The Influence of Media on BeliefsThe Olympics As A Public Relations Strategy: Americans Views About China Before And After The 2008 Beijing Olympics
Pamela B. RutledgeFielding Graduate University
Purpose
To address a gap in the literature on belief formation and conflict by examining the impact of information sources on the beliefs that predispose individuals toward conflict
Globalization Communication technologies McLuhan’s global village New definitions of
identity and culture are no longer confined by geographic boundaries
Globalization will not go away
New Relationship with China
Technology has led to rapid economic growth with global implications Jobs Energy
Loss of Soviet Union as enemy ‘promotes’ China
Media Makes China the Enemy
Media defines nations through images and symbols
Americans know very little about China and culture is difficult to understand Easy to stereotype
Information about China is often inaccurate Government control Journalistic license and old
metaphors
Consistent negative framing
The 2008 Beijing Olympics Olympics bring increased media
attention Intangible benefits Qualitative features of media
coverage
Information Sources
Media is pervasive
Qualitatively different channels elicit different cognitive and affective responses
Measurements of media consumption still being developed
What do we want to measure? Attention Time Recall Meaning
Psychology of Fear
What Gets our Attention?
The human brain uses economy measures to process information Salience Relevance Mental models (stereotypes)
Fear an effective way of eliciting an affective response Triggered by perceptions of
significant and personally-relevant threat
Fear of Threats Risk assessed against
perceived efficacy rather than prior experience
Mass perceptions of threat influence national policy and international relations
Fear increases the need to affiliate
The Role of Identity in Conflict
Social psychology conflict literature originally focused on group identity and affiliation
Returning to role of self and individual Freud, Vygotsky, Personality theorists, Evolutionary Psychology
From self to social More system-oriented Self and social identity conflictual in nature
COSMIDES, PINKER, TOOBY, FREUD, VYGOTSKY, TAJFEL, ASCH, KELMAN, SEN, BREWER
Why Affiliate?
Motivations for affiliation Self-esteem, status, value Uncertainty reduction, terror reduction
Shift focus from self-esteem to order-seeking Biological and psychological need for order
Internal consistency Biological imperative for survival
Evaluative filters to process information and experience
Continually reconstructed through interaction with the wider social system
Core beliefs serve need for internal consistency
Social psychology articulates interaction of the individual with social structures Social identity theory Self-categorization theory Relative deprivation
theory
Core beliefs operate at both individual and group levels
Definition Integration
Core Beliefs
Cognitive psychology distills conflict into core beliefs that establish the themes that drive human behavior
Five Domain Framework
Central beliefs to group conflict Vulnerability Injustice Helplessness Distrust Superiority
Operate at three levels: Individual view of personal world Individual’s beliefs about their group Individual’s perceptions about the group worldview
• IGBI, Roy J. Eidelson & Eidelson (2003)
Information SourcesExplanator
y Style
Core Beliefs
Subjective Well-Being
Attitudes toward ChinaGroup
Affiliation
Conflict Strategies
Theoretical model
Information sources and explanatory style influence conflict strategies through core beliefs, group affiliation, and attitudes
toward China.
Media-Saturated Environment
Prevalence 98% of homes have
TV 50% of Americans
text message Virtually all
teenagers play video games
Cell phone subscribers equal 75% of population
Source: Pew Research Center (2008) http://pewresearch.org/pubs/928/key-news-audiences-now-blend-online-and-traditional-sources
Methodology
Internet survey-based study Participants provided by
Zoomerang (N=896) Likert-type questions Data collected
June 27, 2008 (N=418), August 27, 2008 (N=478)
Demographics: Approximation of U.S. Census Minimum high school
education 50/50 Male/Female Ages 18 to 44 Racial distribution
Assessment instruments Individual and Group Beliefs
Inventory Life Orientation Test Satisfaction with Life Survey Group Affiliation Conflict Strategies Attitudes toward China Media measures
Preference Percentage use Political orientation
Analysis Bivariate correlation Multiple regression
The Hypotheses
More television increases core beliefs
New media decreases core beliefs
Optimism decreases core beliefs
Olympics media increases core beliefs
Core beliefs increase group affiliation, attitudes toward China and conflict strategies
Results
Empirical Analysis
Empirical analysis conducted in 2 stages:
1st stage: Correlations between media use, explanatory style, core beliefs and conflict measures
2nd stage: Regression analyses to estimate the model
Correlation Analysis In general, optimism proved to be
significantly correlated with core beliefs at both the personal and group levels
Broadcast media was significantly correlated with most core beliefs and conflict measures at the group level
Broadcast media split into liberal and conservative programming proved to be significantly correlated with most core beliefs at the individual and group levels
IGBI-IG Vulnerabilit
yIGBI-IG Injustice
IGBI-IG Helplessnes
sIGBI-IG Distrust
IGBI-IG Superiority
Group Negativity SWLS IG
LOT-R Scale -.20** -.071* -.263** -.074* -0.042 -.201** .203**
Broadcast 1st Choice .113** .121** 0.059 0.064 0.045 .118** 0.048
New Media 1st Choice -.098** -.118** 0.033 -.069* -0.059 -.085* -0.04
% Television .076* .156** -0.013 0.058 .122** .093** .066*
% Internet -.070* -.148** -0.028 -.10** -.09** -.12** -0.052
Liberal Television -0.054 -.100** 0.054 -.097** -0.063 -.068* 0.011
Conservative
Television.143** .144** 0.022 .111** .132** .140** .148**
N = 896, * p < .05, ** p < .01
Correlations Group Level: Optimism
IGBI-IG Vulnerability
IGBI-IG Injustice
IGBI-IG Helplessnes
sIGBI-IG Distrust
IGBI-IG Superiority
Group Negativity SWLS IG
LOT-R Scale -.20** -.071* -.263** -.074* -0.042 -.201** .203**
Broadcast 1st
Choice.113** .121** 0.059 0.064 0.045 .118** 0.048
New Media 1st Choice -.098** -.118** 0.033 -.069* -0.059 -.085* -0.04
% Television .076* .156** -0.013 0.058 .122** .093** .066*
% Internet -.070* -.148** -0.028 -.10** -.09** -.12** -0.052
Liberal Television -0.054 -.100** 0.054 -.097** -0.063 -.068* 0.011
Conserv. Television .143** .144** 0.022 .111** .132** .140** .148**
N = 896, * p < .05, ** p < .01
Correlations Group Level: Broadcast Media
IGBI-IG Vulnerabilit
yIGBI-IG Injustice
IGBI-IG Helplessnes
sIGBI-IG Distrust
IGBI-IG Superiority
Group Negativity SWLS IG
LOT-R Scale -.20** -.071* -.263** -.074* -0.042 -.201** .203**
Broadcast 1st Choice .113** .121** 0.059 0.064 0.045 .118** 0.048
New Media
1st Choice
-.098** -.118** 0.033 -.069* -0.059 -.085* -0.04
% Television .076* .156** -0.013 0.058 .122** .093** .066*
% Internet -.070* -.148** -0.028 -.10** -.09** -.12** -0.052
Liberal Television -0.054 -.100** 0.054 -.097** -0.063 -.068* 0.011
Conservative
Television.143** .144** 0.022 .111** .132** .140** .148**
N = 896, * p < .05, ** p < .01
Correlations Group Level: New Media
Information Sources
Explanatory Style
Core BeliefsWell-Being
Attitudes toward
ChinaGroup
Affiliation
Conflict Strategie
s
1.Conservative TV
2.Liberal TV
3.New Media 1st Choice
4.LOT-R
Regression Analysis Phase 1 Variables
1.Vulnerability2.Injustice3.Helplessness4.Distrust5.Superiority6.SWLS
Belief = 0 + 1ICTV + 2I1stNM + 3ILTV + 4SWLS + 8PCON +
Regression Analysis Phase 1 Results
In general, optimism was a significant negative predictor for core beliefs at the personal and group levels as hypothesized by the model
New media was a significant negative predictor for most core beliefs at the group level
Broadcast media, split into liberal and conservative programming, proved to significant predictors with most core beliefs at the group level
Regression Analysis Group Level: Conservative and Liberal Programming
β Vulnerability Injustice Helplessnes
s Distrust Superiority Well-Being
Conservative TV 0.143** 0.135** 0.108** 0.120** 0.122**
Liberal TV -0.107* -0.100** -.060*
New Media 1st Choice -0.082** -0.107* -0.061*Conservative Political Beliefs
0.105** 0.207** -0.104** 0.154** 0.206** 0.188**
Lot-R -0.203** -0.073* -0.266** -0.076* 0.192**
N = 896, * p < .05, ** p < .01
Belief = 0 + 1ICTV + 2I1stNM + 3ILTV + 4SWLS + 8PCON +
N = 896, * p < .05, ** p < .01, predictors are in left column
Significant changes in first choice preference from Internet toward television
Changes in media use had no impact on core beliefs at any level
No significant change in core beliefs pre- to post-Olympics
Pre- to Post-Olympic Measures
Pre-Olympics Post-Olympics42%
44%
46%
48%
50%
52%
54%
56%
Broadcast 1st ChoiceNew Media 1st Choice
N = 896
Us versus Them
Pre-Olympics Post-Olympics3.80
3.85
3.90
3.95
4.00
Group Affiliation
Pre-Olympics Post-Olympics3.08
3.10
3.12
3.14
3.16
3.18
3.20
3.22Enemy Image of China
N = 896, Mean
Information SourcesExplanator
y Style
Core BeliefsWell-Being
Attitudes toward ChinaGroup
Affiliation
Conflict Strategies
Regression Analysis Phase 2 Variables
1.Group Affiliation
2.PositiveRegard for China
3.China as the Enemy
1. Aggressive or Cooperative Conflict Strategies
1.Vulnerability2.Injustice3.Helplessness4.Distrust5.Superiority6.SWLS
Conflict Measure = 0 + 1BVUL + 2BINJ + 3BHELP + 4BDIS + 8BSUP + SWLS +
Regression Analysis Phase 2 ResultsPredictor Dependent VariableConservative ProgrammingConservative Political Views
U.S. Vulnerability (IG)Unjust treatment of U.S. (IG)U.S. Superiority (IG)
U.S. Vulnerability (IG)Unjust treatment of U.S. (IG)U.S. Superiority (IG)
Group AffiliationChina as an EnemyConflict Strategies
Subjective well being (IG)Group AffiliationChina as an EnemyConflict Strategies
Conservative Political Beliefs Conflict Strategies
Group Affiliation
Enemy Image of China
Attitudes toward China
Conflict Strategies
Vulnerability IG .201** .119** -.200**Injustice IG .199** .233** .119**
Helplessness IG -.361** .164**Distrust IG -.354** -.350**
Superiority IG .103** .242**Well-Being IG .191** .178** .182**Conservative
Political Beliefs .108** .057* .087**
Regression Analysis: Group Beliefs and Conflict Measures
Conflict Measure = 0 + 1BVUL + 2BINJ + 3BHELP + 4BDIS + 8BSUP + SWLS + N = 896, * p < .05, ** p < .01, predictors are in left column
Additional Findings Differences between belief levels were
significant for all core beliefs
84% said Olympics did not change view of China
4% had traveled to China
For 96% the Olympics had no change on their attitudes about China
Beliefs Differences Among Levels
Vulnerability Injustice Helplessness Distrust Superiority4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Personal Beliefs Personal Beliefs about the U.S.Perceptions of Most Americans Beliefs
Changing Views of China
Country People Culture Government2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Opinions of Chinese People and Culture Significantly More Positive than Perceptions of Chinese Government
N = 478; Higher scores equal more positive perception
The Impact of Personal Experience on Perceptions
Group Affili-ation
Attitudes Toward China
Enemy Image
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
Have Traveled to ChinaHave Not Traveled to China
4% of sample have traveled to China (N=36)
Mean differences between group means significant, p < .01
Note: N=896. Higher scores for Attitudes Toward China indicates more positive feelings.
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Trav
elN
o Tr
avel
2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
Attitudes Toward China
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Trav
elN
o Tr
avel
3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0
Group Affiliation
Pre
Post
Pre
Post
Trav
elN
o Tr
avel
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Enemy Image
Never Traveled to ChinaGroup affiliation
increasedAttitude and enemy
views either did not change or became more negative
Have Traveled to ChinaPositive regard
increased Image of China as an
enemy decreased
Change in Views Pre- and Post-Olympics
Changes in perceptions of media accuracy from before to after the Olympics
Perceptions of Media Accuracy
N = 896
Pre-Olympics Post-Olympics2.35
2.45
2.55
2.65
2.75
2.85
US Media Accuracy
China's Media
Accuracy
Conclusions
Overall model confirmed by correlations
Regression results not consistent Only at the IG level did the information
predictors confirm the model TV predicted stronger beliefs, new media
predicted decrease Explanatory style was strong predictor
Programming content and political views emerged as strong predictors Ideological buffer, just-world, security,
biology Well-being consistently aligned
Do Media Choices Matter?<
Strong predictors for conflict: Conservative political views Group affiliation Enemy Image
Do people choose media based on their beliefs rather than the other way around? Basic assumptions of media effects research
Programming and media content Validate personal identity, group affiliation, tribal allegiance Restore order to uncertain world Identify scapegoat
Orange Alert
Escalation in negative beliefs from personal to group levels Fear as normalizing? Projections to externalize fear Climate of “orange alert”
Media emphasis Biological reaction Psychological response
Olympics television coverage benign to positive Negative attitudes increased
Gated Communities of Ideology
Frightened people build gated communities
Media becomes ritual for affirmation not a quest for knowledge
Increased measures of subjective well-being indicates successful wall building
Media producers are driven by economics not ideology
Challenge to create messages that break through walls
Limitations
Population: self-selected from Zoomerang market poll Apathetic or representative? Media measures
Conflict identified as U.S. versus China
Television coverage distracted by Russia-Georgia military confrontation
No true repeated measures (pre-post) design, although samples were similar in demographics
Future Research
Technical issues: survey data, sample
Cross-cultural comparison, i.e. China’s point of view Perceptions of conflict and the “other” Effectiveness of global media event
Media choice with core beliefs and social zeitgeist
Effect of media events and content on nation brands
Media content compared with viewer perceptions and beliefs
Types and strength of belief clustering as precursors to conflict
Reflections
Importance of recognizing simultaneity in media psychology Needs system analysis
Disconnected research across disciplines Analytical frameworks, jargon, measures Ivory Silos
Media is not a “thing.” It is a conduit for who we are and what we do
Media reinforces beliefs does not create them
Conclusion Perceptions of China were not significantly changed by
Olympic coverage
Viewers’ beliefs about their own and their countries vulnerabilities were the stronger predictors of perceptions of China as an enemy, regardless of programming
Viewers’ programming choices reflected their beliefs, not the other way around
The only significant positive change in perceptions of China came from people who had visited China in person
Implications The massive financial investment in the Olympics does
not results in negative perceptions turning positive
Brands should consider their own goals and potential halo effects in where and how they choose to make sponsorship investments
Increased fear and the sense of vulnerability increases the need for us vs. them thinking and the creation of villains
No easy solutions: Increase sense of safety of home populations Increase opportunities for personal contact and exchange
Thank You