2009
P
rinte
d an
d pu
blis
hed
by:
D
epar
tmen
t of A
gric
ultu
re, F
ores
try a
nd F
ishe
ries
Obt
aina
ble
from
:
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ourc
e C
entre
D
irect
orat
e A
gric
ultu
ral I
nfor
mat
ion
Ser
vice
s
Priv
ate
Bag
X14
4
Pre
toria
00
01
agric
ultu
re,
fore
stry
& fi
sher
ies
Dep
artm
ent:
Agr
icul
ture
, For
estry
and
Fis
herie
sR
EPU
BLI
C O
F SO
UTH
AFR
ICA
Wheat
Fur
ther
info
rmat
ion
can
be o
btai
ned
from
:
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ctor
ate
Pla
nt P
rodu
ctio
nP
rivat
e B
ag X
250
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ET
OR
IA 0
001
Tel
:
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12
319
6072
Fax
:
+27
12
319
6372
E-m
ail:
D
PP
@nd
a.ag
ric.z
a
Dis
ease
con
trol
Wh
ile t
he
wh
ea
t is
gro
win
g,
farm
ers
mu
st p
rote
ct it
fro
m
dise
ases
. S
ever
al d
isea
ses
affe
ct v
ario
us p
arts
of
whe
at,
incl
ud
ing
ro
ots
, st
em
s, l
ea
ves
an
d e
ars
. L
ea
f d
ise
ase
s oc
cur
mor
e fr
eque
ntly
in t
he W
este
rn C
ape
rela
tive
to t
he
sum
mer
rai
nfal
l reg
ions
. Onl
y a
few
are
list
ed. A
nthr
acno
se,
Asc
ho
chyt
a,
Ba
cte
ria
l b
ligh
t, R
ust
, S
chle
roti
nia
(w
hit
e m
ould
). T
he c
ontr
ol fo
r th
ese
incl
udes
cro
p ro
tatio
n, u
se o
f di
seas
e-fr
ee s
eeds
or
cert
ified
see
ds, s
ched
uled
irrig
atio
n,
use
of r
esis
tant
cul
tivar
s, w
ork
in p
lant
deb
ris a
fter
harv
est-
ing
and
cons
erva
tion
tilla
ge.
Har
vest
mat
urity
and
met
hods
Wh
ea
t g
rain
s m
ust
be
dry
be
fore
it
can
be
ha
rve
ste
d.
Whe
at is
har
vest
ed in
Nov
embe
r/D
ecem
ber,
how
ever
, but
la
ter
harv
estin
gs a
re a
pplic
able
in c
ase
of s
prin
g an
d su
m-
mer
whe
at.
Onl
y fu
lly r
ipen
ed g
rain
s sh
ould
be
harv
este
d.
Har
vest
ing
shou
ld c
omm
ence
at 1
6 %
gra
in m
oist
ure
con-
tent
whi
le lo
wer
moi
stur
e co
nten
ts u
p to
13
% a
re p
refe
rred
fo
r st
orag
e. T
he s
hatte
ring
type
s m
ust b
e ha
rves
ted
earli
er
and
drie
d ar
tific
ially
. A m
achi
ne c
alle
d a
com
bine
har
vest
er
is u
sed
to c
ut, s
epar
ate
and
clea
n th
e gr
ain.
A c
ombi
ne h
ar-
vest
er m
ust b
e pr
oper
ly a
djus
ted
to m
inim
ise
grai
n lo
sses
. S
peci
al to
ols
wer
e de
velo
ped
for
harv
estin
g w
heat
:
• R
eapi
ng:
The
sic
kle
and
scyt
he a
re t
ools
tha
t ar
e us
ed
to c
ut a
nd h
arve
st w
heat
in th
e pa
st. M
echa
nica
l rea
pers
ev
entu
ally
rep
lace
d th
e ha
nd to
ols.
• T
hres
hing
: T
his
is t
he s
epar
atin
g of
the
gra
in o
r se
eds
from
the
pla
nt m
ater
ial.
The
cut
ting
and
thre
shin
g pr
oc-
ess
is c
ombi
ned
in t
he c
ombi
ne h
arve
ster
. It
coul
d cu
t w
heat
, th
resh
out
the
gra
in,
and
stor
e it
in a
bin
on
the
mac
hine
.
• W
inno
win
g: I
s th
e pr
oces
s of
sep
arat
ing
thre
shed
gra
in
from
the
chaf
f.
Use
sH
um
an
use
s: T
he
gra
in c
an
eit
he
r b
e e
ate
n w
ho
le o
r gr
ound
. F
inel
y gr
ound
whe
at is
the
sou
rce
of f
lour
for
the
w
orld
’s b
read
-mak
ing
indu
stry
.
Ind
ust
ria
l use
: G
rain
is a
so
urc
e o
f a
lco
ho
lic b
eve
rag
es.
In
dust
rial a
lcoh
ol is
mad
e in
to s
ynth
etic
rub
ber
and
expl
os-
ive
s. S
tarc
h is
use
d f
or
pa
ste
s a
nd
siz
ing
te
xtile
s. S
tra
w
is m
ade
into
mat
s, c
arpe
ts,
bask
ets,
and
use
d fo
r pa
ckin
g m
ater
ial,
cattl
e be
ddin
g an
d pa
per
man
ufac
turin
g.
Ani
mal
feed
: Bra
n fr
om fl
our
mill
ing
is a
n im
port
ant l
ives
tock
fe
ed, w
hile
ger
m is
a v
alua
ble
addi
tion
to fe
ed c
once
ntra
te.
Gra
in c
an
be
fe
d t
o li
vest
ock
wh
ole
or
coa
rse
ly g
rou
nd
. S
ome
whe
at is
cut
for
hay
. W
heat
gro
wn
for
grai
n cr
ops
is
also
use
d fo
r pa
stur
e be
fore
the
stem
s el
onga
te.
Ack
now
ledg
emen
tsA
RC
—G
rain
Cro
ps In
stitu
te
Bac
kgro
und
Th
e o
rig
in o
f th
e w
he
at
is n
ot
pre
cise
ly k
no
wn
. W
he
at
evol
ved
from
wild
gra
sses
, pro
babl
y so
mew
here
in th
e N
ear
Eas
t. A
ver
y lik
ely
plac
e of
orig
in is
the
area
kno
wn
in e
arly
hi
stor
ical
tim
es a
s th
e F
ertil
e C
resc
ent—
a re
gion
with
ric
h so
ils in
the
uppe
r re
ache
s of
the
Tig
ris-E
uphr
ates
dra
inag
e ba
sin.
Prod
uctio
n ar
eas
Pro
vin
ce
Dis
tric
t
Fre
e S
tate
X
harie
p, L
ejw
elep
utsw
a, T
habo
M
ofut
sany
ane,
Nor
ther
n F
ree
Sta
te
Wes
tern
Cap
e W
est C
oast
, Bol
and,
Ove
rber
g, C
ape
Tow
n
Nor
th W
est
Dr
Rut
h S
egom
otsi
Mom
pati,
Dr
Ken
neth
Kau
nda,
Boj
anal
a
Nor
ther
n C
ape
Fra
ncis
Baa
rd
Mpu
mal
anga
G
ert S
iban
de, N
kang
ala
Lim
popo
W
ater
berg
Sci
entif
ic n
ame:
Trit
icum
aes
tivum
Oth
er n
ames
: K
oro
(Sot
ho),
kor
ing
(Afr
ikaa
ns)
Agr
onom
ic re
quire
men
tsS
oil r
equi
rem
ents
Wh
ea
t g
row
s w
ell
in a
va
rie
ty o
f so
ils;
ho
we
ver,
loa
my
to
sand
y lo
am is
rega
rded
as
idea
l for
opt
imum
gro
wth
. W
heat
is
adv
erse
ly a
ffec
ted
by a
cidi
c so
ils,
whi
ch a
re a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith h
igh
alum
iniu
m (
Al 3+
) co
nten
t, p
artic
ular
ly d
urin
g th
e ea
rly d
evel
opm
enta
l sta
ges
of th
e cr
op. T
he s
oil p
H re
quire
d is
6,0
to 7
,5.
Clim
atic
req
uire
men
ts
Wh
ea
t is
an
an
nu
al w
inte
r a
nd
sp
rin
g c
ere
al c
rop
with
a
grow
ing
seas
on o
f ap
prox
imat
ely
130
to 1
90 d
ays.
Win
ter
wh
ea
t re
qu
ire
s a
ce
rta
in c
old
exp
osu
re (
vern
alis
ati
on
) be
fore
flow
erin
g ca
n ta
ke p
lace
. War
m te
mpe
ratu
re r
ange
s fr
om
22
to
34
°C
are
su
itab
le f
or
spri
ng
wh
ea
t a
nd
co
ol
tem
pera
ture
ran
ges
from
5 t
o 25
°C
are
sui
tabl
e fo
r w
inte
r w
heat
. An
idea
l clim
ate
for
plan
ting
whe
at c
an b
e de
scrib
ed
as
coo
l a
nd
mo
ist,
fo
llow
ed
by
a w
arm
, d
ry s
ea
son
fo
r ha
rves
ting.
In S
outh
Afr
ica
whe
rein
mos
t of t
he c
ount
ry r
e-ce
ives
sum
mer
rai
nfal
l, w
inte
r w
heat
pro
duct
ion
is d
epen
d-en
t on
suffi
cien
t res
idua
l soi
l moi
stur
e.
Rai
nfal
l
Th
e w
ate
r re
qu
ire
me
nt
for
wh
ea
t is
ab
ou
t 6
00
mm
pe
r an
num
. In
dry
area
s w
here
cul
tivat
ion
prac
tices
suc
h as
zer
o til
lage
and
min
imum
tilla
ge a
re p
ract
ised
, stu
bble
mul
chin
g is
re
com
men
ded
for
moi
stur
e co
nser
vatio
n. F
rost
can
dam
age
whe
at e
spec
ially
afte
r th
e fo
rmat
ion
of e
ars
in s
prin
g re
sult-
ing
in lo
w y
ield
. H
ail c
an a
lso
resu
lt in
ser
ious
dam
age
on
the
sum
mer
whe
at r
esul
ting
in lo
w y
ield
. Wet
wea
ther
dur
ing
harv
estin
g co
ntrib
utes
to d
isea
se p
reva
lenc
e an
d qu
ality
de-
terio
ratio
n of
gra
ins.
The
moi
stur
e ap
plic
atio
n un
der i
rrig
atio
n sh
ould
be
low
ered
dur
ing
flow
erin
g, in
crea
sed
duri
ng p
od
fillin
g an
d ce
ase
durin
g rip
enin
g.
Cul
tura
l pra
ctic
esP
ropa
gatio
n
Whe
at is
pro
paga
ted
by s
eeds
Soi
l pre
para
tion
Min
imum
till
age
(75
to 1
30 m
m d
eep)
, de
ep t
illag
e (1
50 t
o 30
0 m
m)
or n
o til
l can
be
prac
tised
dep
endi
ng o
n th
e ty
pe o
f th
e so
il, m
oist
ure
avai
labi
lity,
type
of c
ultiv
ar a
nd th
e pr
evi-
ous
crop
pla
nted
. F
irm
, sm
ooth
, w
ell-
drai
ned
field
s sh
ould
be
sel
ecte
d. T
he f
ield
sho
uld
be f
ree
from
wee
ds,
ston
es
an
d w
ate
rlo
gg
ed
co
nd
itio
ns.
Co
nto
ur
rid
ge
s, r
idg
es,
fie
ld
wat
erw
ays,
terr
aces
or
win
dbre
aks
shou
ld b
e in
trod
uced
to
the
field
to p
reve
nt w
ind
and
wat
er e
rosi
on.
Avo
id u
sing
a f
ield
tha
t w
as p
lant
ed t
o w
heat
the
pre
viou
s ye
ar o
r sa
me
year
.
Pla
ntin
g
Pla
ntin
g de
pth
shou
ld r
ange
from
2 to
5 c
m; r
ow s
paci
ng o
f 30
to 9
0 cm
is r
ecom
men
ded,
dep
endi
ng o
n av
aila
ble
wat
er
and
plan
ting
dens
ity o
f 70
to 9
0 kg
see
d/ha
-1 u
nder
dry
land
an
d 10
0 to
150
kg
seed
/ha-1
und
er ir
rigat
ion.
Pla
ntin
g da
te
for
win
ter
wh
ea
t is
fro
m m
id-A
pri
l to
mid
-Ju
ly,
de
pe
nd
ing
mu
ch o
n v
ern
alis
atio
n e
ffe
ct.
Th
e ir
rig
ate
d c
ulti
vars
are
p
lan
ted
fro
m e
arl
y Ju
ne
to
mid
-Au
gu
st.
Sp
rin
g w
he
at
is
pla
nte
d f
rom
Au
gu
st t
o S
ep
tem
be
r, d
ep
en
din
g o
n s
oil
moi
stur
e an
d on
war
mer
day
and
nig
ht t
empe
ratu
res
dur-
ing
grow
th a
nd r
epro
duct
ion.
The
see
d sh
ould
be
plan
ted
eve
nly
an
d s
ha
llow
ly i
n a
mo
ist,
fir
m s
ee
db
ed
. A
no
-till
pl
ante
r ca
n be
use
d fo
r se
edin
g or
a p
lant
er fi
tted
with
tine
s ca
n be
use
d fo
r pl
antin
g.
Fer
tilis
atio
n
Nitr
ogen
fer
tilis
er is
app
lied
thro
ugh
broa
dcas
ting
dire
ctly
be
fore
or
durin
g pl
antin
g, a
nd s
houl
d be
inco
rpor
ated
ligh
tly
into
the
soi
l. N
itrog
en f
ertil
iser
sho
uld
be r
educ
ed in
cas
e a
legu
me
crop
is fo
llow
ed b
y w
heat
. Exc
essi
ve fe
rtili
satio
n w
ith n
itrog
en s
houl
d be
avo
ided
ow
ing
to lu
xuria
nt v
eget
a-tiv
e gr
owth
with
the
res
ulta
nt lo
dgin
g. I
t is
adv
ised
tha
t ni
-tr
ogen
sho
uld
be a
pplie
d at
pla
ntin
g. D
irect
con
tact
bet
wee
n se
ed a
nd f
ertil
iser
sho
uld
be a
void
ed.
For
irri
gate
d w
heat
, to
tal o
f nitr
ogen
can
be
broa
dcas
ted
befo
re o
r at
pla
ntin
g on
cl
ayey
soi
l (>
25 %
cla
y).
Spl
it ap
plic
atio
ns a
re r
ecom
men
ded
for
sand
y so
ils, b
ut a
ll sh
ould
be
appl
ied
befo
re g
row
th s
tage
10–
12 (
late
tille
ring)
fo
r m
axim
um p
rodu
ctiv
ity.
Pot
assi
um d
efic
ienc
ies
are
sel-
dom
obs
erve
d in
the
whe
at p
rodu
ctio
n ar
eas,
as
the
Sou
th
Afr
ica
n s
oils
are
re
lativ
ely
ric
h in
po
tass
ium
. P
ota
ssiu
m
defic
ienc
ies
may
occ
ur u
nder
the
follo
win
g co
nditi
ons:
• hi
ghly
leac
hed
sand
y so
ils w
ith lo
w le
vels
of s
oil p
otas
-si
um
• co
ld a
nd/o
r w
et a
nd/o
r ve
ry d
ry c
ondi
tions
• ve
ry h
igh
mag
nesi
um a
nd/o
r ca
lciu
m c
onte
nt o
f soi
l.
Fer
tilis
er a
pplic
atio
ns s
houl
d be
bas
ed o
n th
e re
com
men
da-
tion
subs
eque
nt to
soi
l sam
plin
g.
Irrig
atio
n
Irrig
atio
n sc
hedu
ling
mus
t be
acco
rdin
g to
eva
pora
tion
and
need
s, a
s pe
r gr
owth
sta
ge.
It is
, ho
wev
er,
very
impo
rtan
t th
at ir
rigat
ion
is n
ot s
topp
ed to
o ea
rly a
nd th
e la
st ir
rigat
ion
mus
t be
appl
ied
whe
n th
e to
tal p
lant
is a
lmos
t dis
colo
ured
. T
his
is t
o e
nsu
re a
n e
ven
rip
en
ing
an
d t
o p
rod
uce
gra
in
with
a h
igh
perc
enta
ge p
lum
pnes
s an
d ac
cept
able
nitr
ogen
co
nte
nt.
Pro
pe
r ir
rig
atio
n s
che
du
ling
ca
n a
lso
min
imis
e lo
dgin
g an
d di
seas
e oc
curr
ence
and
opt
imis
e yi
eld
qual
ity.
The
met
hod
of ir
rigat
ion
will
dep
end
on th
e w
ater
ava
ilabi
lity
and
the
avai
labl
e irr
igat
ion
equi
pmen
t.
Wee
d co
ntro
l
Pla
ntin
g m
ust
be d
one
on a
cle
an f
ield
. T
his
will
avo
id u
n-n
ece
ssa
ry w
ee
d c
on
tro
l du
rin
g e
arl
y se
ed
ling
gro
wth
. A
s so
on a
s th
e cr
op h
as c
over
ed th
e so
il su
rfac
e, th
e ch
ance
s of
wee
d to
dev
elop
are
min
imal
. How
ever
, any
wee
ds d
urin
g se
edlin
g st
age
shou
ld b
e er
adic
ated
. W
eeds
can
be
con-
trol
led
chem
ical
ly, m
echa
nica
lly o
r by
any
pos
sibl
e m
eans
. T
he m
ain
inte
rest
bei
ng to
avo
id r
educ
tion
of y
ield
by
wee
ds
sin
ce t
he
y co
mp
ete
hig
hly
with
th
e d
esi
red
cro
p f
or
soil
nutr
ient
s, w
ater
and
ligh
t fur
ther
mor
e se
rvin
g as
car
riers
for
dis
ea
se a
nd
pe
sts.
Me
cha
nic
al c
on
tro
l ne
ed
s to
be
do
ne
judi
ciou
sly
to a
void
see
dlin
g in
jurie
s.
Pes
t con
trol
Wh
ea
t is
su
sce
ptib
le t
o v
ari
ou
s ki
nd
s o
f p
est
s th
at
fee
d o
n t
he
un
de
rgro
un
d a
nd
ab
ove
gro
un
d p
art
s o
f th
e p
lan
t,
nega
tivel
y af
fect
ing
the
vege
tativ
e gr
owth
, flo
wer
ing,
pod
fil
ling
, w
ate
r a
nd
nu
trie
nt
cycl
e o
f th
e p
lan
t. C
on
tinu
ou
s da
mag
e w
ithou
t tr
eatm
ent
resu
lts in
red
uced
yie
ld o
r ze
ro
yiel
ds.
Maj
or p
ests
are
Am
eric
an b
ollw
orm
, ap
hids
(gr
een
an
d b
row
n),
bla
ck m
aiz
e b
ee
tle
, b
lack
sa
nd
mit
e,
fals
e ch
inch
bug
and
mite
. The
follo
win
g cu
ltura
l con
trol
mec
ha-
nism
s ca
n be
use
d; p
rope
r cr
op r
otat
ion,
bio
logi
cal c
ontr
ol,
the
use
of
pe
st r
esi
sta
nt
culti
vars
, w
ee
d r
em
ova
l, p
rop
er
soil
prep
arat
ion,
inoc
ulat
ion
with
a c
owpe
a gr
oup
stra
in o
f rh
izob
ium
, in
terc
ropp
ing
and
avoi
d to
o m
uch
moi
stur
e or
ve
ry h
um
id c
on
diti
on
s, e
spe
cia
lly d
uri
ng
th
e f
low
eri
ng
or
harv
estin
g pe
riod.
