The Gravitational Constant: Generalized Gravitational Theories and Experiments
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Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry - Vol. 141
The Gravitational Constant: Generalized Gravitational Theories and Experiments
edited by
Venzo de Sabbata University of Bologna, Italy
George T. Gillies University of Virginia, U.S.A.
and
Vitaly N. Melnikov Moscow University, Russia
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on The Gravitational Constant: Generalized Gravitational Theories and Experiments Erice, Italy April3Q-May 10, 2003
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-1-4020-1956-2 ISBN 978-1-4020-2242-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-2242-5
Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, P.O. Box 17, 3300 M Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
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All Rights Reserved © 2004 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2004 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 2004 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
CONTENTS
Preface ..................................................... vii
Welcome ...................................................... ix
Memorial day: Peter G. Bergmann ............................ xiii
Screening and Absorption of Gravitation in Pre-Relativistic and Relativistic Theories .................... 1
Horst-Heino von Borzeszkowski, T. Chrobok and Hans-Jurgen Treder
Conformal Frames and D-Dimensional Gravity ................... 39 Kirill A.Bronnikov and Vitaly N.Melnikov
Graviton Exchange and the Gravitational Constant ............. 65 Michael J.Clark
Some base for Quantum Gravity .. : ............................. 81 Venzo de Sabbata and Luca Ronchetti
Brane-inspired models in Gravitation and Cosmology .......... 113 Dmitri Gal'tsov
Experimental test of a Time-Temperature formulation of the Uncertainty Principle ................................ 139
George T.Gillies and S.W.Allison
The Newtonian Gravitational Constant: Present Status and Directions for future Research .......................... 149
George T.Gillies and C.S.Unnikrishnan
Toward testing the Fundamental physics by SNIa data ......... 157 Wlodzimierz Godlowski, Marek Szydlowski and Wojciech czaja
Investigation of Schmutzer's Exact External spherically Symmetric Static solution for a Central Body within the framework of the 5-Dimensional Projective Unified Field theory ...................................................... 193
Alexander Gorbatsievich
On exact solutions in Multidimensional Gravity with antisymmetric forms ......................................... 205
Vladimir D.Ivashchuk
50 Gravity and the discrepant G measurements ................ 233 Jean-Paul Mbelek
v
vi
2-component cosmological models with perfect fluid and scalar field: exact solutions ........................... 247
Vitaly N.Melnikov and V.R.Gravilov
Constraints on Non-Newtonian Gravity from recent Casimir Force measurements .................................. 269
Vladimir M.Mostepanenko
Searching for Scalar-Tensor Gravity with Lunar Laser Ranging ......................................... 289
Kenneth Nordtvedt
Is a hypothetical Long Range Spin Interaction Observable with a Laboratory Detector? ..................... 313
Rogers C.Ritter and George T.Gillies
Prospects for a Space-Based determination of G wi th an error below 1 PPM .................................... 331
Alvin J.Sanders and George T.Gillies
Projective Unified Field Theory revisited and adapted to the new measured values (WMAP). New results refer to approximate static interior and exterior solution of a spherically symmetric perfect fluid sphere with applications to celestial bodies, Einstein effects with particular treatment of the perihelion shift of Mercury including the quadrupole moment of the sun ............................ 341
Ernst Schmutzer
The Interface of Quantum Mechanics and Gravity .............. 381 C.S.Unnikrishnan
Quaternionic Program ........................................ 395 Alexander P.Yefremov
Subject Index ............................................... 411
PREFACE
This XVIII Course of the International School of Gravitation
and Cosmology held in Erice from April 30 to May 10, 2003, has
been very successful and has provided an up-to-date
understanding of the progress and current problems on the
Gravitational constant both on "Generalized Gravitational
Theories and Experiments" either in Laboratory with Casimir
force measurements, or in space at solar system distances and
in Cosmological observations.
We have had a qualified participation of more than fifty ASI
research-workers on different fields (theoretical and
experimental physicists, astrophysicists, astronomers,
cosmologists from a variety of backgrounds, mathematicians)
coming from various NATO and partner NATO countries (as, for
instance, Belarius, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Israel, Italy,
Kyrgyzistan, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Russia, Turkey, U.K.,
USA) .
We had lectures on different aspects of the state and
prediction of unified theories of the physical interactions
including gravitation as a cardinal link, on the role of
experimental gravitation and observational cosmology in
discriminating between them, on the problem of precise
measurements and stability of fundamental physical constants in
space and time, and of the gravitational
particular.
constant in
Thus we have had timely lectures in recent advances in unified
and scalar-tensor theories, theories in diverse dimensions and
their observational windows, gravitational experiments in
space, rotational and torsional effects in gravity, basic
problems in cosmology, early universe as an arena for testing
unified models; basis for Quantum Gravity, brane-inspired
models in Gravitation and Cosmology.
vii
viii
Moreover we have considered cosmological variations of G,
absorption and screening in prerelativistic and relativistic
theories, constraints of Non-Newtonian Gravity from the recent
Casimir Force measurements. Search for scalar-tensor Gravi ty
with Lunar laser ranging. Special attention has been paid to
the increasing role of fundamental gravitational experiments in
space, the role of basic standards and determination of
cosmological parameters, prediction of 5-dimensional projective
unified field theory on cosmological, astrophysical and quantum
effects, long range spin interaction, space-based determination
of G, interface of quantum mechanics and gravity, Quaternion
program.
Besides the theoretical aspect, a large part of the Course was
devoted to the examination of laboratory experiments and space
experiments for the measurement of big G and tests of the
equivalence principle including the measurement of big G using
a superconductor gravimeter.
We wish to thank all the lecturers and seminar speakers who did
some much time to make the School successful, and all
participants for contributing to the very scientific and human
atmosphere.
Venzo de Sabbata
(Director of the School)
Erice, 1 May 2003
WELCOME
Only some points before the Gillies lecture
It is a pleasure to welcome you all at this eighteenth
Course of the International School of Cosmology and Gravitation.
The Director of Ettore Majorana Center for Scientific
Culture Professor Antonino Zichichi, who cannot be present at this
moment, (maybe he will come some days) has entrusted me with the
welcome address on his behalf.
I thank all lecturers, who have accepted our
invitations to come to Erice to give lectures (whitout any
renumeration, as is usual in this School), from their different
points of view, on the problem of Gravitational constant.
As you know from the poster, we will present different
aspects of the state and predictions of unified theories of
physical interactions including gravitation as a cardinal link,
the role of experimental gravitation and observational bosmology
in discriminating between them, the problem of precise measurement
and stability of fundamental physical constants in space and time,
the gravitational constant in particular, the basis for non
Newtonian gravity, the constraints on non Newtonian gravity from
the recent Casimir force measurements, gravity and non locality,
neutrinos and gravitation, absorption and screening in
ix
x
relativistic theories, temporal and spatial dependence of
empirical gravitational constant, charges and fundamental
constants in unified theory, torsional effects in gravity,
observational windows of extra dimensions and unified models,
searching for scalar-tensor gravity with lunar laser ranging,
motions of a precise torsion pendulum, early universe as an
arena for testing unified models, 5-dimensional projective
unified field theory for cosmological astrophysical and quantum
effects, cosmic microwave background anysotropy as test of
variability of fundamental constants and so on.
I thank all lecturers also, because they accepted
as far as they were able, to be present the whole time
and to participate in all discussions, which certainly
will arise among all participants.
In fact this is one of the important tasks of these Courses.
As perhaps many participants already know, because they were
present in previous Courses, the atmosphere of the School is
very friendly, and exchanges of ideas can occur quite freely
among all participants including lecturers.
So we will have a very broad spectrum of subjects, of which
at first sight each has sufficient material to constitute a Course
by itself. We have considered it more important to exhibit the
various theories that attempt to give some answer to the many
problem that we have in our hands and to exchange information
on the latest developments discussing future prospects.
Xl
I really hope that this Course with all these different topics
serves to make some further progress on this fascinating subject.
Before asking Professor Gillies to address the meeting, some few
points regarding the organization of the lectures:
as you can see from the tentative time-table, we will have five
lectures each day, three in the morning and two in the afternoon
(with a break, both in the morning and in the afternoon,
for coffee). Every lecture will last no more than fifty minutes,
and after every lecture there will be a few minutes of discussion.
For lunch and dinner you can choose any of the restaurants
approwed for the School (you will see the list near the entrance),
signing a list marked "Cosmology" after every meal and
either "lunch" or "dinner". You have to pay only for beverages.
Now, before that Professor Gillies will address the meeting,
we like to commemorate Peter G.Bergmann.
Peter G.Bergmann (24 March 1915 - 19 October 2002)
Erice, 1 May 2003
Memorial day
Peter was native of Germany: he left the Germany of Hitler in
1933 and completed his doctorate (theoretical Physics) in Prague
1936. Worked with Einstein in Princeton 1936-1941 on unitary field
theories. After world war II became a professor at Syracuse
University in 1947. He was also connected with New York University
Co-founder of International Committee on General Relativity
and Gravitation (1959), and of the International Society on
General Relativity and Gravitation (1973). Author of several books
and of numerous articles. Many lectures, summer Schools, meetings
throughout the world.
In Italy: Sestriere 1958 Erice 1975, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1985,
Napoli 1983, 1984, Bologna 1984.
This is a bare curriculum that he give to me in 1985, hand
written. You can have this manuscript if you like.
Now every people know how deep were and are the works of Bergmann
on general relativity and in developing Einstein theory of
gravitation starting from the remote 1936 when he went from Prague
to the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study to work with
Einstein. In fact Peter come to Prague in 1933 as a refugee from
Hitler's Germany where as a Jew he could not have completed his
academic training. He had read some scientific publications of
Einstein and suddenly he realizes that just this kind of
xiii
xiv
theoretical research he would like to do. So he wrote to Einstein
asking to accept him as a collaborator (but he wrote at a wrong
address). As after one month there was no reply, he wrote again
enclosing a copy of a dissertation. This time he received an
answer in which Einstein wrote that he would be glad tJ talk with
him. At that time Bergmann was unaware that Einstein in the
meantime had written to Prof.Philipp Frank (the Director of the
Institute of Theoretical Physics in Prague) asking him about
Bergmann. So when Bergmann arrived in Princeton he began to work
with Einstein. He in fact worked with Einstein from 1936 to 1941
at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in an attempt to
provide a geometrical unified field theory of gravitation and
electromagnetism. Within this period he wrote two article
together: A.Einstein and P.G.Bergmann in Ann.Math. 12, 65 (1938);
and A.Einstein, V.Bargmann and P.G.Bergmann in Th. von Karman
anniversary volume 212 (1941)
In 1942, Bergmann published the book "Introduction to the Theory
of Relativity" which included a foreword by Albert Einstein. This
book is a reference for the subject, ei ther as a textbook for
classroom use or for individual study. Einstein said in his
foreword: "Bergmann's book seems to me to satisfy a definite need.
much effort has gone into making this book logically and
pedagogically satisfactory and Bergmann ha? spent many hours with
me which were devoted to this end". Einstein said also in this
foreword that if general relativity has played a rather modest
role in the correlation of empirical facts and has contributed
very little to understanding of quantum phenomena (was the year
1942) it is quite possible that some of the results of the
general
nature
relativity such as general covariance of
to and
difficulties
processes.
their non-linearity may
encountered at present
help
in atomic
xv
the lavls of
overcome the
and nuclear
Many of the important works of Peter Bergmann are in fact
concerned with the quantization of field theories which are
covariant with respect to general coordinate transformations. As
to these points, Bergmann's article "General Relativity" in the
volume V of the "Encyclopaedia of Physics" was a pionier work.
Of course we cannot go through all the Bergmann's works but, as we
have said, we like to mention the great contribution that he has
made to the School of Cosmology and Gravitation in Erice from its
inception in 1974: being ever present and always discussing every
argument in great depth, always coming to the point and clarifying
every aspects of the problem under discussion. For instance in the
sixth Course of the School (1979) he discussed "the fading world
point" which deals with the nature of space-time and of its
elements, the world points. Other important discussions were on
the "uni tary field theories", during the eighth Course in 1983
where he discussed various unitary theories such as Kaluza-Klein,
scalar-tensor theories and projective theories. During the ninth
Course (1985) devoted to "Topological properties of space-time"
and during the tenth Course of Schoo,l in 1987 devoted to
"Gravi tational Measurements" Bergmann discussed 'griilvi tation at
spatial infinity' and the 'observables in general relativity'
where he showed in a very elegant way the profound difference of
the notion of observable in general relati vi ty from the
corresponding concept in special relativity (or in Newtonian
physics).
XVI
So Bergmann really has been the centre, the fulcrum of all
discussions in all the Courses of our International School of
Cosmology and Gravitation. We like to remember also that from the
early fifties onwards, one of the main goals and challenging tasks
for Bergmann was the quantization of the gravitational field. The
difficulties which he faced and solved in dealing with the full
non~linear properties of Einstein'stheory and with
non~perturbative approaches
collaborators investigated
were enormous.
the canonical
Bergmann and his
(i.e. Hamiltonian)
formalism of classical and quantum covariant field theories.
These covariant field theories of general type of the theory of
relativity are brought into the canonical form and then quantized.
These works are of the year 1948 and 1949 [Phys.Rev. 12, 680
(1949) and (with Johanna H.M.Brunings) Rev.Mod.Phys.n, 480
(1949)], and constitute the basis of the modern researches in this
field. They are followed by other important works [Phys.Rev.iU,
1018 (1951) with James L.Anderson] on the constraints in covariant
field theories and the application to the cases of gauge and
coordinate invariance specializing the problem by assuming a
quadratic lagrangian in the differentiated quantities; moreover a
beautiful work on 'Spin and Angular Momentum in G.R.' [Phys.Rev . .fi2., 400 (1953)] in presence of a semiclassical Dirac field.The problem
of origin of constraints is considered alsp in another important
work with Irwin Goldberg [Phys.Rev. 98, 531 (1954)] where there is
analyzed the group~theoretical significance of the Dirac bracket
in order to prepare the ground for the utilization of the Dirac
bracket for the quantization of generally covariant theories.
XVll
Once again we cannot describe all of Bergmann work here but we
would like to stress the fact that Bergmann clarified and made
profound contributions in the different quantization programs
based on the canonical formalism. As Bergmann himself said, "the
resul ting theory would give us answers to such questions as the
nature of a fully quantized geometry of space-time , the role of
world points in this geometry, the 'softening-up of the light
cone', and the effect of this not only on the divergences
associated with the gravitational field but with all other fields
as well".
Really Peter Gabriel Bergmann is admirable both as scientist and
as a man of great culture and humanity.
All people in Erice remember for ever his extraordinary
presence together with his wife Margot.
One of the most precious aspect of Peter was his entire kindness as
a human being. He was always courteous and gentle, always, in
every, every, circunstance.
As professor Komar said (Art Komar and his wife Alice were
very close to him and they had liked to be present during that
ceremony but were prevented for some health disease) Peter must be
remembered not only as a brillant physicist but also for his great
and total kindness.
But now I like to give a good new: through Professor Komar I
know that just before to the death he knew that the American
xviii
Physical Society awarded their first medal ever for gravitational
reseaech. This medal was awarded jointly to Peter G.Bergmann and
John A.Wheeler. So Peter was told about the joint award and knew
that he had been awarded this honour he so well deserved, just a
short while before the bad fall that he took from which he never
regained consciousness.
As a little homage of our School to Peter, we propose to dedicate
from now all the future Courses to Bergmann calling our School
THE INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF COSMOLOGY AND GRAVITATION
"PETER G.bERGMANN"
Now I invite all of you to a minute of silence.
Now let me to give a last comment: Peter was very sensible to the
problem of peace: in fact in the years '75 and '77, (at that time,
if I remember well, he was the President of the International
Committee of General Relativity and Gravitation) Peter gave the
best, during the Course of our School with Mercier (the secretary
of the International Society of General Relativity and
Gravitation) Hehl, Schmutzer, Rosen, Ivanenko, Sokolov, to
reunite, to unify again the International Committee that was
broken for Some political reason, and he was successtul. r~ay be
that Professor Schmutzer likes to give' some words on that
argument.
Words in commemoration of Peter G. Bergmann
Much was said and has still to be said to pay tribute to Peter G. Bergmann's scientific work and his influence on younger generations of physicists. Allow me to add here some short, very personal sentences. also on behalf of my colleagues forming till 1991 the Potsdam-Babelsberg group ofre1ativists founded by Hans-JUrgen Treder.
Peter Bergmann had a great influence on my colleagues' and my education and later scientific work. As to his books and papers that had the greatest fascination for us, I want to mention the text book "Introduction to the Theory of Relativity" , the article "General Re1ati vity" in volume V of the "Encyclopedia of Physics" and the pioneering works on the quantization of generally covariant field theories.
Aside from Peter Bergmann's substantial impact on theoretical physics and his great role as a teacher, there is still another aspect that was most important to us. Peter Bergmann will be remembered by us for his lasting friendly support of our Potsdam-Babelsberg gfC'Up which helped us to join the international community of relativists and to take part in its work over decades.
Before 1989, Peter Bergmann and his wife Margot were several times guests of our institute, the Einstein Laboratory for Theoretical Physics. Vividly I remember the stimulating discussions on physics. culture and politics in the Einstein house in Caputh (at that time a part of our institute), at which Peter Bergmann and his wife stayed, and later discussions during the Courses on Cosmology and Gravitation here in Erice. With sincere gratitude, we also recall that. after the unification of Germany in 1990, when - to say it in Peter's own words - the situation throughout the academic institutions of the former GDR was grim, he together with Venzo de Sabbata and Antonio Zichichi became very active to reach that we could continue our scientific work.
Although Peter Bergmann was compelled by the Nazis to leave Germany, he was ready to help many colleagues in Germany after the Second World War, in West and East. I think that by Peter's attitude and friendship we were strengthened in our efforts to do our best to prevent that the outrageous German history repeats.
Those who had the privilege of knowing Peter personally will always remember his kindness. modesty and integrity. We shall miss him.
Horst-Heino v. Borzeszkowski Technical University Berlin, Institute of Theoretical Physics
xix
xx
Some History of the Career of Prof Peter G. Bergmann
After coming to the United States in 1936, Dr. Bergmann joined Albert Einstein
at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton, New Jersey. His contemporaries who
also worked with Einstein included Leopold lnfeld, Valentine Bargman, and others.
Among the papers Bergmann published during this time was "On a Generalization of
Kaluza's Theory of Electricity," Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 39, No.3, p. 683 (July
1938), with Einstein as the co-author.
In 1941, following his time at the Institute, Bergmann joined the faculty of Black
Mountain College, near Ashville, North Carolina. Although the college no longer exists,
it is remembered as an interesting experiment in higher education in the United States. It
was founded in 1933 and included among its faculty several artists, writers and thinkers
who were prominent in their fields at the time. Einstein was a member of the College's
Board of Advisors. During his one year term there, Bergmann was the only faculty
member specializing in physics. The college had a very informal class structure and it
sought to introduce the students to many kinds of innovations, both scholastically and
architecturally, including the first construction and use of Buck minster Fuller's Geodesic
Dome.
Immediately after his time at Black Mountain, Bergmann moved to Lehigh
University in Pennsylvania, where he joined the facuIty of the Department of Physics.
He was with them full time for a period of two years and then began to spend an
increasing fraction of his time on war-related research during the period from 1944 to
1946. While at Lehigh, he made a lasting impression on several of the undergraduates
xxi
attending college there, including Lee Iacocca, who is familiar to many for his terms as
President ofFord Motor Co. and Chrysler Motors, Inc. in the U.S. In fact, in his
autobiography, Iacocca mentions some anecdotes about his various interactions with
Bergmann.
It was also during this time that Bergmann's famous book, "Introduction to the
Theory of Relativity," was published by Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York (1946). Einstein
wrote a brief Foreword for this book, and in it he included the comment, "This book
gives an exhaustive treatment of the main features of the theory of relativity which. is not
only systematic and logically complete, but also presents adequately its empirical basis."
It is hard to imagine how one could receive any greater praise for his efforts than these
words offered by Einstein himself.
The bulk of Bergmann's career, from 1947 to 1982, was spent at Syracuse
University in New York. He founded the Relativity Group at Syracuse and worked with
many faculty and students there over the years. Much of his effort there was focused on
attempts to reconcile quantum mechanics with gravity via the introduction of a quantized
theory of gravity. He and many others hoped that such a step would help lead towards
the creation of a unified field theory, which of course was the great quest already begun
during his time with Einstein. Characteristic of his publications in those days was his
paper with 1. Goldberg, "Dirac Bracket Transformations in Phase Space," published in
the Physical Review, Vol. 98, No.2, p. 531 (April 15, 1955).
During his years at Syracuse, and thereafter during his retirement appointment at
New York University, Bergmann maintained a heavy involvement in gravitational
physics and especially in the international aspects of promoting research in it. He did this
XXll
by lending his support and credibility to many different scientific conferences on general
relativity, including the Texas Symposia on Relativistic Astrophysics, the International
Conferences on General Relativity and Gravitation ("GRG" Conferences), and of course
the International Schools of Cosmology and Gravitation held at the Ettore Majorana
Centre in Erice, Italy. He was a tireless traveler to such conferences, and was often
accompanied by his wife Margot.
It is extremely fitting that just prior to his death at the age of 87, he and John
Wheeler were jointly awarded the inaugural Einstein Prize in Gravitational Physics,
granted under the auspices of the American Physical Society. Indeed, as the citation of
the award says, he has been an " ... inspiration to genpr!ltions of researchers in general
relativity."
Dear colleagues,
We heard a lot already here about the outstanding scientist and a man of wonderful human features and great culture, about Peter Gabriel Bergmann. That is why I will dwell upon only on my personal feelings from meetings and contacts with Peter's scientific works.
My first personal meeting with Prof. Peter Bergmann was here in Erice in 1987 at the 10th course of the International School of Cosmology and Gravitation "Gravitational Measurements, Fundamental Interactions and Constants", of which I was a director. After that course the'new area appeared - gravitational relativistic metrology, which influenced very much a f1ll1her development of precise space-time measurements, gravitational wave detectors networks, studies of fundamental physical constants. role of gravity in unified models etc. Peter presented a very nice and enlightening talk on "Observables in General Relativity", which was well received by the audience.
Of course, my knowledge of his works dates to more earlier times, when we studied relativistic theory of gravitation and problems of inter-relations between general relativity and quantum fenomena in particular. First of all. I had to mention his book "Introduction to the Theory of Relativity" (with the foreword of Albert Einstein) as a good book used by many relativists. but what was even more important to us in the end of sixties and later, was his contributions to quan1ization of covariant field theories, canonical formalism of classical and quantum field theories, Dirac brackets etc.
It was a time when these problems were intensively studied in Russia due to pioneering works of K.P. Staniukovich. D.O. Ivanenko. M.A. Markov and later ofYa.B. Zeldovich. A.D. Sakharov and their colleagues and students. which became famous afterwards also.
In our group created by Prof. Staniukovich in the Russian (USSR) State Committee for Standards we started these investigations in 1967, inspired by ideas of unification of micro and macro-world fen omena in such important lie Ids as particle-like exact solutions of self-consistent systems of fields including gravitational one, quantum cosmology with fields and the cosmological constant, quantization of fields in a given gravitational background, self-consistent treatment of quantum effects in cosmology. quantization of the gravitational field itself etc. Many fundamental works were done in this group by such well known now scientists as Profs. Yu.N. Barabanenkov, V.A. Belinski, K.A.Bronnikov. M.B. Mensky, G.A.Vilkovysky. V.D.lvashchuk, V.R.Gavrilov etc. And in all these studies we used many results of Peter Bergmann. J. Wheeler. Bryce Dewitt and other outstanding scientists.
After 1987 I was here in Erice at practically all courses as a lecturer and this year as one of directors. And Peter was here at all courses except maybe one. I was always impressed by his encyclopedic and profound knowledge, his clear and up-to-date lectures, his friendly attitude_ soft and gallant manners. Usually we say in Russian that he was a very intelligent man. I am not sure that it is a proper word in English. but those who know Russian or. at any rate are familiar with the great Russian literature of the 19th century (I mean Tolstoi. Dostoevsky. Chekhov, Turgenev and others) may understand me properly.
Peter is not with us now. it is a very unusual situation here after many years of the working of this school. but I think the fact. that ll'OI11 now on the Erice school led by Prof. Venzo de Sabbata will be called as "Peter Bergmann School of Cosmology and Gravitation". is a good commemoration for him. I wish a big success to this course and many-many courses in future! Thank you.
Prof Vitaly N. Melnikov. Co-director of the I Sth course. President of the Russian Gravitational Society.
Erice. May 9. 2003.
xxiii
In commemoration of Peter Gabriel Bergmann - famous scientist and good friend
Born in 1915 in Berlin, he started his university studies already in the age of 16 at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden, where he registered both for chemistry and physics laboratory exercises. Two semesters later he moved to Freiburg (Breisgau) to attend the lectures of Gustav Mie who then did research on Einstein's General Relativity Theory. After having escaped Nazi terror he continu.ed his studies in physics at the Charles University in Prague, where he finished his doctorate in 1936.
In that same year he moved to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, collaborating with Albert Einstein on the attempt to develop a geometrical unified field theory of gravitation and electromagnetism - the well-known aim of research of the late Einstein. During the following ten years he published two common papers in this field: Einstein and Bergmann (1938), Einstein, Bargmann and Bergmann (1942). About 20 years later, when Peter Bergmann and I met first in 1962 at the Jablonna Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation (near Warsaw), we had a discussion in context with my own research on projective relativity theory. Bergmann told me that then in Princeton he investigated an attempt to generalize this type of theory, as P. Jordan did it later in 1945: In a discussion with Einstein he asked him for a common publication, but Einstein refused. At least at that time Einstein did not believe in a 5-dimensional structure of such a new theory intended ..
Already at Jablonna we both Peter and I spontaneously became friends: He an expelled German and r a German of the younger generation totally condemning Nazism. I was strongly impressed by this great human attitude of Peter, in particular also insofar as I knew of the Nazi crimes that happened to the family of Peter's wife Margot.
After the International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation in Copenhagen in July 1971, when Peter became president ofthe corresponding society and I a member ofthe International Committee of this society, we both met for several committee meetings etc., particularly also in Erice/Sicily in COlU1ection with the Schools on General Relativity and Gravitation organized by V. de Sabbata. At the GR8-conference at Waterloo in 1977 it was decided by this committee that the next GR9-conference should1ake place in lena (then in the German Democratic Republic) under my leadership. In context with the politically very complicated situation under the conditions of the Cold War it was necessary for me to have a permanent contact with Peter, since he was the president of the society. Peter helped me always in many consultation always, when the emerging problems seemed to be unsolvable.
Peter's idea of having the GR9-conference to Jena based on different reasons: One important point of performing this conference on German soil was the fact that Einstein developed his General Relativity Theory in Berlin 1915. Another argument resulted from the fact of the existence of the Iron Curtain preventing the getting-together of scientist from the east and the west who had contact by mail but never met personally. Last but not least, in lena existed a rather strong reIati vity group that I had founded in 1957. I had to promi se to the International Committee to do all I could making sure that participants from all countries, particularly from Chile, Israel, South Africa, Taiwan and South Korea obtained entrance visas without political interference. Further, after the assassination ofthe Israel athletes during the Olympic Summer Games in Munich in 1972, T had to take care of the security of the participants, particularly
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from Israel. Through very difficult negotiations with my superior authorities I could meet these very strong conditions posed to me by the committee.
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I succeeded and the conference with 830 participants from 51 countries took place successfully in July 1980, running in a good scientific and humane climate. I was strongly supported by the Secretary of the Local Organisational Committee, R. Collier. Peter Bergmann's personality gave me much energy and strong mental help. He was not only an outstanding scientist but also a man with great political foresight - on behalf of the international relativity community in the terrible political situation of the Cold War. I have to thank him much for ever!
Ernst Schmutzer, Jena
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Bergmann with Einstein
Bergmann with Einstein and Bargmann (from the left: Bargmann, Einstein, Bergmann) at Princeton University
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During the memorial day in Erice: Gillies, Schmutzer, de Sabbata, Borzeszkowski and Melnikov
de Sabbata, Bergmann and Datta
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Bergmann and de Sabbata
de Sabbata and Bergmann in Erice