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The RuckSack
A lone timber wolf greets
paddlers along the north shore
of Lake Superior, Canada
(Photo by Michael Neiger)
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By Michael A. Neiger (aka: LandNavMan), Marquette, MichiganWilderness tripper: backpacking, winter camping, swift-water canoeing
Web site URL: http://therucksack.tripod.com • E-mail: [email protected]
Contents copyright © 1984-2007 by Michael A. Neiger • All rights reserved.
Bush Skills
A Ruck Sack primer on .. .
Land
navigation:
Tactics & strategies
for using maps,compasses,
ranger pacing beads,
& GPS units to solve
complex navigational
problems in the bush
By Michael A. Neiger
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• Places to hike
• Land navigation
• Rations & stoves
• River fording
• Ultralight packing
• Links, books, & vendors
Paddlesports• Gear check-off list
• Places to paddle
• Swift-water safety
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Winter-camping• Winter-camping skills
• Gear check-off list
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• How to sleep warm
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• Links, books, & vendors
Bush skills• Bear safety
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• Flora • Geology & gold panning
• How to dress warm
Copyright 1984 -- 2008-10-14
Last updated on October 14, 2008
I can’t rightly say
I’ve ever been lost,
but I’ve been
mighty perplexed
for two or three days runnin' -- Davy Crockett
1786-1836
A tired, old
Silva Ranger compass --
a bush traveler's favorite
(Photo by Michael Neiger)
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• How to sleep warm
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• Old-time bush skills
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Resources• Sources for gear
• The book finder
Travel info• Driving maps
• Road trip gear
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Site owner's info• Owner's e-mail
• Owner's bio
Contents of page
Land navigation team member info
Recommended equipment
How to waterproof & carry a map
How to prep a map for GPS/UTM use
How to set up a GPS unit for UTM use
Tactics & strategies in the bush
Pace counting
Aiming off
Declination
Handrailing
Geographic coordinate systems
Latitude/longitude sytem
Land navigation resources
Links
Land navigation
Orienteering
Books
Land navigation
Orienteering
Vendors Compass manufacturers
Map resources
Paper map vendors
Topographic
County
Plat maps
Digital map vendors
Maps on CD
Maps online
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The RuckSack
All paths lead nowhere,
so it is important
to choose a path
that has heart.
-- Carlos Castaneda
Improvements make
straight roads;
but the crooked roads
without improvement
are the roads of genius.
-- William Blake
We shall not
cease from exploration
And the end
of all our exploring
Will be to arrive
where we started
And know the place
for the first time.
--Thomas. S. Elliot
1888-1965
Four Quartets:Little Gidding , 1942
The clearest way into the
Universe is through a forest
wilderness.
--John Muir
1838-1914
John of the Mountains, 1938
Aerial/satellite images
Online images
Hardcopy images
GPS resources
Backups for GPS units in the bush
Links
Books Magazines
Vendors
Manufacturers
Miscellaneous
Linear equivalents
Land survey equivalents
Angular equivalents Compute sunrise/set moonrise/set
Looking for
wilderness trippingequipment and
supplies?For 100's of sources for wilderness tripping
equipment and supplies, visit the sources for gear
page on this Web site.
Need helpfinding a book?
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There is a great deal of
unmapped country within us.
--George Eliot
1819-1880
Daniel Deronda
Look at this vigorous plant that
lifts its head from the meadow,
see how its leaves are turned to
the north, as true as the
magnet; this is the compass-
flower, that the finger of god
has planted here in the
houseless wild, to direct the
traveler's journey.
--Henry W. Longfellow1807-1882
Evangeline, 1847
I shall be telling this with a sigh--
somewhere ages and ages
hence; two roads diverged in a
wood, and I--I took the one less
traveled by, and that has madeall the difference.
--Robert Frost
1874-1963
The Road Not Taken,
1916, stanza 4
I think there is a fatality in it--I
seldom go to the place I set out
for.
--Laurence Sterne
1713-1768
Trying to buy a new or used copy of a book, but can't
locate one? Want to find a library somewhere in the
country that will lend you the book at no cost? Then
visit the handy book finder page on this Web site.
Recommend
a book, catalog,or Web site.If you know of a useful outdoor-related book, catalog,
or Web site not listed on this Web site, e-mail the
book's title, subtitle, author, publisher, date of
publication, and short description; or the catalog's
address and phone number; or the Web site's URL to
Michael Neiger at [email protected].
** Recommended
Top
Land nav team member information:
Equipmentrecommendations
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As light and the day are free to
all men, so nature has left all
lands open to brave men.
--Caius Tacitus
Circa AD 55-117
History
Books are the compasses and
telescopes and sextants and
charts which other men have
prepared to help us navigate
the dangerous seas of human
life.
--Jesse Lee Bennett
1885-1931Books as Guides
Sails ripp'd, seams op'ning
wide, and compass lost
--William Cowper
1731-1800
On Rcpt of
My Mother's Picture
Though pleased to see the
dolphins play, I mind my
compass and my way.
--Matthew Green
1696-1737
The Spleen
Orienteering compass with sighting mechanism
A high-quality orienteering-style compass is essential for precise triangulation,
shooting long-distance field azimuths, and using as a map protractor & straight edge
for calculating route azimuths and distances.
An ideal one is the Brunton Nexus 54LU Combi (also sold as the Silva 54 Combi)
protractor-style compass with a unique prism optical sighting mechanism from
Kooter's Geology Tools http://www.egeology.com/54lu.html (http://www.egeology.
com)1-888-383-5219, $55 including shipping. (Note: This unique, precision
compass is extremely hard to find, but it is worth every penny if you can get your
grubby hands on one. It is much faster and easier to use than baseplate compasses
with mirrors. It is functionally accurate to 0.5 degrees. If you have trouble locatingit, try http://www.gps4fun.com, http://www.1sks.com, or search for it using the
Froogle Google search engine at http://www.froogle.com).
Ranger pace-counting beads
These simple, abacus-like units are extremely handy for complicated, multi-leg
routes that require continuous pacing or dead reckoning.
You can make your own or buy a set from Brigade Quartermasters, item no. SPC99
or RPC295 (avoid commonly available ceramic ones--they crack easily), 1-800-338-
4327, http://www.actiongear.com.
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The RuckSack
Skill'd in the globe and sphere,
he gravely stands and, with his
compass, measures seas and
lands.
--John Dryden
1631-1700
Sixth Satire of Juvenal
Roamer UTM grid plotters
A roamer scale is essential for plotting UTM coordinates on topographic maps.
You can make your own or, if you're a regular on Sierra Club trips, request a free
one from Michael Neiger. (Note: Most of the commercially-made units are too big
for field use.)
For Michigan wilderness trips, you'll need roamer plotters for both 1:24000 and
1:25000 topographic maps. For Canadian wilderness trips, you'll need roamer
plotters for both 1:20000 and 1:50000 topographic maps.
Pencil or penA 0.5mm mechanical pencil (consistent width makes it more accurate than a regular
pencil) with an eraser, and wrapped with a rubber band to create friction and prevent
loss, is essential for annotating maps, plotting azimuths, and recording GPS data
such as plots, times, azimuths, landmarks, distances, and pacing info on notepaper.
A waterproof pen may be needed to mark on waterproofed maps. The Fisher Space
Pen is a proven foul-weather writing instrument and is available from Campmor, no.31655, 1-800-226-7667, http://www.campmor.com, or Forestry Suppliers, no.
49237, 1-800-647-5368, http://www.forestry-suppliers.com.
Waterproof notepaper
Waterproof notepaper is essential for recording GPS plot/time/azimuth/landmark/
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You could buy a small, pocket-size, waterproof notepad from Campmor, no. 31653,
1-800-226-7667, http://www.campmor.com, or Forestry Suppliers (lots of paper
choices), 1-800-647-5368, http://www.forestry-suppliers.com.
You could also make your own by simply waterproofing 3-by-5 cards or pieces of
heavy-duty paper, just as you did your topo maps.
Route measuring scale
A 12-inch-long piece of white, waxy (sticky) dental floss marked at one-klick (1000
meter) intervals (per map scale) is handy for rapidly measuring irregular routes on a
quad in the field.
To carry dental floss, tie it to the above pencil, wind the remainder around the
pencil, and secure the loose end under the rubber band.
Top
Land nav team member information:
How to
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The RuckSack
& carry
maps in the bush
Maps, notepaper, and journals must be properly waterproofed and encased to
withstand the abuse of a long-range wilderness trip.
Moisture will turn unwaterproofed maps and other paper products into soggy, papier-
mache-like messes in short order. Likewise, maps not protected by a map case will
be torn to shreds by brush, rough handling, and repeated folding.
Commercial map treatments
The best way to waterproof and reinforce topographic maps is to use a commercial
map sealer such as Map Seal, Map Proof, Map Life, or Stormproof.
Map Seal
Aqua Seal
Trondak, Inc. (manufacturer)
1-425-290-7530
http://www.aquaseal.com/
Map Seal is available in 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-ounce quantities.
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Recreational Equipment Inc. (REI) (vendor)
1-800-426-4840
http://www.rei.com/
Campmor (vendor)
1-800-525-4784
http://www.campmor.com
Map Proof
Nikwax (manufacturer)
1-425-303-1410
http://www.nikwax.com/
Summit Hut (vendor)
1-800-499-8696
http://www.summithut.com/
Mountain Gear (vendor)
1-800-829-2009
http://www.mgear.com
Altrec.com (vendor)
1-800-369-3949
http://www.altrec.com/
Map Life
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Safety Central (vendor)
1-650-965-3509
http://www.safetycentral.com
Liberty Mountain (vendor)
1-800-366-2666
http://www.libertymountain.com
Stormproof
Martenson Co. (manufacturer)
P.O. Box 261
Williamsburg, Virginia 23185
Alternative map treatments
While acrylic products such as Minwax's "Polycrylic Protective Finish" Clear Satin
and Krylon's "Crystal Clear" acrylic spray paint are effective at protecting maps
from the elements, they should be avoided since they dry so hard the treated surfaceof the map actually cracks wherever it is folded.
Masonry and wood sealants, in particular Thompson's Water Seal, have been widely
used to weatherproof maps. While admittedly not as water repellent, strong, or
durable as some commercial map treatments, Thompson's Water Seal is effective on
quality paper, especially when combined with a map case such as a zip-lock.
Thompson's Water SealThompson's Company (manufacturer)
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The RuckSack
bands work very well.
Top
Land nav team member information:
How to add
UTM grid linesto your maps
for on-the-go,
in-the-fieldGPS applications
To accurately calculate route azimuths as well as rapidly plot GPS coordinates in the
bush, it's essential that topographic maps are overlaid with the 1,000-meterUniversal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid.
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Make sure your maps have
1,000-meter UTM grid lines
While many maps come with the UTM grid pre-plotted, many do not. Take the time
to make sure your maps have these black easting (vertical) and northing (horizontal)
grid lines, both of which are spaced exactly 1,000 meters apart. Don't confuse this
grid system with the red horizontal and vertical section lines, which are spaced
about 1 mile apart.
Add 1,000-meter UTM grid lines if necessaryIf your maps are not overlaid with the UTM grid lines, draw them on by connecting
the short, light-blue tick marks along all four map margins. Do not confuse the blue
UTM grid tick marks with the black 10,000-foot State Plane Coordinate (SPC) grid
tick marks or the black latitude and longitude tick marks.
Your UTM grid lines must be exactly 1,000 meters apart. Double-check the
accuracy and interval spacing of your hand-drawn grid lines using the map scale inmap margin.
Draw each line using a .5mm mechanical pencil (reduces error created as regular
pencils dull and lay down wider lines) and a straightedge, such as a new, absolutely
straight (sight down it), nick-free (run your finger nail along edge) aluminum
yardstick available from a building supply store.
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Plot technical azimuths off UTM grid lines, not
section lines
In the field, you will use the easting (vertical) UTM grid lines for calculating exact
azimuths for challenging navigational situations requiring a high degree of accuracy.
We will not be using the meridians of longitude or the south-to-north red section
lines for calculating technical azimuths when we need dead-on accuracy.
The magnetic declination figures we use will be updated for the current year and
adjusted for use with the easting (vertical) UTM grid lines, not the meridians of
longitude or section lines.
While meridian of longitude lines, if pre-plotted, are fine for azimuth calculating,
they do not lend themselves to rapid, on-the-go plotting in the bush. The red, south-
to-north section lines are not suitable for technical azimuth plotting since they are
neither consistently straight nor predictable in orientation, even on the same quad.
Top
Land nav team member information:
How to configure your
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UTM-based
Sierra Club trip
Always make sure your GPS unit is properly configured for the type of navigating
you will be doing or it will spit out inaccurate positional fixes.
Coordinate grid system
Select the 1000-meter Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid coordinate
system as it is much easier to use for quick, on-the-go land navigation that involves
integrating traditional route-finding tools such as topographic maps, compasses, and
ranger pacing beads. Do not select latitude-longitude, MGRS, etc.
Map datum (horizontal)
Check the margin of your map for the appropriate horizontal datum (do not use the
vertical datum).
Currently, most Michigan topographic maps use the 1927 North American Datum
(NAD 27). Some GPS units may break the North American Datum down furtherwith CONUS (CONtinetal US), Canada, etc. Future topographic maps may well use
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the NAD-83 or WGS-84 datums, which are identical to each other for our purposes.
Canadian topographical maps for Ontario generally use either NAD 27 (Canada) or
NAD 83. Newer maps may appear with the WGS-84 datum.
There are over a hundred (100) map datums, so get it right. If you select the wrong
one, your GPS unit will be outputting incorrect coordinates. Do not select WGS 84
(usually the default setting), Mexico, Timbuktu, etc., as these will result in incorrect
readings. For example, the difference between the WGS-84 and NAD-27 datums is
about 300 meters.
UTM grid zone
The UTM grid system splits the world up into 60, longitudinally-arranged zones.
Each zone is six (6) degrees of longitude in width, from east to west. Check the
margin of your map for the correct UTM zone number.
Michigan is covered by two zones: 16 and 17. The 84 degrees west meridian of
longitude represents the dividing line between zone 16 and zone 17. This meridian
of longitude lies along an imaginary, north-to-south line running through Michigan
communities such as Adrian, Saginaw, Standish, Atlanta, and De Tour Village, nearDrummond Island.
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The meridian
of longitude
at 84 degrees
west represents
the edge of
UTM zone 16
and zone 17,both of which
cover the state
of Michigan.
(Drawing by
Michael A. Neiger)
Zone 16 lies west of
this meridian of
longitude. Zone 17
lies to the east of this meridian of longitude. In other words, zone 16 covers the
western three-quarters of the Upper Peninsula as well as the western two-thirds of
the Lower Peninsula. Correspondingly, zone 17 covers the extreme eastern end of
the Upper Peninsula as well as the eastern third of the Lower Peninsula.
Unit of measure
Most GPS units have three units of measure: statute (tradition English mile measure;
usually the default), nautical (the nautical mile is slightly longer than the statute
mile), and metric (meters). Select the metric setting for the UTM coordinate system.
The statute and nautical units of measure will both produce inaccurate readingswhen used with the UTM grid coordinate system.
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UTM grid hemisphere
If your unit requires it, select the appropriate hemisphere, which for Michigan and
Canada will be the northern hemisphere. You may not have to specify this.
Field-check unit for proper setup
Once you arrive at the starting point for your wilderness trip, always proof-check
your GPS unit at a known location on the ground (e.g.: bridge, intersection,
confluence of two rivers, lake) and compare this positional reading with the same
known location on the topographic map. If you get in the habit of always doing this,
you will be able to catch any erroneous configuration before it is too late, deep in
the bush.
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with Army Ranger
pace counting beads
Pace counting, or tally stepping as it is sometimes called, is an ancient technique.
Legionnaires in the Roman Army used it on the battlefield just as today's elite
warriors do. Ranger pacing beads were widely used in Vietnam and continue to be
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popular with Army Rangers, Army
Special Forces units such as the
Green Berets and Delta Force,
Navy Seals, and the British Army's
SAS (Special Air Service).
The photograph on the right depicts
several different types of
commercial and handmade pace
counting beads.
1. Homemade beads made from
leather disks, similar to hard,
rubber disks used by
Canadian forces, sold byCanadian Peacekeeper. Note:
Disk-type pace counting
beads are difficult to use in
the dark or with gloves since
you can't easily differentiate
between them by feel.
2. Beads made from
indestructible rubber-like cups, used by Army Rangers, sold by BrigadeQuartermasters. Very popular.
3. Homemade beads made from short sections of rubber tubing.
4. Unique beads made from miniature skulls, used by Airborne Infantry, sold by
U.S. Cavalry and Brigade Quartermasters. Very popular.
5. Homemade beads made from drilled-out, wooden, craft-shop beads.
6. Hard, ceramic beads, which crack much too easily, widely available at military
supply outlets.
7. Homemade beads made from craft-shop beads, which crack much too easily.
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Our English statute mile is based on the Roman soldier's mile. The Latin phrases
"mille passus," or "milia passuum," which meant a "thousand paces," were
eventually shortened to a "mile" in English. The average soldier laid down 5,000
"foot-lengths" or "feet" in a mile. Much like the pace we use today, a Roman pace
consisted of two steps equalling about 5 "foot-lengths."
Why count paces?
While pace counting is admittedly an arcane distance determination technique that is
seldom used by trail-bound hikers, it is an essential technique used by advanced-
level land navigators who travel cross-country through challenging wilderness. In
certain situations, a map and compass alone just aren't enough.
In his book, entitled "Orienteering," John Disley aptly writes that "more mistakes
are made in orienteering by wrongly estimating distance than from any other
reason." While most of us can quickly learn to travel in the right direction, few of us
have any idea of how far we have traveled.
Think about Disley's observation for a moment. Have you ever cut an azimuth
through the bush and wondered if you had missed your target, or perhaps not gone
far enough, when it did not materialize? Did you continue on another 10 minutes,then 20 minutes, hoping it would appear? Or did you backtrack? You could have
eliminated much of the guesswork in this situation by using a technique known as
"step-counting."
Pace counting with Ranger pacing beads is well suited for the complicated
navigational challenges faced by today's wilderness navigator. For example, pace
counting is essential for dead reckoning, where azimuth (or direction of travel) data
is combined with pacing (or distance traveled) data. With this technique, one canestablish his or her position in nondescript terrain, foul weather, or even in complete
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darkness. The "dead" in dead reckoning is derived from "ded.," an abbreviation of
"deduced." It's navigation by logical deduction. It does not necessarily mean it's a
deadly form of navigation.
Purchasing pacing beadsCommercially manufactured pace counting beads are hard to find. However, several
military supply outlets currently sell pacing beads configured for the metric
measurement system, which dovetails nicely with 1000-meter UTM grid system
used on CUPG wilderness trips lead by Michael Neiger.
Brigade Quartermasters
1-800-338-4327http://www.actiongear.com
Search "Ranger beads." Item no. RPC295: very tough, nearly indestructible rubber
beads that work well with gloves in cold weather. Item no. SPC9903: SPC9911, or
SPC9995; unique skull-type beads.
Canadian Peacekeeper
1-800-561-3040
http://www.canadianpeacekeeper.com Item no. 1020, uses unbreakable rubber disks, which may be difficult to use at
night or while wearing gloves.
Georgia-Outfitters.com
http://www.georgia-outfitters.com
Item no. 4594. fragile ceramic-type beads.
HSGear
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Fragile ceramic beads.
Major Surplus and Survival
http://www.majorsurplusnsurvival.com
Select "other miscellaneous." Fragile ceramic beads.
Omaha's Original G.I. Surplus
1-888-922-1493
http://www.omahas.com
Select "belts." Fragile ceramic beads.
PPCLI Regimental Kitshop
http://www.nucleus.com/~kitshop/netcat.htm
Item no. 4569.
Ranger Joe's
1-800-247-4541
http://www.rangerjoe.com
Item no. 0122, Fragile ceramic beads.
SpecWarGear
http://www.specwargear.com/
Select "gear" and "survival gear." Fragile ceramic beads.
U.S. Cavalry
1-888-888-7228
http://www.uscav.com
Item no. 18802, unique skull-type beads.
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To construct your own metric-measurement-based pacing beads, you'll need 13 3/8-
inch-diameter wooden beads, which you can buy at a craft shop, and a 33-inch-long
black nylon bootlace from K-Mart or Wal-Mart. Avoid using brittle plastic or
ceramic beads as they will shatter when they bang up against a rock.
Drill a hole, most likely about 3/16-of-an-inch in diameter, through each bead. The
hole should be sized so the bead fits snugly on a doubled-over section of the
bootlace. It's important that the bead not slide by itself on the bootlace; you should
have to pull it along with your fingers.
After folding the lace in half, thread on the beads, four in the top 1000-meter-klick
group (nearest the closed end of the bootlace) and nine in the bottom 100-meter-
march group. Use an overhand knot at each end to prevent the beads from coming
off.
Tie another overhand note in between the two groups of beads to keep them
separated. If you leave a large loop at the looped end, above the overhand knot
located over the four klick beads, you'll be able to use it for attaching the pacing unit
to your pack strap or a D-ring.
Configured for the metric measurement system, which is how it should be for a
CUPG wilderness trip lead by Michael Neiger, you'll be able to keep track of up tofive klicks of travel. Metric-based pacing beads are ideally suited for use with the
UTM grid system and a GPS unit similarly configured. Your finished pacing bead
apparatus should be arranged as follows:
Upper klick (kilometer) counter: four 1000-meter (one klick or kilometer)
beads
Lower march counter: nine 100-meter (1/10 kilometer) march beads
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English-based pacing bead setup
To reconfigure a set of metric pacing beads for use with the English measurement
system, or the statute mile, simply move two of what were the lower 100-meter
march beads to the upper group of what were the one-klick or 1000-meter beads.
The seven lower beads become 110-yard or 1/16-mile march beads and the six
upper beads become 880-yard or half-mile beads.
Configured for the English measurement system, which is not used on CUPG
wilderness trips lead by Michael Neiger, your finished pacing bead apparatus should
be arranged as follows:
Upper half-mile counter: six 880-yard (or 1/2 mile) beads
Lower march counter: seven 110-yard (or 1/16 mile) beads
Field-expedient counting system
A field-expedient pace counting system can be improvised by simply gathering up
several small pebbles or acorns and then moving them from one pocket to another
every 100 meters. Pebbles have long been used for reckoning. The English term
"calculate" is derived from the Latin word "calculus," a term that refers to a small
stone or pebble used for doing arithmetic or reckoning.
Another way of keeping track of your pacing is to make a small slash mark on a
piece of paper as you complete each 100-meter march. Or, you could tie a knot in a
spare bootlace or short piece of cordage.
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Using ranger pacing beads
For the purposes of pace counting, a pace is defined the distance between two foot-
strikes of the right foot. In other words, a pace is counted each time the right foot
strikes the ground, not each time the right and the left foot strikes the ground.
To use pacing beads configured for the metric measurement system, the averageadult male traveling on a flat, open trail can simply count the number of times his
right foot hits the ground and pull a lower 100-meter march bead every 66 paces,
which should equal 100 meters, assuming his pace is about 1.5 meters long. The
number of paces necessary to cover 100 meters for other pace lengths can be
determined by referring to the chart below.
When no lower 100-meter march beads remain to be pulled, simply pull down an
upper klick bead, which represents 1000 meters of travel, and then reset the 100-meter march beads by sliding all 9 back up.
Using pacing beads configured for the English measurement system is equally
simple. The only difference is that when you reach to pull down the eighth march
bead, which does not exist, simply pull an upper half-mile bead, resetting the lower
march beads to begin counting into the next half-mile segment. This setup will
allow you to keep track of up to 3.5 miles worth of pacing.
If you find you must make a lateral move to avoid an natural barrier or obstruction--
be it a swamp, cliff, or lake--always stop your forward pace counting and side step
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to one side at a right angle to your original azimuth.
When you've laterally cleared the obstacle, continue
counting paces as you walk parallel to your original
azimuth route. Once you're beyond the obstacle,
remember to stop counting paces and side step, at a
right angle, an equal number of paces back to your
original line of travel. Begin counting paces again when
you resume travel on your original azimuth.
If a geographical barrier or obstruction
blocks your route, simply move at
right angles to your original azimuth.
(Drawing by Michael Neiger)
Avoid walking directly behind or abreast of another
hiker as their pace may influence your rhythm and
throw off the accuracy of your pacing. Each time you come upon a knownlandmark, which you can confirm on your map, re-start your pacing counting to
ensure maximum accuracy. When traversing known distances, take advantage of the
opportunity to check the accuracy of your pace counting as well as your rate of
travel (minutes per klick).
With practice, pace counting will become nothing more than a subconscious,
background activity that will greatly increase your land navigation abilities.
Figuring your pace
One of the easiest ways to calculate your pace in the field is to simply mark the
location where your right toe (or heel) strikes the ground several times in a row and
then measure the distance between the strike marks to come up with a good average.If you've measured your boot length prior to the trip, you can use your boot in a heel-
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to-toe fashion to determine your pace length. Always calculate your pace with a
loaded rucksack in the bush you are about to traverse.
Once you know how long your pace is, consult the table below to determine how
many paces to count before pulling a 100-meter (or 110-yard) march bead. While
the march-bead pace figures in the table below are in meters, they'll work equally
well with the English measurement system since 100 meters equals 110 yards.
Pace Length Table
Pace length
or distance between
two right foot impressions
Number ofright foot paces
needed to cover
100 meters or 110 yards
6' 0" 55
5' 8" 58
5' 4" 62
5' 0" 66 (average male)
4' 8" 71
4' 4" 76
4' 0" 83
3' 8" 90
3' 4" 99
Always verify your pace length at the start of a trip as well as whenever the terrain,
rucksack load, or another factor affecting your pace length changes. Once fully
mastered, allow for at least a 10 percent error rate on flat open terrain.
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counting of every third pace. You could also recalculate the horizontal distance
advanced for each pace and then use a higher pace count for each 100-meter up- or
down-hill march.
Keep in mind that distances measured on a two-dimensional map account for
horizontal change only--they assume the terrain is flat. On the other hand, your in-
the-field pacing measurements over the same terrain may be longer if the area is
hilly since your pacing will take into account both vertical and horizontal influences.
Factors affecting pace
There are several factors that can influence the length of your pace and ultimately
the accuracy of your results. Make sure you monitor your pace length as conditionschange. Adjust your pace calculations accordingly.
Gradient: walking up or down grades will shorten pace.
Vegetation: weeds, brush, and downed trees will shorten pace.
Surface: loose sand, gravel, mud, standing water, boulders, snow, and ice will
shorten pace.
Weather: high winds will shorten pace.
Fatigue: as fatigue sets in, your pace will shorten. Load: a heavily-loaded rucksack will shorten pace.
Clothing: heavy clothing, bulky boots, or snowshoes slow pace.
Contouring (or traversing): walking sideways on a steep incline will shorten
pace.
Sight distance: darkness, snowfall, heavy rain, and fog will shorten pace.
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On waterproof paper, keep a running log for each leg of your route. It should
include: UTM coordinates, elapsed time, distance paced, directional azimuth, and
landmarks passed, with the time and paced distance noted. These bits of info will
allow you to hone your distance-measuring skills--both pace-based and elapsed-
time-based--as well as approximate where you are if you get disoriented.
Pacing v. Timing
While not as accurate as pacing, estimating distance traveled by the passage of time
is a very useful technique. The best way to establish your rate of travel is to keep
track of how long it takes to progress a certain known distance as determined by
pace counting during your hike. This will ensure that your rate of travel is relative to
the terrain and load at hand. With this information, you can calculate how long it
takes to traverse a klick (1000 meters) as well as a 100-meter march.
What about pedometers?
In his book, "The Essential Navigator: How to Find Your Way in the Outdoors,"David Seidman writes that pedometers are useless on all but firm, level ground. The
gadgets are just not suitable for clambering over deadfalls or traversing rugged
topography.
Top
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T ti & t t i
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Tactics & strategies:
Aiming off
Aiming off is one of the most useful land navigation techniques available towilderness travelers. It is used when you're headed for a distant objective, a
waterfall for example, which is located near a linear or elongated feature, in this
case a twisty river.
Experienced land navigators aim off to one side or
the other of an objective located on a linear feature.
By doing this, they know which way to search for the
objective once they arrive at the linear feature and
don't see the objective.(Drawing by Michael Neiger)
For example, if you attempted the direct
route in the illustration and arrived at the
river, but did not see or hear the waterfall,
which way would you search for it? And,
how long would you look for it in one direction before self-doubt would drive you
to look in the other direction?
To get around this problem, experienced land navigators simply "aim off" to one
side of the waterfall. They don't try to hit it dead-on.
Aiming off involves the intentional addition or subtraction of several degrees of
offset--or purposeful error--to an azimuth so your line of travel to an objective
located on a linear feature takes you to the left or right of it, eliminating any
question of which way you need to search for it if you don't immediately see it.
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intentional offset, and intentional deviation.
Why is "aiming off" necessary
Aiming off is necessary since it is nearly impossible to cut an azimuth without anylateral drift. For example, errors in cartography (map making), map interpretation,
compass design, compass sighting, and azimuth cutting may make it difficult to
accurately navigate directly to a distant objective that is not readily visible.
In addition, external magnetic forces created by wrist compasses, wire rim glasses,
watches, belt buckles, knifes, weapons, ammunition, jewelry, vehicles, fences, and
power lines can influence the accuracy of a magnetic compass, sometimes in a very
subtle, imperceptible manner. Watch out for this.
The longer the distance traveled or the more difficult the terrain, the more these
factors creep in to reduce the accuracy of azimuth cutting.
Average error in azimuth cutting
According to the experts, you should expect about three to five degrees of error--or
lateral drift--when cutting an azimuth with a conventional compass. For example:
In "The Essential Wilderness Navigator," David Seidman says that the average
error in cutting an azimuth through the bush is around 3 degrees.
W.S. Kals writes in the "Land Navigation Handbook" that operator error and
compass error across open terrain generally amounts to about 3 or 4 degrees.
According to Rick Curtis, author of "The Backpacker's Field Manual," anddirector of Princeton University's Outdoor Action Program, 3 to 5 degrees of
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lateral error is the norm
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lateral error is the norm.
In the second edition of "Maps and Compasses," Percy Blandford says that 5
degrees of error in cutting an azimuth is common.
In "Finding Your Way in the Outdoors," Robert Mooers, Jr., says to expect
about 3 degrees of lateral drift.
When should you "aim off"
Aiming off is useful for reaching small, limited visibility objectives that happen to
be located on or near elongated, long-sided, or linear features.
Examples of linear or "catching" features that work well for locating hard-to-find
objectives such as campsites, waterfalls, cabins, caves, ponds, trail intersections,waterway confluences, and so forth include:
jeep trails
foot trails
railroad grades
creeks and rivers
valleys
shorelines utility lines
fence lines
edges of swamps
ditches
tree lines
ridgelines
cliffs and escarpments
firebreaks
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property lines
How much should you aim off?
When calculating how much offset to introduce, keep in mind that each degree ofoffset will shift an azimuth roughly 1/60--or 0.01745 for the more precise--of the
distance traveled.
If you're using the metric measurement system, such as the kilometer, each degree
of deliberate offset will shift an azimuth 17.45 meters to one side of an objective for
every klick (1,000 meters) of travel.
Use the aiming off table below to calculate:
How many meters of lateral offset on the ground will result from each degree
of compass offset.
How many degrees of compass offset you'll need to use to achieve a set
number of meters of lateral offset on the ground.
Aiming Off:
Lateral offset in meters per degree of offset for each klick (1000 meters).
Offset in
degrees
Distance traveled in meters
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
1 17 35 52 70 87
2 35 70 105 140 175
3 52 105 157 209 262
4 70 140 209 280 350
5 87 175 262 349 4366 105 209 314 419 524
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7 122 244 366 489 611
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7 122 244 366 489 611
8 140 280 419 558 698
9 157 314 471 628 785
10 175 350 524 698 873
For those preferring to use the English measurement system, such as the statute
mile, each degree of deliberate offset will shift an azimuth about 92.14 feet to oneside of an objective for every mile (5280 feet) of travel.
Trigonometry behind aiming off
For those into trig--the problem-solving method developed long ago by the
Egyptians, Babylonians, and Greeks--the authors of several leading land navigationtextbooks recommend that you take the tangent of 1 degree and multiply it by the
distance traveled to determine how much offset will result from each degree of
change.
This recommendation notwithstanding, a closer look at the geometric problem
involved in aiming off seems to indicate the tangent solution is more appropriate for
right-angle-type problems, not the oblique-type triangle problem aiming off
involves.
Since aiming off involves an isosceles triangle--a non-right-angle triangle with two
equal-length sides--the more appropriate trigonometric function may be the sine. To
use the sine function to determine how much offset will result from the addition of
one degree, you would multiply the distance traveled by the sine of one degree
divided by the sine of 89.5 degrees.
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How much offset do the experts recommend?
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How much offset do the experts recommend?
The experts recommend that you use an offset of somewhere between 2 and 11
degrees. For example:
In "The Essential Wilderness Navigator," David Seidman recommends that
you aim off by 5 degrees. In its "Map Reading" field manual, the U.S. Army uses 10 degrees of
deliberate offset in their example.
In his book, "The Green Beret's Compass Course," retired Special Forces Sgt.
Don Paul recommends that you use 2 or 3 degrees of lateral offset.
In "The Outward Bound Map and Compass Handbook," Gleen Randal says to
change your azimuth by 10 degrees.
In the "Land Navigation Handbook," W.S. Kals also recommends 10 degrees
of offset. In "Orienteering--Skills and Strategies," Ron Lowry and Ken Sidney suggest
using an offset of between 6 and 11 degrees.
In the second edition of "Teaching Orienteering," Carol McNeill, Jean Cory-
Wright, and Tom Renfrew appear to advocate aiming off between 3 and 7
degrees.
In the revised edition of "Orienteering," John Disley recommends an offset of
7 degrees or so.
In the second edition of "Maps and Compasses," Percy Blandford suggests anoffset of 10 degrees.
Keep in mind that if you don't use enough lateral offset, you may unknowingly find
yourself on the wrong side of your objective due to unintentional lateral drift, which
may result from a number of factors including inaccurate compass sighting and the
inability to walk a precise azimuth.
In other words, if you aim off by adding two degrees to your azimuth, but happen toexperience a lateral drift of minus three degrees, you'll unknowingly end up on the
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opposite of your objective. Thinking you re on the intended side of your objective,
your search may be futile.
In general, the longer the distance, the more difficult the terrain, or the less precise
your azimuth cutting, the greater the amount of lateral offset you'll need.
Which way should you aim off?
Sea kayakers and wilderness canoeists will usually want to aim upwind or up-
current so they can paddle with the current or wind to their objective once the linear
feature is reached.
Snowshoers and cross-country skiers will likely want to aim for the uphill side oftheir objective so they can simply travel downhill to it and avoid an uphill struggle.
Everything else being equal, opt for the shortest route.
Handling obstructions while aiming off
If you're not running a precise, point-to-point azimuth offset, always veer around
obstructions and obstacles on the same side as you are intending to arrive at your
objective on. In other words, if you're aiming to hit a linear feature to the left of your
objective, always go around the left side of any obstruction blocking your path so
you don't accidentally "undo" the few degrees of offset you've built into your
azimuth and unknowingly end up on the wrong side of it.
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Top
Tactics & strategies:
Magnetic declination
Magnectic declination calculators
Magnetic Declination Calculator by the Canadian Geological Survey
http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/geomag/field/mdcalc_e.php
Geomagnetic Data
by NOAA
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/jsp/Declination.jsp
Top
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di t t
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coordinate systems Go to Latitude/longitude coordinate sytem page
Top
Land navigation links
Barry's Scouting Resource Page
http://members.tripod.com/~BFarns/index-compass.html
How to Use a Compass
http://www.learn-orienteering.org/old/
Map and Compass for Firefightershttp://www.nwcg.gov/pms/training/map_comp.pdf
A U.S. Government self-study course for wildland firefighters
Map Reading and Land Navigation (Army FM 3-25.26)
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25-26/
Complete online version of Army manual.
Maps and Compasses
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http://education.qld.gov.au/tal/kla/compass
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http://education.qld.gov.au/tal/kla/compass
Topographic Symbols (Army FM 21-31)
http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/21-31/toc.htm
Complete online version of Army manual
U.S. Geological Survey
http://www.usgs.gov
Select "fact sheets," "mapping," and "fact sheets."
Top
Orienteering links
International Orienteering Federation
http://www.orienteering.org/
Orienteering Canada
http://www.orienteering.ca/
Swedish Orienteering Federation
http://www.orientering.se/t2.asp?p=29835
http://www.orientering.se
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http://www.us.orienteering.org/
World of O
http://www.fi.uib.no/~jankoc/worldofo/
Top
Land
navbooks
Advanced Coastal Navigation AN-1 , 2nd edition (U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary)
Basic Coastal Navigation--An I ntroduction to Pil oting , by F. J. Larkin (Sheridan
House, 1993)
Basic Essenti als of M ap and Compass , 2nd edition, by Cliff Jacobson (ICS Books,
Inc., 1997)
Basic F ield Manual--Advanced Map and Aer ial Photograph Reading (U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1941)
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Basic Map Reading Ski ll s , by Peter W. Preksto (Creative Education, 1979)
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p g , y ( , )
Basic M ap Reading , by Keith Gillard (Longman [England], 1990)
Be Expert with Map and Compass--The Complete Ori enteeri ng H andbook , by
Bjorn Kjellstrom (MacMillan General Reference, 1994)
Better Ways of Pathf inding , by Robert S. Owendoff (Stackpole Books, 1964)
Celestial Navigation , by Tom Cunliffe (Fernhurst Books, 2001)
Celestial Navigation in a Nutshell , by Hewitt Schlereth (Sheridan House, Inc.,
2000)
Celestial Navigation Quick and Easy--I n Your H ead Calculations of L atitude and
Longitude , by Roy T. Maloney (Dropzone Press, 2000)
Compass and M ap Navigator--The Complete Guide to Staying Found , by Michael
Hodgson (Globe Pequot Press, 2000)
Compass and Maps (Girl Scouts of the United States of America, 1973)
Concise Book of Map Reading , by Terry Brown and Rob Hunter (Gaga Publishing,
1980)
Contour , by Cecil McCallum and Andrew Baxter (Holmes-McDougall)
Contours , by C. Boxhall and E. G. P. Devereaux (Philip, 1965)
Cross-country Navigation , by Rod Phillips and Neil Phillips (Outdoor Recreation in
Australia, 1989)
Elementary Map Reading (War Office [London], 1943)
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Elements of Navigation--Prepared Especiall y for Home Study (International
Correspondence Schools, 1941)
Essential Wi lderness Navigator--H ow to Fi nd Your Way in the Great Outdoors ,
by David Seidman (Ragged Mountain Press, 1995)
Essentials of M ap I nterpretation--A Workbook , Palmyra M. Leahy and Robert E.Cramer, second edition (Kendall/Hunt, 1991)
Exerci ses in Map Reading and Map Analysis , by John E. Mulhauser (University of
Akron)
Explori ng and Finding the Way , by David Watkins and Meike Dalal (Usborne
[London], 1979)
Finding Your Way in the Outdoors--Compass Navigation, Map Reading, Route
F inding, Weather Forecasting , by Robert L. Mooers (Sedgewood Press, 1990)
Finding Your Way on Land or Sea--Reading Natur e's Maps , by Harold Gatty (S.
Greene Press, 1983)
Finding Your Way--The Ar t of Natural Navigation , by Jennifer Dewey and
Stephen Trimble (Millbrook Press, 2001)
Finding Your Way With Map and Compass (U.S. Geological Survey, 2000)
Finding Your Way Without Map or Compass , by Harold Gatty (Dover
Publications, Inc., 1999)
Green Beret' s Compass Cour se--The New Way to Stay Found (Not L ost)
Anywhere , by SSG. Don Paul (Pathfinder Publications, 1985)
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Have Map, Have Compass, Wi ll Travel--A Walker' s Guide to the Use of M ap and
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p p p
Compass , by Kenneth R. Walpole (K. Walpole, 1999)
How to Navigate Over L and , Noel J. Hotchkiss (Stocker and Yale, 1991)
How to Read a Map--Using and Understanding Maps , by Scott E. Morris (Chelsea
House Publishers, 1993)
How to Teach Map and Compass Skil ls , by Robert P. Larkin (National Science
Teachers Association, 1976)
How to Teach with Topographic Maps , by Dana Van Burgh, Elizabeth N. Lyons,
and Marcy Boyington (National Science Association, 1988)
How to Use a Compass , by Kjetil Kjernsmos
I ntroduction to Topographic M ap Reading , by Kenneth C. Thompson (Southwest
Missouri State University Department of Geography, Geology, and Planning, 1992)
Fundamentals of Kayak Navigation , by David Burch (The Globe Pequot Press,
1999)
* * Land Navigation Handbook--The Sierr a Club Guide to Map and Compass , by
W.S. Kals (Sierra Club Books, 1983)
Land Navigation , by Bob Newman and Susan Newman (Menasha Ridge Press)
Land Navigation f or Outdoor Enthusiasts , by Bob Newman (Menasha Ridge
Press, Inc., 1995)
Land Navigation--Routefi nding Wi th Map and Compass , by Wally Keay and
Nicholas Gair (Duke of Edinburghsaward [London], 1989)
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Manual of M ap Reading (Ministry of Defence [Great Britian], 1973)
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( y )
Manual of Map Reading and Land Navigation, second edition (Ministry of
Defence [Great Britain], 1988)
Map and Compass , by Cliff Jacobson (Globe Pequot, 2000)
Map and Compass--A Practical Modern Guide to Map Reading and the Day andNi ght Use of M odern Compasses , by John B. L. Noel (Simpkin Marshall, Ltd.
[London], 1942)
Map and Compass--Discover the Excitement , by Erkka Laininen (Sunnto Oy
[Finland], 1996)
Map and Compass Fundamentals--Or ienteeri ng , by Toy Martin and Dave Lotty
(Reed, 1976)
Map and Compass--I nstructor M anual , by Gail S. Ludwig (Missouri Department
of Conservation, 1983)
Map and Compass Manual , by Jackson L. Carter (Carter's Manual Company, 1954)
Map and Compass Ski ll s for the Secondary School , by Robert P. Larkin (National
Council for Geographic Education, 1976)
Map and Compass Study--Conservation and Envir onmental Ski ll s , by Frank G.
Patterson, V. Eugene Vivian, and Norma T. Vivian (Conservation and
Environmental Studies Center, 1969)
Map and Compass--The Pri nciples of Ori entation , by Charles Thoene (Edward
Stanford, Ltd. [London], 1955)
Map Catalog--Every Kind of M ap and Chart on Earth and Even Some Above I t ,http://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (47 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM
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3rd edition, edited by Joel Makower (Vintage Books, 1992)
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Map, Compass, and Campfi re--A H andbook for the Outdoorsman , by Donald E.
Ratliff (Binfords and Mort, 1992)
Map, Compass, GPS--An I ntr oduction , by Robert Rutten (Outdoor
Communications, 2000)
Map Essentials--A Comprehensive Map Ski ll s Program (National Geographic
School Publishing, 2001)
Map Reading (EP Publishing, 1983)
Map Reading (National Learning Corporation, 1998)
Map Reading (Tac Ops) --A Self-teaching Device, by Donald E. Meyer (1950)
Map Reading , by Jack Rudman (National Learning Corporation)
Map Reading , by L. M. Sebert and Sandi Lamanna (Renouf Pub. [Ontario], 1984)
Map Reading , by Robert B Matkin (Dalesman, 1997)
Map Reading , by the Australian Fire Authorities Council (Addison WesleyLongman, 1996)
Map Reading FM 21-26 , by the Department of the Army (U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1969, 1983). Excellent.
Map Reading and Aeri al Photographs , by Brian O Cinneide and William
MacNamara (Educational Company [Dublin], 1986)
Map Reading and Land Navigation (Army FM 3-25.26)
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http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25-26/
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Map Reading and Land Navigation , by U.S. Army Infantry School (Desert
Publications, 1995)
Map Reading and Land Navigation , by William (Gordon Press Publishers, 1990)
Map Reading and the Troop Leading Procedure (MS 102), by USMA Staff(Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1993)
Map Reading Handbook , 2nd edition (TASMAP, Tasmania Department of
Environment, 1991)
Map Reading Skil ls , by Peter W. Preksto (Creative Company, 1979)
Map Reading Train ing Course , by Steve Depenbrok (Peace Corps)
Map Skil ls , by Brian Turk (UTP [Great Britian], 1983)
Map Skil ls , by Pam Robson (1998)
Map Skil ls , by Seymour Reit (Macmillan Educational Company, 1984)
Map Skil ls , four volumes (Phoenix Learning Resources, 1989)
Map Use--Reading, Analysis, and I nterpretation , 4th edition, by Phillip C.
Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (JP Publications, 1998). Weighing nearly 3
pounds, this 650-page bible is chock-full of detailed map and nav info.
Maps and Compasses , 2nd edition, by Percy W. Blanford (Tab Books, 1992)
Mil itary Map Reading for the New Army , by W. Stanley Lewis and F.W. Morgan(Whitconbe & Tombs, 1945)
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Mil it S i MS 102 St d t T t M R di d th T L di
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Mil itar y Science, MS 102, Student Text--M ap Reading and the Troop Leading
Procedures (West Point Military Academy, 1991)
Natur e is Your Guide--How to F ind Your Way on Land and Sea , by Harold Gatty
(Collins, 1977)
Navigation--F inding Your Way on Land and Sea , by Tony Gibbs (Franklin Watts,1975)
Navigation: Land, Sea, Air and Space , by Myron Kayton, editor (Institute of
Electrical & Electronics, 1990)
Never Get Lost--The Green Beret' s Compass Course , by Don Paul (Path Finder
Publications, 1991)
New Explorer' s Guide to Maps and Compass , by Percy W. Blandford (McGraw-
Hill Companies,1992)
Notes on Maps and Map Reading , by H. M. E. Brunker, second edition (W.
Clowes, 1905)
" On Track" Map Reading and Camping Guide--An Educational Resource
(Australian Navigation Skills and Accessory Services, 1994)
Ordnance Survey Map Ski ll s Book , by Chris Warn (Nelson and Ordnance
[London], 1991)
Outward Bound Map and Compass Handbook , by Glenn Randall (Lyons and
Burford, 1998)
Pathfi nder 's Handbook , by Christine Kennedy, Mark Smith, Pat Hancock, andWilliam Kimber (Somerville House Publishing, 1993)
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Piloting Seamanship and Small Boat Handling by Charles F Chapman (Motor
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Piloting Seamanship and Small Boat Handling , by Charles F. Chapman (Motor
Boating)
Plan Your Route--The New Approach to M ap Reading , by Victor Selwyn (David
& Charles, 1987)
Primer of Navigation , fourth edition, by George W. Mixter (D. Van Nostrand Co.,Inc., 1960). Covers older, traditional at-sea navigation techniques.
Reading the Outdoors at Night , by Vinson Brown (Stackpole, 1982)
Route F inding--Navigating with M ap and Compass , by Gregory Crouch (Falcon
Press, 1999)
Sextant Handbook , by Bruce A. Bauer (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1995)
Sierra Club Wayfi nding Book , by Vicki McVey and Martha Weston (Sierra Club
Books, 1989)
Simple Map Reading , by Roger Smith (The Stationary Office [Edinburgh], 1997)
Simply Map-Reading , by Richard Neve (Telegraph [London], 1988)
Sniper Training and Employment TC 23-14 , by the Department of the Army (U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1969). Good nav info.
Spur Book of Map and Compass , by Terry Brown and Rob Hunter (Spur Books
[Great Britain], 1977)
Staying Found--The Complete Map and Compass Handbook , 2nd edition, by June
Fleming (The Mountaineers, 2001)
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Step in the Right D ir ection--A Basic Map and Compass Book , by Don Geary
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(Stackpole, 1980)
Topographi c Map and Compass Use , by Michael Taylor (Cornell University
Instructional Materials Services, 1991)
Topographic Symbols (Army FM 21-31)
http://www.adtdl.army.mil/cgi-bin/atdl.dll/fm/21-31/toc.htm
U.S. Army Map Reading and Land Navigation Handbook, by the Department of
the Army (The Lyons Press, 2004)
Using a Compass and Pacing , by Robert Bardon (Raleigh, North Carolina
Cooperative Extension Service, 2000)
Using a Map and Compass , by Don Geary (Stackpole Books, 1995)
Wilderness Navigation--F inding Your Way Using Map, Compass, Al timeter, and
GPS , by Bob Burns, Mike Burns, and Paul Hughes (Mountaineers Books, 1999)
Wilderness Route F inder- -The Classic Guide to Fi nding Your Way in the Wild , by
Calvin Rutstrum (University of Minnesota, 2000)
Wilderness Route F inder- -The Complete Guide to F inding Your Way in theWilderness , by Calvin Rutstrum (Collier Books, 1967)
You Can Be an Expert Wi th Compass and Map--The Orienteeri ng Handbook , by
Erik T. Hjalmar and Rigney J. Francis (American Orienteering Service, 1977)
You'l l Never Get Lost Again--Simple Navigation for Everyone , by Robert R.
Singleton (Winchester Press, 1979)
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Top
Orienteeringbooks
Armchair Or ienteer ing--A Practical Guide to Reading Orienteeri ng Maps , byStott Wnifred (Manitoba Orienteering Association, 1992)
AskERIC L esson Plans--Orienteeri ng: Map Skil ls
Basic Or ienteer ing , Michael J. Riley and Robert Cremer (Contemporary Books,
1979)
Be Expert with Map and Compass--The Complete Ori enteeri ng H andbook , byBjorn Kjellstrom (MacMillan General Reference, 1994)
Camping and Orienteeri ng , by Michael Jay (Warwick Press, 1990)
Chall enge of Or ienteeri ng , by Gordon Pirie (Pelham [London], 1968)
Circular Ori enteeri ng , by Gerald Vinestock (G. Vinestock, 1980)
Complete Guide to Orienteeri ng in Nor th Ameri ca--A Comprehensive Manual for
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the Outdoorsman , by Berndt Bergland (Pagurian Press, 1979)
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Complete Ori enteeri ng Manual , by Peter Palmer (Crowood Press, 1997)
D. Q.--A Basic M anual for Beginning Orienteers , by Jack Dyess (J & N
Enterprises, 1975)
Discoveri ng Orienteeri ng , by Tony Walker (Shire, 1973)
Discoveri ng Orienteeri ng and Wayfar ing , by Tony Walker (Shire, 1979)
Famil y Orienteeri ng--Fun and Fi tness With Map and Compass (Orienteering
Federation of Australia, 1980)
Female F itness on Foot--Walking, Jogging, Runni ng, Orienteeri ng , by Bob
O'Conner, Christine Wells, and Eldin Onsgard (Wish Publishing, 2002)
Get F it f or Ori enteeri ng , by Steve Bird (Nonington Press [England], 1996)
How to Use a Compass--Using an Orienteer ing Compass for Fun & Exploration
(SCIGO, 1992)
Learn Orienteeri ng (Rebard O-Kartservice [Norway], 1988)
Let' s Get Into Orienteer ing , by Toy. Martin and Robin Winterford (Aussie Sports
Books, 1991)
Map and Compass Fundamentals--Or ienteeri ng , by Toy Martin and Dave Lotty
(Reed, 1976)
Modern Or ienteeri ng Traini ng , by Wilfred Holloway (Holl-O-Lit Publishers, 1980)
Orienteering (A. & C. Black [London], 1995)
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Orienteering (Boy Scouts of America 1995)
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Orienteering (Boy Scouts of America, 1995)
Orienteering (Nova Scotia Department of Education, 1978)
Orienteering (P.D. Hasselberg [New Zealand], 1980)
Orienteering , by Brian Martin Henley (E. P. Publishing & Scottish OrienteeringFederation, 1978)
Orienteering , by Brian Porteous (Oxford Illustrated Press, 1978)
Orienteering , by Carol McNeill (Crowood Press, LTD, 1996)
Orienteering , by D. J. Foster and R. R. McGraw (Curriculum and Research Branch,
Education Department [Melbourne], 1974)
Orienteering , by J. D. Watson, Laurence Ernest Liddell, and Hugh Chapman (E. P.
Publishing & Scottish Orienteering Association, 1973)
Orienteering , by John Disley (Stackpole Books, 1979)
Orienteering , by Hans Bengtsson (Ward Lock [London], 1978)
Orienteering , by Neil Champion (Heinemann Library, 2000)
Orienteering , by Roger Smith (State Mutual, 1981)
Orienteering , by Tom Renfrew (Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1997)
Orienteeri ng--A Mental Tr aining Workbook , by Gordon L. Underwood and
Stephen R. Bird (Nonington Press, 1997)
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Ori enteeri ng Book , by Steve Anderson (Anderson World, 1977)
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Ori enteeri ng for F itness and Pleasure , by Norman Harris (World's Work, 1978)
Ori enteeri ng for Spor t and Pleasure , by George Atkinson and Hans Bengtsson
(Green, 1977)
Ori enteeri ng for Spor t and Pleasure , by Hans Bengtsson and George Atkinson(The Stephen Green Press, 1977)
Ori enteeri ng for the Young (International Orienteering Foundation)
Ori enteeri ng--Fun and F itness Wi th Map and Compass , by Peter C. Nicholls
(New South Wales Sport and Recreation Service, 1975)
Ori enteeri ng Handbook , by Anne Anthony (Hancock House, 1980)
Ori enteeri ng Handbook--Mankato State Un iversity Army ROTC , by Edward C.
Otto
Orienteeri ng Instructor' s Manual , by James Gilchrist and Lee Jack (Orienteering
Ontario, 1984)
Orienteeri ng--Instructor' s Manual , by Peter C. Nicholls (Martin Educational inAssociation with Orienteering Service of Australia, 1977)
Ori enteeri ng--I nstructor' s Resource Manual , by Wilf Wedmann, Jennifer Fenton,
and Bryna Kopelow (BC Recreation and Sport, Premier's Sports Awards Program,
1990)
Ori enteeri ng--Skil ls and Strategies , by Ron Lowry and Ken Sidney (Orienteering
Ontario, 1987)
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Ori enteeri ng--The Adventur e Game , by Ron Lowry (Orienteering Ontario, 1987)
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Ori enteeri ng the Easy Way--A Practical Guide to Learni ng, Teaching, and
Practicing Orienteeri ng Skill s , by Brian Kendrick (B. Kendrick, 2000)
Ori enteeri ng--The Skil ls of the Game , by Carol McNeill (Crowood Press
[England], 1996)
Ori enteeri ng--The Sport of Navigating With Map and Compass , by Steven Boga
(Stackpole Books, 1997)
Orienteeri ng Training and Coaching , by Carol McNeil, et al. (British Orienteering
Federation, 1982)
Orienteeri ng--Traini ng for Perf ormance , by Ron Lowry and Ken Sidney
(Orienteering Ontario, 1986)
Outward Bound Orienteeri ng Handbook , by Martin Bagness (Ward Lock
[London], 1995)
Penguin Book of Ori enteeri ng , by Roger Smith (Penguin, 1983)
Rogain ing, Cross-country Navigation , by Neil Phillips and Rod Phillips (Outdoor
Recreation in Australia, 1982)
Rules of Foot Orienteeri ng (Irish Orienteering Association, 2000)
Ski ll s of the Game , by Carol McNeill (Corwood Press, 1996)
Start Or ienteeri ng (5-book series), by Carol McNeill and Tom Renfrew (Harveys,
1990)
Tackle Ori enteeri ng , by John Disley (Stanley Paul [London], 1982)http://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (57 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM
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Teaching Orienteeri ng (Johnson Camping Inc 1991)
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Teaching Orienteeri ng (Johnson Camping, Inc., 1991)
Teaching Orienteeri ng , second edition, by Carol McNeill, Jean Cory-Wright, and
Tom Renfrew (Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc., 1998). An excellent, inside look at
the skill of orienteering.
Thi s is Orienteeri ng , by Jim Rand and Tony Walker (Pelham & BritishOrienteering Federation [London], 1976)
Trail Ori enteeri ng , by Anne Braggins (Harveys, 1993)
Venture Ori enteer ing (Boy Scouts of America, 1989)
Wilderness Navigation H andbook , by Fred Touche (Touche Publishing, 2004)
Worl d Class Or ienteeri ng , by Wilfred Holloway (Holl-O-Lit Publishers, 1980)
World of Orienteering (International Orienteering Federation [Finland], 1998)
Your Way With Map and Compass--Or ienteeri ng
Top
Land nav
equipment vendorshttp://therucksack.tripod.com/landnav.htm (58 of 89)07/26/2009 11:10:00 AM
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A & E Orienteering
1-785-594-3516
http://www.aeorienteering.com/
Adventure GPS
1-888-477-4386http://www.gps4fun.com
Ben Meadows Company
1-800-241-6401
http://www.benmeadows.com
Compass Store 1-770-682-9885
http://www.thecompassstore.com/
866gaiters.com
1-888-424-8377
http://866gaiters.com/
Forestry Supplies, Inc. 1-800-647-5368
http://www.forestry-suppliers.com
Go Orienteering!, Inc.
1-866-424-8377
http://www.866gaiters.com
Moscow Compass
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http://www.moscompass.ru/
http://www moscompass ru/eng/index eng htm
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http://www.moscompass.ru/eng/index-eng.htm
Russian-made compasses
Orienteering Unlimited, Inc.
http://www.orienteeringunlimited.com
Scarborough Orienteering 1-877-850-2420
http://www.orienteer.com/
Silverman's Ltd. (10-06)
2 Harford St.
Mile End
London E1 4PS
1-0171-790-5257
http://www.silvermans.co.uk
Unique British land nav gear
Waypoint Enterprises
1-888-412-2600
http://www.waypoint-ent.com
Additional sources for land navigational tools can also be found in the "general" and
"military" sections of the backpacking resources page of this Web site.
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Compass
manufacturers
Brunton Company
1-800-443-4871
http://www.brunton.com/
Note: In addition to distributing Brunton compasses, Brunton, as a subsidiary of
Silva Production AB (Silva Sweden AB) since 1996, also distributes Silva
compasses in the U.S. under the Nexus name.
Kasper-Richter (K&R) Compasses
http://www.kasper-richter.de/english/compasses.html
Moscow Compass
http://www.moscompass.ru/
http://www.moscompass.ru/eng/index-eng.htm
Nexus
1-800-443-4871
http://www.brunton.com/
Note: Nexus compasses are Silva compasses distributed in the U.S. under the U.S.
trade name of Nexus by Brunton.
Pyser-SGI Limitedhttp://www.pyser-sgi.com/index.asp
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Precision military compasses from the United Kingdom
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Recta AG
http://www.recta.ch
Note: Precision, Swiss-made compasses distributed by the Suunto USA.
Silva Sweden AB
http://www.silva.se/ Note: In the U.S., Silva Sweden AB compasses are distributed by Brunton under
the Nexus name. In the U.S., Johnson Outdoors, Inc. distributes compasses under
the name of Silva.
Silva (U.S.)
1-262-884-1500
http://www.silvacompass.com/
Note: Johnson Outdoors, Inc., distrubutes Silva compasses under the Silva name
in the U.S.
Sun Company
1-800-441-0132
http://www.suncompany.net
Compasses are listed under both "compasses" and "outdoor instruments."
Suunto USA
1-800-543-9124
http://www.suuntousa.com
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Topographic
map vendors
Michigan 1:24000 & 1:25000 topo map vendors
United States Geological Survey
1-888-275-8747
http://www.usgs.gov/
Select "Map" link http://ask.usgs.gov/maps.html
for map ordering info.
MapMart
1-303-759-5050
http://www.mapmart.com/
Stocks paper quads; restocks daily with local USGS map office
Off-Route.com
1-775-787-7444
http://www.offroute.com
Sells unique, customized topographic maps for your trip.
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Federal Maps
1 888 545 8111
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1-888-545-8111
http://www.fedmaps.com
Order free map index to determine which maps you need.
Allow several weeks for delivery.
Ontario 1:20000 color topo base map vendors
Ministry of Natural Resources
300 Water Street
P.O. Box 7000
Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 8M5
1-800-667-1940http://themnrstore.mnr.gov.on.ca
Click on "English" and "maps"
Order free map index to determine which maps you need.
Most detailed maps available.
Allow several weeks for delivery.
Top
County map vendorsMichi gan Recreational Travel At las
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Universal Map
1-800-829-6277
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1 800 829 6277
http://universalmap.com
This 11-by-17-inch book of maps is a recommended county map source for
wilderness trips since its maps include section numbers as well as township and
range information. It also includes many old roads and placenames. Simply
photocopy the appropriate maps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book
itself in your vehicle for easy reference when searching for the trailhead.
Michigan County Atlas
Universal Map
1-800-829-6277
http://universalmap.com
Note: This 11-by-17-inch book is no longer in print. It may be available used, or
via your local library.
This book of maps is highly recommended county map source for wilderness trips
since its maps include section numbers as well as township and range information. It
also includes many old roads and placenames. Simply photocopy the appropriate
maps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book itself in your vehicle for easy
reference when searching for the trailhead. However, this map lacks latitudinal and
longitudinal data, which is handy when trying to decided what topographic mapsyou need to buy for a bush trip.
Michigan County Map Guide (2000)
Michigan United Conservation Clubs (MUCC)
1-800-777-6720
http://www.mucc.org Note: This 11-by-17-inch book is no longer in print. It may be available used, or
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via your local library.
This book of maps is a recommended county map source for wilderness trips since
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This book of maps is a recommended county map source for wilderness trips since
its maps include section numbers as well as township and range information. Simply
photocopy the appropriate maps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book
itself in your vehicle for easy reference when searching for the trailhead. However,
this map lacks latitudinal and longitudinal data, which is handy when trying to
decided what topographic maps you need to buy for a bush trip.
Michi gan Atlas & Gazetteer
DeLorme Mapping Company
1-800-561-5105
http://www.delorme.com
Note: While this 11-by-17-inch book of maps lacks critical section lines and
numbers as well as township and range information, its inclusion of latitudinal andlongitudinal data makes it very useful for deciding which topographic maps to buy
for a bush trip.
Mapbook of M ichigan Counties (1984)
Michigan Natural Resources Magazine
Michigan Department Of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 30034
Lansing, Michigan 48909
Note: This 11-by-17-inch book is no longer in print. It may be available used, or via
your local library.
This book of maps is highly recommended county map source for wilderness trips
since its maps include section numbers as well as township and range information. It
also includes many old roads and placenames. Simply photocopy the appropriatemaps and stow them in your pack. Keep the map book itself in your vehicle for easy
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DeLorme Mapping Company
1-800-561-5105
1-800 452-5931
http://www.delorme.com
MapTech
1-888-839-5551
http://www.maptech.com
See Terrain Navigator product
National Geographic Maps
1-800-962-1643
http://www.nationalgeographic.com
Select "maps"
Top
Digital maps online
Topographic maps
GIS Data Depot
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http://www.gisdatadepot.com
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MapTech
http://www.maptech.com
Select "online maps"
TerraServer
http://www.terraserver.microsoft.com
TopoZone.com
http://www.topozone.com
Other maps online
Doyle's GIS Links Web Pagehttp://www.doylesdartden.com/gis/
Oddens' Bookmarks, Universiteit Utrecht
http://oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.php
UC Berkeley Library
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/
University of Texas Library
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps
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Aerial/satellite images
Online images
Google Maps and Images
http://maps.google.com/maps
Satellite images of U.S. & Canada.
Use "local search" for detailed views
Michigan DNR Satellite Images
http://www.michigan.gov/dnr
Select "publications & maps" & "aerial imagery archive"
Hardcopy images
Michigan DNR
http://www.michigan.gov/dnr
Select "publications & maps" & "aerial imagery archive"
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
300 Water Street
P.O. Box 7000
Peterborough, Ontario, Canada K9J 8M5
1-800-667-1940
http://themnrstore.mnr.gov.on.ca
Click on "English" and "air photos"
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Top
Know what to do
when your GPS unitmalfunctions
deep in the bush
As GPS units become commonplace among wilderness trippers, so does the
potential for trouble when one of them malfunctions. Like any essential electronic
device, it's not a question of "if" your global positioning system device will fail. It's
only a question of "when" it will fail, and if you'll know what to do.
Learn basic map & compass skills
If your safety depends on a GPS unit, you should be prepared to navigate without it
when it malfunctions deep in the wilderness. Carrying your GPS unit in a padded
case and knowing how to use the device are not enough.
You must also have a working knowledge of land navigation with map and
compass. Your rucksack should contain a GPS instruction manual, topographic map,
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(USGS) topographic maps, which cover a 6- by 8.5-mile area.
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Experienced land navigators never enter the wilderness without these detailed, multi-
colored quads. Carry your waterproofed maps in clear-plastic zip-lock bags.
Carry a high-quality compassDetailed maps are of little value without a compass, so always carry an orienteering-
style compass. The large, see-through, plastic-based ones from Silva, Suunto, or
Brunton are the most useful and reliable.
Use the UTM grid system, not Lat/Lon
The cumbersome process of calculating and plotting latitudinal and longitudinal
coordinates in the field can be simplified by switching your unit's coordinate system
from lat/lon to the UTM coordinate system.
The UTM system is the hands-down favorite of experienced land navigators; it's
also very similar to the military's MGRS coordinate system.
Set up GPS unit properly
After switching coordinate systems, make sure you select the appropriate horizontal
map datum in your unit's setup menu. Check the margin of your map for the correct
datum setting.
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etc. Jot down your direction of approach and departure from each of these locations
too. It's also important to record any critical waypoints in your notes or plot them on
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your map.
Practice calculating where you are
By taking regular notes, knowing how to use your GPS unit's UTM grid coordinate
system, and understanding the basics of map and compass land navigation, you'll be
able to quickly formulate an alternative plan when your GPS unit malfunctions.
You'll be able to approximate where you are relative to your last known position and
then determine which direction you need to proceed to return to your vehicle or
campsite.
Always carry a survival kit
As with any outdoor adventure, your last line of defense is always the survival kit
tucked deep in your rucksack and an approximate itinerary left with a trusted
person.
Learn more with these books
To learn more about GPS units and how to use the UTM grid coordinate system,
read the very inexpensive "Using GPS--GPS Simplified for Outdoor Adventures,"
by Bruce Grubbs (1999, Falcon Publishing Co., ISBN 1560448210) and "GPS Made
Easy--Using Global Positioning Systems in the Outdoors, third edition, by
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Lawrence Letham (2001, Mountaineers Books, ISBN 0898868025).
A th h i k th bj t i "A C h i G id t
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Another, more comprehensive work on the subject is "A Comprehensive Guide to
Land Navigation with GPS," third edition, by Noel J. Hotchkiss (1999, Alexis,
ISBN 189268800X).
Learn more on the Internet
On the Internet visit http://www.usgs.gov ("fact sheets," "mapping," "fact sheets,"
and "The Global Positioning System"), http://www.maptools.com, and http://www.
joe.mehaffey.com.
To make your own UTM coordinate plotter, visit http://www.maptools.com.
Where to purchase equipment
Information about where to buy maps, compasses, UTM plotters, waterproof
notepads, and write-in-the-rain pens, is available elsewhere on this page.
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Top
GPS li k
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GPS linksGeocaching - The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site
http://www.geocaching.com/
GPS Navigator Magazine
http://www.gpsnavigatormagazine.com
Online magazine
James Associates GPS info page
http://www.macgpspro.com/links.html
Joe Mehaffey and Jack Yeazel's GPS Information
http://www.joe.mehaffey.com
http://www.gpsinformation.net/
Map Tools
http://www.maptools.com
Peter Bennett's GPS info pagehttp://www.vancouver-webpages.com/peter/index.html
Sam Wormley's GPS info page
http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/gps.html
University of Colorado at Boulder
Global Positioning System Overview
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html
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U.S. Geological Survey
http://www.usgs.gov
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Select "fact sheets," "mapping," "fact sheets,"
and "The Global Positioning System."
Top
GPS books
Comprehensive Guide to Land Navigation wi th GPS , 3rd edition, by Noel J.
Hotchkiss (Alexis, 1999)
Global Navigation--A GPS User' s Guide , by Neil Ackroyd and Robert Lorimer(LLP, Inc., 1994). Sea navigation.
Global Positioni ng System--Theory and Practice , by B. Hofmann-Weuenhof,
Herbert Lichtenegger, and James Collins (Springer-Verlag, 2001). Technical
GPS (Basic Essentials Series) , by Scottie Barnes (Globe Pequot, 2000)
GPS for Everyone: How the Global Positi oning System Can Work for You , by L.
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Casey Larijani (American Interface Corporation, 1998). General overview of GPS
and it's implications for society in the future.
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GPS I nstant Navigation--A Practical Guide From Basics to Advanced
Techniques , by Kevin Monahan, Don Douglass, and Reanne Hemingway-Douglass
(Fine Edge Productions, LLC, 1998). GPS for watercraft.
GPS Land Navigation--A Complete Guide For Backcountry Users of theNAVSTAR Satel l ite System , by Michael Ferguson (Glassford Publishing, 1997)
* *GPS Made Easy--Using Global Posit ioni ng Systems in the Outdoors , 2nd
edition, by Lawrence Letham (The Mountaineers, 1999)
GPS Manual: Principles and Appli cations , by Steve Dye (Baylin Publications,
1997). Technical.
GPS Navigation Guide--Using GPS with M ap, Compass, Computer & Radio
Tracking , by Jack W. Peters (2002)
GPS Primer , by Jerry Hnang (Acme Press, 1999)
Map, Compass, GPS--An I ntr oduction , by Robert Rutten (Outdoor
Communications, 2000)
Map Use--Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation (Wi th GPS) , 4th edition, by
Phillip C. Muehrcke and Juliana O. Muehrcke (JP Publications, 1998). Weighing
nearly 3 pounds, this 650-page bible is chock-full of detailed map and nav info.
Simple GPS Navigation: Sea, Air , Land , by Mik Chinery (Koen Book Distributors,
1994)
Understanding GPS: Pr inciples and Applications , by Elliott D. Kaplan, editor(Artech House, Inc., 1996). Very technical.
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GPSCity.com
1-866-477-2489
http://www gpscity com
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http://www.gpscity.com
The GPS Store, Inc.
1-888-477-2611
http://www.thegpsstore.com/
Map Tools
http://www.maptools.com
Waypoint Enterprises
1-888-412-2600
http://www.waypoint-ent.com
Additional sources for GPS units can be found in the "general" and "military"sections of the backpacking resources page on this Web site.
Top
GPS
manufacturersFor a comprehensive list of GPS Receiver Manufacturers, System
Integrators, Equipment Suppliers, and Service Providers, visit http://
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gauss.gge.unb.ca/manufact.htm, which is maintained by the Canadian
Space Geodesy Forum and the University of New Brunswick
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Brunton Company
1-800-443-4871
http://www.brunton.com/
Eagle Electronics 1-800-324-1354
http://www.eaglegps.com
Marine units
Garmin International
1-800-800-1020
http://www.garmin.com/
Leadtek Research Inc.
1-510-490-8076
http://www.leadtek.com.tw
GPS for computers and PDAs
Lowrance Electronics, Inc.
1-800-324-1356
http://www.lowrance.com/
Magellan Systems Corp.
1-800-707-9971
http://www.magellangps.com/
Navman
1-866-962-8626http://www.navman.com
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GPS units for vehicles
NavTrak Inc
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NavTrak, Inc.
1-541-344-6414
http://www.gps2000.com
Raymarine
(Formerly Raytheon Marine; Apelco)1-800-539-5539
http://www.raymarine.com
Marine units
Silva Sweden AB
http://www.silva.se/
Trimble Navigation Limited1-408-481-8000
http://www.trimble.com/
High-end mapping and GIS products
Top
Linear
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Linear Equivalents
Mile Kilometer Yard Meter Feet Rod Chain Link
1 0.91 3 0.18 0.05 4.5
1.1 1 3.3 0.2 0.05 5
5.5 5 16.5 1 0.25 25
22 20.1 66 4 1 100
1/16 0.1 110 100 330 20 5 500
1/8 0.2 220 200 660 40 10 1000
1/4 0.4 440 400 1320 80 20 2000
3/8 0.6 660 600 1980 120 30 3000
1/2 0.8 880 800 2640 160 40 4000
5/8 1 1100 1000 3300 200 50 50003/4 1.2 1320 1200 3960 240 60 6000
7/8 1.4 1540 1400 4620 280 70 7000
1 1.6 1760 1600 5280 320 80 8000
1.25 2 2200 2000 6600 400 100 10000
1.5 2.4 2640 2400 7920 480 120 12000
1.75 2.8 3080 2800 9240 560 140 14000
2 3.2 3520 3200 10560 640 160 16000
Top
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Land Survey Equivalents
Acres Mile by Mile Section Township Yard by Yard 1 70 x 70
40 1/4 x 1/4 1/16 440 x 440
160 1/2 x 1/2 1/4 880 x 880
640 1 x 1 1 1/36 1760 x 1760
23040 6 x 6 36 1
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Angularequivalents
Angular Equivalents
Degrees Part of circle Mils Grad
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1 1/360 17.8 1.1
3' (0.056) 1/6400 1 1/36
54' (0 9) 1/400 16 1
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54' (0.9) 1/400 16 1
Top
Compute
sunrise & sunset,moonrise & moonset,
moon phase,
moon & sun position,twilight, and more
Compute sunrise, sunset, and twilight by city, or county, or latitude & longitude
http://www.cmpsolv.com/los/sunset.html
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Compute sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, twilight, moon phases, altitude &
azimuth of sun or moon, etc.
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U.S. Naval Observatory
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/
Return to top of page | Return to home page
In God's wi lderness l ies the hope of the wo rld,
the great, fresh, unbligh ted, unredeemed wilderness.
— John Muir 1838-1914, Alaska Wilderness , 1890
Content Copyright © by Michael A. NeigerAll rights reserved.
Comments? Suggestions? Dead links? Inaccurate info?
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