• Zygote: fertilized cell created by the union of the egg and sperm
• >200 types of human cells
• Embryonic stem cells– Created during
earliest divisions– Potential to become
any type of cell
Determination• Determination
– Process where stem cells commit to a specific type
– Few weeks into development
– Irreversible
Differentiation• Differentiation
– Process where cells acquire the structures & functions of a specialized cell
– Specific genes activated
– Ex: Nerve cells grow dendrites
• Cell: Basic unit• Tissue: Group of cells
– 4 types• Organ: Groups of tissue
– Ex: lung contains each tissue• Organ System: Group of organs working together
– Digestive System• Organism: all organ systems working together
• Muscle: contracting cells– Skeletal, cardiac cells
• Connective Tissue: Support the body– Bone, fat, tendons
• Epithelial: protection sheet of cells– skin, stomach lining
• Nerve Tissue: Transmit electric signals– Brain & Spinal Cord
Topic 2: Homeostasis
Homeostasis• Process where the
body maintains a constant internal environment
• Reactions & enzymes work best in specific conditions
• Control systems adjust to internal/external changes– pH, temp, fluids
• Constant internal environment maintained
Control Systems• Sensors (aka: receptors)
– Gather information about the body and environment
– Ex: skin senses pressure• Communication Center
– Messages sent throughout the body to respond
– Ex: Impulse travel through your nerves
• Control Center– Receives information from the
sensors– Ex: Brain interprets the impulse
• Targets– Body part that changes its activity– Ex: Muscles in foot stretch/contract
abruptly
!*%!?%&#
Negative Feedback Loops• Regulates most
of the body• Counters
changes in the body that move conditions away from a set point– Reverses the
change• Keeps internal
environment stable
Positive Feedback Loop• Increases the
changes away from set points
• Important when rapid changes needed
• Ex: Oxytocin released– When uterus
contractions begin, oxytocin released to speed up the contractions (not stop them)
Working Together
• Thermoregulation: Maintenance of body temperature– Skin: sensors provide feedback to brain– Nervous & Endocrine system: send messages to/from brain– Muscles: Start to shiver
Homeostasis disruption
• Sensors fail• Wrong messages sent• Message doesn’t reach
target• Serious injury• Microorganism infection• Short Term
– Temporary discomfort (usually)
Long Term: Diabetes
• Normal Cells– Glucose circulates in blood;
pancreas releases insulin– High glucose levels: insulin
opens gates of cells to allow glucose to enter
– Glucose levels lowered• Type 1 Diabetes
– Immune system destroys cells to produce insulin
– Pancreas fails: no signal for gates to open = glucose accumulated in blood stream
• Type 2 Diabetes– Low insulin production due to
overworked pancreas– No signal for gates to open =
glucose accumulated in blood stream
Topic 3: The Nervous System
• AKA: Nerve Cells• Transfer electrical impulses to/from the brain• 3 Main Parts1) Cell body: contains nucleus and organelles2) Dendrites: branches that receive messages from
neighboring cells3) Axon: extension that carries messages away from the cell
body
Neurons
Resting Potential • Defined: Neuron at rest
• Neuron Exterior:– Positive
charge– Mainly Na+
outside the cell
• Neuron Interior:– Negative
charge (from various proteins)
– K+ inside the cell
-
-
-
-
-- - -
-
-
-
-- -
--
--
--
---
- - -
APPEAR/HIDE
Action Potential• Defined: Electrical
impulse is triggered• Front end of impulse
– Na+ enter the cell– Negative impulse
attracted towards positive Na+
• Back end of impulse– K+ exits the cell– Interior returns to
normal charge• Impulse pulled along by
the changing of electrical charges
impulse
Na+ Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+K+
Na+ Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+Na+Na+ Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+Na+
Na+
K+ K+
K+
K+
negative impulse
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+
K+ K+
K+
Synapse• Defined: Gap between
neurons• Problem: Impulse cannot
cross the gap• Solution: Impulse
converted into chemical molecules (neurotransmitters)
• Steps:– Impulse reaches
neuron’s end– Vesicle releases
neurotransmitters– Neurotransmitters
attach to neighboring neuron
– New impulse created
impulse
Impulse stimulates a vesicle, which contains neurotransmitters
Vesicle exits the cell and dissolves
End of one cell
Start of another cell
impulse imp
ulse
Neurotransmitterscross the synapse and attach to receptors of a neighboring neuron
Neurotransmitters stimulate a new impulse
End of one cell
Start of another cell
Feet
Brain
….
….
….
….
• Impulse causes the muscles to stretch and contract…this causes MOVEMENT!
Motor neurons reach the muscles
Topic 4: The Senses
Eye Anatomy• Cornea
– Protective layer of the eye
• Iris– Colored part of the
eye– Contains muscles to
open & close the pupil• Pupil
– Size adjusts with light• Small: more light• Large: less light
• Lens– Focuses light onto the
retina• Retina
– Back of the eye– Contains rods &
cones
Vision Process
• 1) Light passes through pupil• 2) Lens focuses light onto retina• 3) Photoreceptors of the retina create impulses
– Impulse travels up optic nerve to brain
#1#2
#3
Ear Anatomy
• Pinna– Outer ear
• Eardrum– Amplifies sound by 3 bones: malleus, incus, stapes
• Cochlea– Contains mechanoreceptors (measures pressure)
SoundTransmission
1) Sound waves (vibration of the air) enters the ear canal2) Eardrum & the small bones vibrate3) Fluid in the cochlea vibrates 4) Hair cells in the cochlea bend5) Impulse transmitted through the auditory nerve and to the brain
Smell & Taste
• Nose– Scent chemicals dissolve
in mucus– Impulse travels from
olfactory nerve to brain
• Tongue– Chemicals dissolve in
saliva– Chemoreceptors in taste
buds creates impulse
Touch, Temperature, Pain• Mechanoreceptors
in skin sense pressure– Upper layer:
gentle touches– Lower layer:
heavy pressure• Thermoreceptors &
Pain receptors detect temps and chemicals released by damaged cells
• Impulses sent to brain
Topic 5: The Immune System
The Skin
• 1st line of defense: physical barrier• Oils & sweat destroy some pathogens
–Some cells burst–Some cells shrivel
Mucus Membranes
• Coat the openings of the body– Nose, mouth, ears, eyes, genitals, anus
• Lined with cilia & sticky fluids to trap pathogens
White Blood Cells
• Job: Search & destroy
• 1) Phagocytes: surround & engulf invaders by phagocytosis
• 2) Lymphocytes:–T cells: destroy infected body cells–B cells: Inactivate invaders
bacteria
Defense Proteins
• Complimentary Proteins–Weaken cell membrane–Attract phagocytes–Cause microbes to stick to wall of blood vessel
Defense Proteins
• Antibodies–Made by B cells–Stick to pathogens–Causes pathogens to
clumpMore susceptible to
phagocytes
–Weakens the cell membraneCauses them to burst
• Interferon–Produced by
virus infected cells
–Stimulates uninfected cells to create infection preventing enzymes
Defense Proteins
• Prevents infections (not a cure)
• Memory cells developed without actually getting the disease
• Vaccine– Contains antigens
of a pathogen– Weakened
pathogen is injected
– Stimulates the production of memory cells
• Speeds up immune response if you encounter the unweakened virus
Vaccination
Topic 6: Blood
Components of Blood
• Whole blood– RBCs– WBCs– Platelets: cell fragments that aid in clotting
• Plasma– 90% water (allows materials to dissolve)– Amino acids, glucose, hormones, vitamins, salts, waste– Concentrations allows diffusion in/out of blood stream
Red Blood Cells
• Produced from stem cells in bone marrow– Lose nucleus as they mature
• Transport O2 to cells– O2 binds to hemoglobin proteins
• Dead cells filtered by liver & spleen
• Proteins on blood cells determined blood type• Antigen (markers)
– proteins on cell’s surface that identify cells as foreign or natural
• Antibodies:– proteins from WBCs to attack invaders– Float freely in plasma
ABO Blood Groups
Type A BloodAntigens: AAntibodies: B
Type O BloodAntigens: ----Antibodies: A, B
Type B BloodAntigens: BAntibodies: A
Type AB BloodAntigens: A, BAntibodies: ----
Rh Factors• Rh+
– Have Rh antigens– Lack Rh antibodies
• Rh-– Lack Rh antigens– Have Rh antibodies
Blood type AB+
Antigens: Which does they have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does they have?
ABRh
Blood type O+
Antigens: Which does they have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does they have?
ABRh
Blood type AB-
Antigens: Which does they have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does they have?
ABRh
Blood type B+
Antigens: Which does they have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does they have?
ABRh
Blood type O-
Antigens: Which does they have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does they have?
ABRh
Francis was just in a bad accident and lost a lot of blood. He is blood type B+. Can you help save him?
Blood type B+
Antigens: Which does he have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does he have?
ABRh
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept B+ blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept B- blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B-B antigensB-
B antigensB-
B antigens
Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept A+ blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
A+A antigens
Rh antigens
A+A antigens
Rh antigens
A+A antigens
Rh antigens
No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept A- blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
A-A antigensA-
A antigensA-
A antigens
No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept AB+ blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
AB+A antigensB antigens
Rh antigens
AB+A antigensB antigens
Rh antigens
AB+A antigensB antigens
Rh antigens
No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept AB- blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
AB-A antigensB antigens
AB-A antigensB antigens
AB-A antigensB antigens
No. The A antibodies will attack the A antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept O+ blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
O+Rh antigensO+
Rh antigensO+
Rh antigens
Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.
Vein
This person has B+ blood type because of the B and Rh antigens
Can he accept O- blood?
A antibody
A antibody
A antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
O-No antigens
O-No antigens
O-No antigens
Yes. The A antibodies do not have A antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.
Sebastian was just involved in an accident at work and lost a lot of blood. He is blood type A-. Can you help save him?
Blood type A-
Antigens: Which does he have?
ABRh
Antibodies: Which does he have?
ABRh
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept A- blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
A-A antigens
Yes. The B and Rh antibodies do not have antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.
Rh antibody
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept A+ blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
A+A antigens
Rh antigens
No. The Rh antibodies will attack the Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
A+A antigens
Rh antigens
A+A antigens
Rh antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
Rh antibody
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept B- blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
B-B antigens
No. The B antibodies will attack the B antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
B-B antigens
B-B antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
Rh antibody
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept B+ blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
No. Both B and Rh antibodies will attack the B and Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
B+B antigens
Rh antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
Rh antibody
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept AB- blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
AB-A antigensB antigen
No. The B antibodies will attack the B antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
AB-A antigensB antigen
AB-A antigensB antigen
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
Rh antibody
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept AB+ blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
AB+A antigensB antigens
Rh antigens
No. Both B and Rh antibodies will attack the B and Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
Rh antibody
AB+A antigensB antigens
Rh antigens
AB+A antigensB antigens
Rh antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept O- blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
O-No antigens
Yes. The antibodies do not have antigens to attack. Therefore, no attacking and clumping of blood cells will occur.
Rh antibody
O-No antigensO-
No antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
This person has A- blood type because of the A antigen
Can he accept O+ blood?
B antibody
B antibody
Rh antibody
O+Rh antigens
No. Rh antibodies will attack the Rh antigens. This will cause the blood cells to clump, thus stopping blood flow. This person may die.
Rh antibody
O+Rh antigensO+
Rh antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
A-A antigens
Topic 7: Endocrine System
Endocrine System Overview• Physically disconnected• Controls growth,
development, environmental responses
• Glands: Major organs of the endocrine system– makes hormones– Hormones: chemical
signals that move through blood
• Hormones attach to cell receptor
• Target cells produce proteins
Steroid and Non-Steroid Hormones• Naturally
produced by the body
• Travel through blood
• Attaches to receptor of the target cell
• Stimulate protein creation
Major Glands• Glands create hormones• Hypothalamus
– Stimulates the pituitary gland to release hormones
– Helps controls growth, reproduction, body temp
• Pituitary gland– Controls cell growth– Stimulates other glands
• Thyroid gland– Regulates metabolism,
growth, development• Thymus
– Allows WBCs to mature to fight infection
Major Glands • Adrenal Glands– Controls “fight or flight”
response– Increases breathing,
alertness, blood pressure
• Pancreas– Controls glucose level
in blood• Gonads: influence sexual
development– Testes (males):
produces testosterone– Ovaries: produces
estrogen, progesterone
Effects of testosterone
Hypothalamus/ Pituitary gland
Thyroid
thymus
Adrenal glands
pancreas
ovaries
testes