The Life Course and Life Span Perspectives:
History and Overview
Toni C. AntonucciToni C. AntonucciInstitute for Social ResearchInstitute for Social Research
University of MichiganUniversity of Michigan
Presentation toPresentation to The MacArthur Foundation Aging Society NetworkThe MacArthur Foundation Aging Society Network
New York, New YorkNew York, New YorkSeptember 16-17, 2008September 16-17, 2008
IntroductionIntroduction
Why take a life course and life span Why take a life course and life span perspective on aging?perspective on aging?
A brief history A brief history
Previously Most Social Scientists Previously Most Social Scientists SpecializedSpecialized
InfancyInfancy Race, Class, Ethnicity Race, Class, Ethnicity
Childhood Childhood Organizations Organizations
Adolescence Gender Adolescence Gender
AgingAging Work, Employment Work, Employment
FamilyFamily Generations Generations
Most Developmental Scientists Most Developmental Scientists Specialized, Dichotomizing by AgeSpecialized, Dichotomizing by Age
CHILDHOODCHILDHOOD AGINGAGING
GrowthGrowth DeclineDecline
Increasing Increasing DisorganizationDisorganization
organizationorganization
StructuralStructural DedifferentiationDedifferentiation
differentiationdifferentiation
Why?Why?
In addition to the changing societal In addition to the changing societal demographics and the reshaping age demographics and the reshaping age
distribution …distribution …
The demise of the “Grand Theory”The demise of the “Grand Theory”
A new awareness of the multiple A new awareness of the multiple levels of influencelevels of influence
Integrating TheoriesIntegrating Theories
(Bio)ecological Theory(Bio)ecological Theory
Social and Symbolic InteractionismSocial and Symbolic InteractionismTheoryTheory
Both theories emphasized the dynamic interplay Both theories emphasized the dynamic interplay between person and environmentbetween person and environment
Eventually both theories became life long, Eventually both theories became life long, recognizing the importance of a dynamic life recognizing the importance of a dynamic life course and ongoing life span developmentcourse and ongoing life span development
LINKING MACRO TO MICRO MULTIPLE LEVELS OF LINKING MACRO TO MICRO MULTIPLE LEVELS OF INFLUENCEINFLUENCE
YOU
Family/community
Individual
Environment/Culture/Society
Gene/Biology
Life Span/Life Course SequenceLife Span/Life Course Sequence
Normal Development:Normal Development: Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3
Under Stress:Under Stress:Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stress Stress Return to Return to
Stage 1 Stage 1 with recovery Return to Stage 2 with recovery Return to Stage 2
Similarly Under Later Stress:Similarly Under Later Stress:Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3 Stress Stress
Return to Stage 2 Return to Stage 2 with Recovery Return with Recovery Return to Stage 3 to Stage 3
Life Span/Life Course SequenceLife Span/Life Course Sequence
Environment Environment Outcome OutcomeWe came to understand that environment We came to understand that environment
could not explain allcould not explain all
Gene Gene Outcome OutcomeWe them thought that the identification of We them thought that the identification of
the human genome would explain allthe human genome would explain all
It is now pretty clear that most things are It is now pretty clear that most things are best explained bybest explained by
Gene x Environment Gene x Environment Outcome Outcome
DifferencesDifferencesLife Span Life Span Life Course Life Course
IndividualIndividual Groups Groups
ProcessesProcesses Social pathways Social pathways
TrajectoriesTrajectories Roles, transitions Roles, transitions
Endogenous (micro)Endogenous (micro) Exogenous Exogenous (macro)(macro)
Similarities in the Life Span and Similarities in the Life Span and Life Course PerspectivesLife Course Perspectives
Understand Human Experience to be: Understand Human Experience to be: Long-term/life long; Multilevel; Long-term/life long; Multilevel; Contextual;Contextual;DynamicDynamic
Influenced by macro & micro factors Influenced by macro & micro factors Gains and losses; Risks and Gains and losses; Risks and resilienciesresiliencies
Aging Differs by CohortAging Differs by Cohort
With the demise of the “Grand Theory”With the demise of the “Grand Theory”
comes recognition that people maycomes recognition that people may
experience age differentlyexperience age differently
oror
It might have been the reverse – without It might have been the reverse – without undeniable cohort differences, Grand undeniable cohort differences, Grand Theories seemed less likelyTheories seemed less likely
GEN 1GEN 1
GEN 1
GEN 1
GEN 2
GEN 2
GEN 2
GEN 2
GEN 4
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 3
GEN 4
GEN 4
GEN 4
1880
1900
1910
1920
1940
1950
1970
1980
1990
2010
1980 1990 2000 2010
Age
Spa
n
GenerationsGenerations
Major ThemesMajor Themes
Life Course ResearchLife Course Research Life Span ResearchLife Span Research
Age StratificationAge Stratification Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences
Cohort and HistoricalCohort and Historical Adaptivity & PlasticityAdaptivity & PlasticityPeriod EffectsPeriod Effects
Accumulation ofAccumulation of Allocation of ResourcesAllocation of Resources(in)equalities(in)equalities
Linked LivesLinked Lives Self-regulationSelf-regulation
Differential Trajectories and Pathways of AgingDifferential Trajectories and Pathways of Aging
Age StratificationAge Stratification
Normative age structuringNormative age structuring
Age stratificationAge stratification
Social Institutions stratify, segment, Social Institutions stratify, segment, construct livesconstruct lives
Many institutions stratify by age, e.g.Many institutions stratify by age, e.g.education, work, retirementeducation, work, retirement
Age StratificationAge Stratification
Chronologization - saliency of age and Chronologization - saliency of age and timetime
Institutionalization - construction of life Institutionalization - construction of life course by organizationscourse by organizations
Standardization - normativity of life Standardization - normativity of life course patternscourse patterns
Cohort and Historical Period Effect Cohort and Historical Period Effect
People are embedded and shaped by People are embedded and shaped by
time, place and experiencetime, place and experience
These trigger changeThese trigger change
The timeline/cohort figure is illustrativeThe timeline/cohort figure is illustrative
Cohort and Historical Period Effect Cohort and Historical Period Effect
Timing in lives, e.g. Elder’s 4 types:Timing in lives, e.g. Elder’s 4 types:
1. Social pathways 1. Social pathways
2. Trajectories 2. Trajectories
3. Exit transitions3. Exit transitions
4. Transitions 4. Transitions
Accumulation of Advantages and Accumulation of Advantages and Disadvantages Disadvantages
Status disparities Status disparities wealth, knowledge, health, etc.wealth, knowledge, health, etc.
Life course capitalLife course capital
Consistent predictor of opportunities, Consistent predictor of opportunities, accomplishments, exposure to riskaccomplishments, exposure to risk
Cumulative and transgenerationalCumulative and transgenerational
Linked LivesLinked Lives
Linked Directly –Linked Directly –
Father’s employment effects family Father’s employment effects family income/resourcesincome/resources
Linked Indirectly -Linked Indirectly -
Multigenerational effects of the Multigenerational effects of the Feminist Movement or the Great Feminist Movement or the Great DepressionDepression
Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences
Functional ability – intelligenceFunctional ability – intelligence
Social relationshipsSocial relationships attachmentattachment
Disposition – personalityDisposition – personality
Individual Differences areIndividual Differences are
multidirectional multidirectional
multidimensionalmultidimensional
Adaptivity and PlasticityAdaptivity and Plasticity
Adaptation to change –Adaptation to change – both positive and negativeboth positive and negative growth and lossesgrowth and losses
Plasticity –Plasticity –within person variabilitywithin person variability
testing the limitstesting the limits
Self - RegulationSelf - Regulation
Interaction of biological and Interaction of biological and cultural/environmental resourcescultural/environmental resources
Strategies of selection, optimization Strategies of selection, optimization and compensationand compensation
Human Agency/motivationHuman Agency/motivation
Biological
Bioenvironmental
Interactions
Environmental
OntogeneticAge-Graded
EvolutionaryHistory-Graded
Non-Normative
PersonologicalMaturational,
Etc.
Dialetectical
Learning Socialization
Conceptions of Basic Major Antecedent Development Determinants Systems of Change
Time
Figure Adapted from Baltes, Cornelius & Nesselroade, 1978Baltes 1997
Differential Pathways and Differential Pathways and Trajectories of AgingTrajectories of Aging
Subgroup differences in social pathways of Subgroup differences in social pathways of aging e.g. by education, SES, gender, race, aging e.g. by education, SES, gender, race, family, roles, interest in distribution of family, roles, interest in distribution of disparities in trajectories, interindividual disparities in trajectories, interindividual differencesdifferences
Individual differences in trajectories of Individual differences in trajectories of intraindividual change e.g. changes in intraindividual change e.g. changes in behaviors and functioning, intelligence, behaviors and functioning, intelligence, personality, stability and changepersonality, stability and change
Differential Pathways and Differential Pathways and Trajectories of Aging Trajectories of Aging
With age greater Heterogeneity –With age greater Heterogeneity –
with more experience, more with more experience, more differencesdifferences
With age greater Homogeneity – With age greater Homogeneity –
with age selective attritionwith age selective attrition
Contemporary EvidenceContemporary Evidence
Age-stratification of society – Age-stratification of society – changing nature of work and family roles, changing nature of work and family roles, education, gender roleseducation, gender roles
e.g. work and the “Fordist” model versus e.g. work and the “Fordist” model versus “patchwork” model“patchwork” model
e.g. family roles – Father knows best, Betty e.g. family roles – Father knows best, Betty Crocker, the Brady BunchCrocker, the Brady Bunchthe Osborn’sthe Osborn’s
Contemporary EvidenceContemporary Evidence
Attitudes about Aging Attitudes about Aging
increasingly positiveincreasingly positive
divergence of young and olddivergence of young and old
divergence general vs. specific divergence general vs. specific
Effect of Demographics and the Baby Effect of Demographics and the Baby BoomersBoomers
Contemporary EvidenceContemporary Evidence
Cumulative InequalitiesCumulative Inequalities
evidence re SES effects evidence re SES effects
healthhealth
ethnic groups – cohorts/generationethnic groups – cohorts/generation
Civil RightsCivil Rights
Hispanic ParadoxHispanic Paradox
African / Caribbean AmericanAfrican / Caribbean American
Health over the Life CourseHealth over the Life Course
Chronic versus acute stressors Chronic versus acute stressors healthhealth
Stress modelStress modelmoderating effects e.g. social moderating effects e.g. social relations which may attenuate relations which may attenuate influence of stress on healthinfluence of stress on healthmediating effects e.g. social support mediating effects e.g. social support explaining the association between explaining the association between stress and healthstress and health
Social roles of men and womenSocial roles of men and women
Cumulative effects of linked livesCumulative effects of linked lives
Roles (work, family) changing but Roles (work, family) changing but aging is still genderedaging is still gendered
Current cohorts are different from Current cohorts are different from future cohortsfuture cohorts
Implications – e.g. men have material, Implications – e.g. men have material, women have emotional resourceswomen have emotional resources
Flexibility suggests adaptabilityFlexibility suggests adaptability
Changing family and Changing family and intergenerational connectionsintergenerational connections
Changing families –Changing families –structure of familiesstructure of familiestype of support availabletype of support availablequality of relationshipsquality of relationships
But despite changes families seem to But despite changes families seem to maintain same purpose and functionmaintain same purpose and function
Changing family and Changing family and intergenerational connectionsintergenerational connections
Intergenerational relations –Intergenerational relations –
as social capital as social capital
bidirectional transfersbidirectional transfers
Positive and Negative influences, Positive and Negative influences, exchanges, resourcesexchanges, resources
Changing family and Changing family and intergenerational connectionsintergenerational connections
People adapt as needed, People adapt as needed, socioemotional selectivity e.g. socioemotional selectivity e.g. change investment strategychange investment strategy
People are shaped by the personal and People are shaped by the personal and situational characteristics – convoys situational characteristics – convoys – which provide support and in turn – which provide support and in turn influence their heath and well-beinginfluence their heath and well-being
Life long adaptation and plasticityLife long adaptation and plasticity
Cognitive functioningCognitive functioning
early abilities early abilities later declines later declines
interventions can be successfulinterventions can be successful
behavioral interventions can have behavioral interventions can have
neurological effectsneurological effects
Life long adaptation and plasticityLife long adaptation and plasticity
Personality, motivation, emotion and social Personality, motivation, emotion and social engagementengagement
Some aspects of personality do change and are Some aspects of personality do change and are affected by life eventsaffected by life events
Motivation may be increasingly affected by Motivation may be increasingly affected by social relationssocial relations
Emotional optimization in later lifeEmotional optimization in later life
Social engagement is modifiableSocial engagement is modifiable
Cohort differences in Cohort differences in trajectories of agingtrajectories of aging
Trends in cognitive functioningTrends in cognitive functioning
Trends in physical disabilityTrends in physical disability
Trends in retirementTrends in retirement
Gaps in current knowledge about Gaps in current knowledge about changeschanges
Emerging phases of old ageEmerging phases of old age
Globalization and international migrationGlobalization and international migration
Impact of social movementsImpact of social movements
Efforts to reduce disparitiesEfforts to reduce disparities
Impact of initiatives about successful agingImpact of initiatives about successful aging
Gaps in current knowledge about Gaps in current knowledge about changeschanges
Additional issues:Additional issues:
structural lagstructural lag
limited resourceslimited resources
institutionalization of responsibility institutionalization of responsibility
e.g. of healthe.g. of health
ethics re new technological advancesethics re new technological advances
attitudes re rights and responsibilitiesattitudes re rights and responsibilities
Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention OpportunitiesGlobal – governments, communities to Global – governments, communities to
interveneintervene
widespread education of population widespread education of population
anti-aging/stereotype campaignsanti-aging/stereotype campaigns
limited resourceslimited resources
Societal – social programs, mutual Societal – social programs, mutual responsibility, enhanced intergenerational responsibility, enhanced intergenerational roles, increase trained professionalsroles, increase trained professionals
Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention Opportunities
Community level interventions:Community level interventions:
community based centers both social community based centers both social and medicaland medical
facilitate activity for older adults e.g.facilitate activity for older adults e.g.transportation, lighting, sidewalkstransportation, lighting, sidewalks
roles for elders in the communityroles for elders in the community
Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention Opportunities
Community level interventions:Community level interventions:
community based centers both social community based centers both social and medicaland medical
facilitate activity for older adults e.g.facilitate activity for older adults e.g.transportation, lighting, sidewalkstransportation, lighting, sidewalks
roles for elders in the communityroles for elders in the community
Intervention OpportunitiesIntervention Opportunities
Individual level interventions:Individual level interventions:
cognitive trainingcognitive training
exercise and nutritionexercise and nutrition
interventions re decision-makinginterventions re decision-making
maintain social engagementmaintain social engagement
active family and community rolesactive family and community roles
In summary to address the needs In summary to address the needs of an Aging Society, we must:of an Aging Society, we must:
Take a human development approach that combines the Take a human development approach that combines the strengths of both the life course and the life span strengths of both the life course and the life span perspectivesperspectives
Build on disciplinary strengths, from cellular biology to Build on disciplinary strengths, from cellular biology to demographics, but leave behind our disciplinary biasesdemographics, but leave behind our disciplinary biases
Think of aging from birth to death so thatThink of aging from birth to death so thatlife time experiences inform both research and policylife time experiences inform both research and policy
Consider aging a proactive, interactive, individual, Consider aging a proactive, interactive, individual, intergenerational and societal experienceintergenerational and societal experience