Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
BiologyEighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Chapter 12
The Cell Cycle
Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division
• The ability of organisms to reproduce best
distinguishes living things from nonliving matter
• The continuity of life is based on the
reproduction of cells, or cell division
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-1
• In unicellular organisms, division of one cell
reproduces the entire organism
• Multicellular organisms depend on cell division
for:
– Development from a fertilized cell
– Growth
– Repair
• Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle,
the life of a cell from formation to its own
divisionCopyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-2
100 µm 200 µm 20 µm
(a) Reproduction (b) Growth anddevelopment
(c) Tissue renewal
Fig. 12-2a
100 µm
(a) Reproduction
Fig. 12-2b
200 µm
(b) Growth and development
Fig. 12-2c
20 µm
(c) Tissue renewal
Concept 12.1: Cell division results in geneticallyidentical daughter cells
• Most cell division results in daughter cells with
identical genetic information, DNA
• A special type of division produces nonidentical
daughter cells (gametes, or sperm and egg
cells)
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material
• All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s
genome
• A genome can consist of a single DNA
molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or a
number of DNA molecules (common in
eukaryotic cells)
• DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-3
20 µm
• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus
• Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have
two sets of chromosomes
• Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs)
have half as many chromosomes as somatic
cells
• Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of
chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that
condenses during cell division
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division
• In preparation for cell division, DNA is
replicated and the chromosomes condense
• Each duplicated chromosome has two sister
chromatids, which separate during cell
division
• The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the
duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-40.5 µm Chromosomes
Chromosomeduplication(including DNAsynthesis)
Chromo-some arm
Centromere
Sisterchromatids
DNA molecules
Separation ofsister chromatids
Centromere
Sister chromatids
• Eukaryotic cell division consists of:
– Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
– Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
• Gametes are produced by a variation of cell
division called meiosis
• Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that
have only one set of chromosomes, half as
many as the parent cell
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Concept 12.2: The mitotic phase alternates withinterphase in the cell cycle
• In 1882, the German anatomist Walther
Flemming developed dyes to observe
chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consists of
– Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
– Interphase (cell growth and copying of
chromosomes in preparation for cell division)
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be
divided into subphases:
– G1 phase (“first gap”)
– S phase (“synthesis”)
– G2 phase (“second gap”)
• The cell grows during all three phases, but
chromosomes are duplicated only during the S
phase
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-5
S(DNA synthesis)
G1
G2
• Mitosis is conventionally divided into five
phases:
– Prophase
– Prometaphase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
• Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase
BioFlix: Mitosis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-6
G2 of Interphase
Centrosomes(with centriolepairs)
Chromatin(duplicated)
Nucleolus Nuclearenvelope
Plasmamembrane
Early mitoticspindle
Aster Centromere
Chromosome, consistingof two sister chromatids
Prophase Prometaphase
Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope
Nonkinetochoremicrotubules
Kinetochore Kinetochoremicrotubule
Metaphase
Metaphaseplate
Spindle Centrosome atone spindle pole
Anaphase
Daughterchromosomes
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Cleavagefurrow
Nucleolusforming
Nuclearenvelopeforming
Prophase
Fig. 12-6a
PrometaphaseG2 of Interphase
Fig. 12-6b
PrometaphaseProphaseG2 of Interphase
Nonkinetochoremicrotubules
Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope
Aster CentromereEarly mitoticspindle
Chromatin(duplicated)
Centrosomes(with centriolepairs)
Nucleolus Nuclearenvelope
Plasmamembrane
Chromosome, consistingof two sister chromatids
Kinetochore Kinetochoremicrotubule
Fig. 12-6c
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
Fig. 12-6d
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
Cleavage
furrow
Nucleolus
forming
Metaphase
plate
Centrosome at
one spindle poleSpindle
Daughter
chromosomesNuclear
envelope
forming
The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
• The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of
microtubules that controls chromosome
movement during mitosis
• During prophase, assembly of spindle
microtubules begins in the centrosome, the
microtubule organizing center
• The centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of
the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from
themCopyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• An aster (a radial array of short microtubules)
extends from each centrosome
• The spindle includes the centrosomes, the
spindle microtubules, and the asters
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• During prometaphase, some spindle
microtubules attach to the kinetochores of
chromosomes and begin to move the
chromosomes
• At metaphase, the chromosomes are all lined
up at the metaphase plate, the midway point
between the spindle’s two poles
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-7
Microtubules Chromosomes
Sisterchromatids
Aster
Metaphaseplate
Centrosome
Kineto-chores
Kinetochoremicrotubules
Overlappingnonkinetochoremicrotubules
Centrosome 1 µm
0.5 µm
• In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and
move along the kinetochore microtubules
toward opposite ends of the cell
• The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at
their kinetochore ends
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-8
EXPERIMENT
Kinetochore
RESULTS
CONCLUSION
Spindlepole
Mark
Chromosomemovement
Kinetochore
MicrotubuleMotorprotein
Chromosome
Tubulinsubunits
Fig. 12-8a
Kinetochore
Spindlepole
Mark
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
Fig. 12-8b
Kinetochore
MicrotubuleTubulinSubunits
Chromosome
Chromosomemovement
Motorprotein
CONCLUSION
• Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite
poles overlap and push against each other,
elongating the cell
• In telophase, genetically identical daughter
nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process
known as cleavage, forming a cleavage
furrow
• In plant cells, a cell plate forms during
cytokinesis
Animation: Cytokinesis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Video: Sea Urchin (Time Lapse)
Video: Animal Mitosis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-9
Cleavage furrow100 µm
Contractile ring ofmicrofilaments
Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
Vesiclesformingcell plate
Wall ofparent cell
Cell plate
Daughter cells
New cell wall
1 µm
Cleavage furrow
Fig. 12-9a
100 µm
Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)
Contractile ring ofmicrofilaments
Fig. 12-9b
Daughter cells
(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
Vesiclesformingcell plate
Wall ofparent cell
New cell wallCell plate
1 µm
Fig. 12-10
Chromatincondensing
Metaphase Anaphase TelophasePrometaphase
Nucleus
Prophase1 2 3 54
Nucleolus Chromosomes Cell plate10 µm
Fig. 12-10a
Nucleus
Prophase1
Nucleolus
Chromatin
condensing
Fig. 12-10b
Prometaphase2
Chromosomes
Fig. 12-10c
Metaphase3
Fig. 12-10d
Anaphase4
Fig. 12-10e
Telophase5
Cell plate10 µm
Binary Fission
• Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce
by a type of cell division called binary fission
• In binary fission, the chromosome replicates
(beginning at the origin of replication), and
the two daughter chromosomes actively move
apart
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-11-1
Origin ofreplication
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cellBacterialchromosome
Plasmamembrane
Cell wall
Fig. 12-11-2
Origin ofreplication
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cellBacterialchromosome
Plasmamembrane
Cell wall
Origin Origin
Fig. 12-11-3
Origin ofreplication
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cellBacterialchromosome
Plasmamembrane
Cell wall
Origin Origin
Fig. 12-11-4
Origin ofreplication
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cellBacterialchromosome
Plasmamembrane
Cell wall
Origin Origin
The Evolution of Mitosis
• Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes,
mitosis probably evolved from binary fission
• Certain protists exhibit types of cell division that
seem intermediate between binary fission and
mitosis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-12
(a) Bacteria
Bacterial
chromosome
Chromosomes
Microtubules
Intact nuclear
envelope(b) Dinoflagellates
Kinetochore
microtubule
Intact nuclear
envelope
(c) Diatoms and yeasts
Kinetochore
microtubule
Fragments ofnuclear envelope
(d) Most eukaryotes
Fig. 12-12ab
Bacterial
chromosome
Chromosomes
Microtubules
(a) Bacteria
(b) Dinoflagellates
Intact nuclearenvelope
Fig. 12-12cd
Kinetochoremicrotubule
(c) Diatoms and yeasts
Kinetochoremicrotubule
(d) Most eukaryotes
Fragments of nuclear envelope
Intact nuclearenvelope
Concept 12.3: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system
• The frequency of cell division varies with the
type of cell
• These cell cycle differences result from
regulation at the molecular level
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Evidence for Cytoplasmic Signals
• The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific
chemical signals present in the cytoplasm
• Some evidence for this hypothesis comes from
experiments in which cultured mammalian cells
at different phases of the cell cycle were fused
to form a single cell with two nuclei
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-13
Experiment 1 Experiment 2
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
S G1 M G1
M MSS
When a cell in theS phase was fused with a cell in G1, the G1
nucleus immediatelyentered the Sphase—DNA was synthesized.
When a cell in theM phase was fused with a cell in G1, the G1
nucleus immediatelybegan mitosis—aspindle formed andchromatin condensed,even though thechromosome had notbeen duplicated.
The Cell Cycle Control System
• The sequential events of the cell cycle are
directed by a distinct cell cycle control
system, which is similar to a clock
• The cell cycle control system is regulated by
both internal and external controls
• The clock has specific checkpoints where the
cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is
received
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-14
SG1
M checkpoint
G2M
Controlsystem
G1 checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
• For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be
the most important one
• If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1
checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G2,
and M phases and divide
• If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal,
it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing
state called the G0 phase
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-15
G1
G0
G1 checkpoint
(a) Cell receives a go-aheadsignal
G1
(b) Cell does not receive ago-ahead signal
The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
• Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in
cell cycle control: cyclins and cyclin-
dependent kinases (Cdks)
• The activity of cyclins and Cdks fluctuates
during the cell cycle
• MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a cyclin-
Cdk complex that triggers a cell’s passage past
the G2 checkpoint into the M phase
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-16
Time (min)
300200 4001000
1
2
3
4
5 30
500
0
20
10
RESULTS
Fig. 12-17
M G1 S G2 M G1 S G2 M G1
MPF activity
Cyclinconcentration
Time
(a) Fluctuation of MPF activity and cyclin concentration during
the cell cycle
Degradedcyclin
Cdk
CdkG2
checkpointCyclin is
degraded
CyclinMPF
(b) Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle
Cyc
lin a
cc
um
ula
tion
Fig. 12-17a
Time
(a) Fluctuation of MPF activity and cyclin concentration duringthe cell cycle
Cyclinconcentration
MPF activity
M M MSSG1 G1 G1G2 G2
Fig. 12-17b
Cyclin isdegraded
Cdk
MPF
CdkG2
checkpoint
Degradedcyclin
Cyclin
(b) Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle
Cyclin
accu
mu
latio
n
Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints
• An example of an internal signal is that
kinetochores not attached to spindle
microtubules send a molecular signal that
delays anaphase
• Some external signals are growth factors,
proteins released by certain cells that stimulate
other cells to divide
• For example, platelet-derived growth factor
(PDGF) stimulates the division of human
fibroblast cells in culture
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-18
Petriplate
Scalpels
Cultured fibroblasts
Without PDGFcells fail to divide
With PDGFcells prolifer-ate
10 µm
• Another example of external signals is density-
dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells
stop dividing
• Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage
dependence, in which they must be attached
to a substratum in order to divide
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-19
Anchorage dependence
Density-dependent inhibition
Density-dependent inhibition
(a) Normal mammalian cells (b) Cancer cells
25 µm25 µm
• Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent
inhibition nor anchorage dependence
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells
• Cancer cells do not respond normally to the
body’s control mechanisms
• Cancer cells may not need growth factors to
grow and divide:
– They may make their own growth factor
– They may convey a growth factor’s signal
without the presence of the growth factor
– They may have an abnormal cell cycle control
system
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell
by a process called transformation
• Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal
cells within otherwise normal tissue
• If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the
lump is called a benign tumor
• Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues
and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to
other parts of the body, where they may form
secondary tumorsCopyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-20
Tumor
A tumor grows
from a single
cancer cell.
Glandulartissue
Lymphvessel
Bloodvessel
Metastatictumor
Cancercell
Cancer cells
invade neigh-
boring tissue.
Cancer cells spreadto other parts ofthe body.
Cancer cells maysurvive and
establish a new
tumor in another
part of the body.
1 2 3 4
Fig. 12-UN1
Telophase andCytokinesis
Anaphase
Metaphase
Prometaphase
Prophase
MITOTIC (M) PHASE
Cytokinesis
Mitosis
SG1
G2
Fig. 12-UN2
Fig. 12-UN3
Fig. 12-UN4
Fig. 12-UN5
Fig. 12-UN6
You should now be able to:
1. Describe the structural organization of the
prokaryotic genome and the eukaryotic
genome
2. List the phases of the cell cycle; describe the
sequence of events during each phase
3. List the phases of mitosis and describe the
events characteristic of each phase
4. Draw or describe the mitotic spindle, including
centrosomes, kinetochore microtubules,
nonkinetochore microtubules, and astersCopyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
5. Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants
6. Describe the process of binary fission in
bacteria and explain how eukaryotic mitosis
may have evolved from binary fission
7. Explain how the abnormal cell division of
cancerous cells escapes normal cell cycle
controls
8. Distinguish between benign, malignant, and
metastatic tumors
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings