UK:
Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Baker, P. & Eversley, J. (eds). (2000).Multilingual capital: The languages of London's school
children and their relevance to economic, social and educational policies. London:
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
187/230
Battlebridge Publications.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social-cognitive theory.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Barell, J. (2003). Developing more curious minds. Alexandria: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Beebe, R.M., Leonard, K. (1994 Jan). Second language learning in a social context. CAL
Digest on foreign language education. EDO-FL-94-05
Beebe, R.M. & Leonard, K.S. (1993). Second language learning in a social context. In
Visions and reality in foreign language teaching: Where we are, where we are going.
Chicago: National Textbook.
Bernard, J. & Grandcolas, B. (2001). Apprendre une troisime langue quand on est
bilingue: le franais chez un locuteur anglo-espagnol. Paris:Aile 14, 111-113.
Best, C.T. (1994). The emergence of native-language phonological influences in infants: A
perceptual assimilation model. In J.C. Goodman and H.C. Nusbaum (ed.), TheDevelopment of Speech Perception: The Transition from Speech Sounds to Spoken
Words. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 167-224.
Billington, D. (1997). Seven characteristics of highly effective adult learning environments.
Retrieved January 4 2005 from www.newhorizons.com.
Bligh, D. A. (1971). What's the use of lecturing? Devon, England: Teaching Services Centre,
University of Exeter
Bradford, J.D., Brown, A.L & Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience,and school, expanded edition. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press.
Bragdon, A.D., & Gamon, D. (2000). Brains that work a little bit differently: Recent discoveries about
common mental diversities. Cape Cod, MA: The Brainworks Center.
Brandt, R. (2000). Assessment in education, where have we been? Where are we headed? (pp. ). In
Education in a new era. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
http://www.newhorizons.com/http://www.newhorizons.com/7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
188/230
Education in a new era. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Cazden, C. B. (1984). Effective instructional practices in bilingual education. [Research review
commissioned by the National Institute of Education]. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 249 768).
Cazden, C. B., & Snow, C. E. (Eds.). (1990). English plus: Issues in bilingual education. The ANNALS of
the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 508. (Also published as a separate
volume by Newbury Park, CA: Sage.)
Cazden, C.B. (1991). Language minority education in the United States: Implications of the Ramirea
Report. Educational Practice Report 3. Cambridge: Harvard Graduate School of Education,National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
Cenoz, J. (1996). Learning a third language: Basque, Spanish and English. Spanish in contact: Issues in
bilingualism. A. Roca, & Jensen, John B. Somerville, Cascadilla: 13-27.
Cenoz, J. & D. Lindsay (1994). Teaching English in primary school: A project to introduce a third
language to eight year olds. Language and Education 8(4), 201-210.
Cenoz, J. & F. Genesee, Eds. (1998). Beyond Bilingualism. Multilingualism and Multilingual Education.Clevedon, Multilingual Matters.
Cenoz, J. & D. Lindsay (1994). Teaching English in primary school: A project to Introduce a third
language to eight year olds. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English
to Speakers of Other Languages (28th, Baltimore, MD, March 8-12, 1994. ERIC Database
(ED372637). Language and Education 8(4): 201-210.
Cenoz, J. & F. Genesee, Eds. (1998). Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and multilingual
education. Clevedon, Multilingual Matters.Cenoz, J. and Jessner, U. (eds.) (2000). English in Europe: The acquisition of a third language.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd.Cenoz, J. Hufeisen, B. and Jessner, U. (ed). (2003). The multilingual lexicon. Kluwer Academic
Publishers.Cenoz, J., Hufeisen, B. & Jessner, U. (2001). Towards trilingual education. International Journal of
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
189/230
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4(1), 1-10.
Cenoz, Jasone, Britta Hufeisen & Ulrike Jessner, ed. (2003). The Multilingual Lexicon. KluwerAcademic Publishers.
Childs, M.R. (2002 mar). The practical linguist: Make the most of the bilingual advantage. The DailyYomiuri. Japan.
Ciencias de la Tierra. (1999). Libro electrnico. Descargado dehttp://www1.ceit.es/Asignaturas/Ecologia/Hipertexto/01IntrCompl/104PensCri.htm
Clark, L. H. (1968). Strategies and Tactics in Secondary Teaching: A Book of Readings. New York:Macmillan Company.
Clyne, M. & P. Cassia (1999). Trilingualism, immigration and relatedness of language. ITL Review ofApplied Linguistics 123-124: 57-78.
Cole, W.R (Ed.) (1995). Educating everybodys children: Diverse teaching strategies for diverselearners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Collier, V. & Thomas, W.P. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. WashingtonD.C.: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/resource/effectiveness/thomas-collier97.pdf
Collier, V.P. (1995 Fall). Acquiring a second language for school. Directions in Language &Education, National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, 4(1).Collier, V.P. (1995). Acquiring a second language for school. Directions in language & education, 1
(4). National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Collier, V. (1995). Promoting academicsuccess for ESL students. New Jersey:TESOL-BE.
Cook, V. (1995). Multi-competence and the learning of many languages. In M. Bensousannan, I.Kreindler, & E. Aogain (Eds.),Multilingualism and language learning: 8, 2. Language, Cultureand Curriculum (pp.93-98). Clevendon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Coplen, W., Duffield, J., Swimpson, I., & Taylor, D. (2005) Developing the moduel: Monitoring studentprogress. PowerPoint. Descargada dewww.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/schools/churchillwootton/CITW%20powerpt..ppt el 12 deoctubre 2008.
Corder, S. (1983). A role for the mother tongue. In S. Gass & L. Selinker (Eds.), Language transfer inlanguage learning (pp.85-97). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
C M E ik B h A P D & M Al i L (1997) C lt ll b d
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
190/230
Crago, M., Eriks-Brophy, A., Pesco, D., & McAlpine, L. (1997). Culturally based miscommunication in classroom interaction. Language, Speech and HearingServices inSchools, 28, 245-254.
Crandall, J. (1992). Content-centered learning in the United States."Annual Review of AppliedLinguistics, 13, 111-127.
Cromdal, J. (1999). Childhood bilingualism and metalinguistic skills: Analysis and control in youngSwedish-English bilinguals.Applied Psycholinguistics 20(1), 1-20.
Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Cummins, J. (1992) Language proficiency, bilingualism, and academic achievement. In P.A.
Richard-Amoto & M. A. Snow (eds), The multicultural classroom: Readings for content-areateachers. Reading: Addison Wesley.
Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society.Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Cummins, J. (2001 April) Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire:Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23.
Cummins, J. (2001). Instructional conditions for trilingual development. International Journal ofBilingual Education and Bilingualism 4(1), 61-75.
Cummins, J. (April 2001) Language, Power, and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire:Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23.
Cummins, J.P. (1983). Language proficiency and academic achievement. In J.W. Oller, Jr. (Ed.).Issues in language testing research. (pp. 108-130). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Damico, J.S., Smith, M., & Augustine, L. (1995). Multicultural populations and language disorders. InM.D. Smith & J.S. Damico (Eds.) Childhood language disorders (pp. 272-299). New York: ThemeMedical Publishers.
Daniels, H.& Bizar, M. (1998). Methods that matter: Six structures for best practice classrooms. Maine:Stenhouse.
De Angelis, G., & S. Selinker, L. (2001). Interlanguage transfer and competing linguistic systems in themultilingual mind In J Cenoz, B Hufeisen, & U Jessner (Eds ), Cross-linguistic influence in this
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
191/230
multilingual mind. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross linguistic influence in thislanguage acquisition: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp.42-58). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual
Matters.De Avila, E. (1990). Assessment of language minority students: Political, technical, practical and moral
imperatives. Proceedings of the First Research Symposium on Limited English Proficient StudentIssues. OBEMLA. http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/ncbepubs/symposia/first/assessment.htm
Dewaele, J. (2001). Activation or inhibition? The interaction of L1, L2 and L3 on the language modecontinuum. In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence on thidlanguage acquisition: Psycholonguistic perspectives (pp.69-89). Clevedon, UK: Multilingal
Matters.Dweck, C. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning American Psychologist. 41 (10), 1040 -1048.
Ecke, P. (2001). Lexical retrieval in a third language: Evidence from errors and tip-of-the-tongue states.In J. Cenoz, B. Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence on thid languageacquisition: Psycholonguistic perspectives (pp.69-89). Clevedon, UK: Multilingal Matters.
Edelsky, C. (1994). With literacy and justice for all: Rethinking the social in language and education,2nd Ed. London: Taylor & Francis.
Edwards, V. (1998) The Tower of Babel: Teaching and learning in multilingual classrooms. Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham Books (further reading)
Eggen, P. D. & D. P. Kauchak (1996). Strategies for teachers. Teaching content and thinking skills.Boston, Allyn and Bacon. A Simon & Schuster Company.
Eisenstein, M,& Starbuck, R.J. (1989). The effect of emotional investment in L2 production. In Variationin second language acquisition: Volume II. Psycholinguistic issues. Clevedon: Newbury House.
Ennis, R. (1992). Critical thinking: What is it? Proceedings of the Forty-Eighth Annual Meeting of thePhilosophy of Education Society Denver, Colorado, March 27-30.
Facione, P. (2003). Mesa Redonda, Universidad Central de Chile.http://www.ucentral.cl/Sitio%20web%202003/htm%20mr/mr-pensamiento%20critico.htm
Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences. NJ: Jossey-Bass.
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
192/230
( ) g g gFishman, J. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to
threatened languages. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.Flores, B., Cousin, P. & Diaz, E. (1991). Transforming deficit myths about learning, language, and
culture. Language Arts, 68, 369-377Flynn, S., Foley, C., and Vinnitskaya, I. (2004). The cummulative-enhancement model for language
acquisition: Comparing adults' and children's patterns of development in first, second andthird language acquisition of relative clauses. The International Journal of Multilingualism, 1(1),316
Forsyth, D. R., & McMillan, J. H. (1991). Practical Proposals for Motivating Students. In R. J. Mengesand M. D. Svinicki (eds.), College Teaching: From Theory to Practice. New Directions inTeaching and Learning, 45. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fradd, S.H. & Weismantel, M.J. (1989). Meeting the needs of culturally andlinguistically differentstudents: A handbook for educators. Boston: College-Hill Press.
Francis, N. (1999). Bilingualism, writing, and metalinguistic awareness: Oral-literate interactionsbetween first and second languages.Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 533-561.
Franken, R. (1994). Human motivation. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Frankl, V. (1998).Man's search for meaning (Revised ed.). New York: Washington Square Press.Fuller, J. M. (1999). Between three languages: Composite structure and interlanguage.Applied
Linguistics 20(4), 534-561.Fung, C.Y. (2002 Feb). Towards an interactive view of L3 acquisition: the case of the German
Vorfeld. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.Garate, V. and Cenoz Iragui, J. (1993). Bilingualism and third language acquisition. ERIC Database
(ED364118).
Garca-Vsquez, E., Vsquez, L.A., Lpez, I.C. and Ward, W. (1997). Language proficiency andacademic success: Relationships between proficiency in two languages and achievementamong Mexican American Students. Bilingual Research Journal, 21, 334-347.
Gardner, R.C.,& Lambert, W.E. (1986).Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley,MA: Newbury House.
Genesee, F. (2000). Brain Research: Implications for second language learning. Center for AppliedLinguistics. December 2000 DO-FL-00-12. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/resources/
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
193/230
Linguistics. December 2000DO FL 00 12. Retrieved from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0012brain.html on10 October 2006.
Gerritsen, J. (2001). How the Tomatis Method accelerates learning foreign languages. Retrieved fromhttp://www.tomatis.com/English/Articles/languages.htm.
Giordano, P. J. (2003). Critical moments in learning: Student, faculty, and alumni experiences.Workshop presented at the meeting of the National Lilly Conference on College Teaching,Oxford, OH.
Gonzalez, V. (1996). Cognition, culture and language in bilingual children. Bethesda, MD: Austin &Winfield.
Governent of Canada. (2005). Official languages and visible minorities in the public service ofCanada: A qualitative investigation of barriers to career advancement. Retrieved fromhttp://www.hrma-agrh.gc.ca/ollo/or-ar/study-etude/Patterson/olvm-lomv-3_e.asp on 10October 2006.
Graddol, David (1999). The decline of the native speaker. In David Graddol and Ulrike H. Meinhof(eds) English in a changing world. AILA: The AILA Review 13, 57-68.
Graddol, Ds. (1997). The future of English. London: The British Council.Gregory, E. (1994) Cultural assumptions and early years pedagogy: the effect of home culture on
minority childrens language development.Gregory, E. (1998) Siblings as mediators of literacy in linguistic minority communities. Language and
Education 12, 1 33-54.Gregory, E. & Williams, A. (2000) City literacies: Learning to read across generations and cultures.
London: Routledge.Griessler, M. (2001) The effects of third language learning on second language proficiency: an Austrian
example. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4(1), 50-60.
Grosjean, F. (1995). A psycholinguistic approach to code-switching: The recognition of guestwords by bilinguals. In L. Milroy and P. Muysken (Eds.), One speaker, two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on codeswitching (pp.259-275). Cambridge, UK: CambridgeUniversity Press.
Grosjean, F. (2001). The bilinguals language modes. In J. Nicol (Ed.), One mind, two languages:Bilingual language processing (pp.1-22). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Gross Davis Barbara (1993) Tools for Teaching San Francisco: Jossey Bass
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
194/230
Gross Davis, Barbara. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Hakuta, K. (1999). Definition of Bilingualism.APA Encyclopedia of Psychology. New York:Hammarberg, B. (2001). Roles of L1 and L2 in L3 production and acquisition. In J. Cenoz, B.
Hufeisen, & U. Jessner (Eds.), Cross-linguistic influence on thid language acquisition:Psycholonguistic perspectives (pp.69-89). Clevedon, UK: Multilingal Matters.
Hansford, R. (1997). Language minorities in Britain: A summary of the available statistical data. InStatistics in the teaching and learning of modern foreign languages in the U.K.: directory ofsources. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching.
Harley, B., Hart, D., et al. (1986). The effects of early bilingual schooling on first language skills.
Applied Psycholinguistics 7(4), 295-322.Harley, B.(1989).Age in second language acquisition. San Diego: College Hill Press.Herrera, A. (s/a).Modus Ponens, Boletn Mexicano de Lgica.
http://www.filosoficas.unam.mx/~Modus/MP2/mp2alex.htmHirsch, J. (1997 Jul). Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature
388, 171.House, J. (2004). A stateless language that Europe must embrace. The Guardian Weekly.
Brighton UK: IATEFL.Huitt, W. (1992). Problem solving and decision making: Consideration of individual differences
using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.Journal of Psychological Type, 24, 33-44.Jacquemot, C., Pallier, C., Dehaene, S., & Dupoux, E. The neuroanatomy of language-specific
speech processing: A cross linguistic study using event related functional MagneticResonance Imagery. Paris, France: SHFJ.
Jenkins, J. & Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Bringing Europe's lingua franca into the classroom. The GuardianWeekly. Brighton UK: IATEFL.
Johnson, M. (1991). Slippery lingualism: Are all bilinguals really bilingual?Joyce, Bruce, Marsha Weil & Emily Calhoun (2000). Models of teaching. Massachusetts: Allyn &
Bacon.Kellerman, R. (1983). An eye for an eye: Crosslinguistic constraints on the development of the L2
lexicon. In M. Sharwood Smith & E. Kellerman (Eds.), Crosslinguistic influence in secondlanguage acquisition (pp 35 48) Oxford UK: Pergamons Press
7/29/2019 Switzerland TOKUHAMA Ten Key Factors 2
195/230
language acquisition (pp.35-48). Oxford, UK: Pergamons Press.Kempadoo, M and Abdelrazak, M. (2001). Directory of supplementary and mother-tongue classes.
London: Resource Unit.King, D.F. & Goodman, K. (1990). Cherishing learners and their language. Language,Speech, and
Hearing Services in Schools, 21, 221-227.Klein, E.C. (1995). Second versus third language acquisition: is there a difference? Language
Learning 45(3), 419-465.Kleinginna, P., Jr., & Kleinginna A. (1981b). A categorized list of emotion definitions, with suggestions
for a consensual definition.Motivation and Emotion 5, 345-379.
Laponce, J.A. (1985 Aug). The multilingual mind and multilingual societies: In Search ofneuropsychological explanations of the spatial behavior of ethno-linguistic groups. Politics andthe Life Sciences 4(1), 3-9.
Lasagabaster, D. (1998). Learning English as an L3. ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 121-122, 51-83.Leonard, N., Beauvais, L., & Scholl, R. (1995).A self-concept-based model on work motivation. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, August.Levine, Mel. (2002). Developing Minds Video series. (Author of:All Kinds of Minds, 2000).Levine, Mel. (2003 Oct). Celebrating Diverse Minds. Educational Leadership, 12-15.Levis, N. (2001). The brave new world of bilingual teaching. Tim