Download - Turkmenistan Legal Country Profile Final - Proelium Law LLP · 2017. 6. 5. · Turkmenistan is a United Nations-recognised permanently neutral state, namely because of the geographical

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TURKMENISTANLEGALCOUNTRYPROFILE

COUNTRYOVERVIEW

TurkmenistanislocatedinCentralAsiaborderedbyKazakhstan,Uzbekistan,AfghanistanandIran,withthelandlockedCaspianSeatothewest.Sharingborderswiththesecountries,especiallyAfghanistan,createsobvioussecurityissuesandcomplications.Turkmenistanistheworld’s52nd-largestcountrywithover80%ofthecountrycoveredbytheKarakumDesert.

Turkmenistangainedindependencein1991fromthedissolutionoftheSovietUnionandhastakenapositionofneutralitysince.Thereisalowthreatfromterrorismandthepoliticalsituationiscalm,howeverthereisarelativelyhighlevelofsecurityduetotheborderingcountries’conflicts,especiallytheprecariousbordersituationwithAfghanistanandUzbekistanduetoextremistIslamistgroups.1Thecountry’sbusinessriskhoweverisveryhigh,makingdoingbusinessinTurkmenistanverydifficult.2

CorruptionexistsatalllevelsofgovernmentinTurkmenistananditranksasoneofthemostcorruptcountriesintheworld.3Turkmenistanisranked192nd(outof204)ontheCorruptionsPerceptionsIndex,and197thregardingtheruleoflaw.4Thegovernmentalsystemisaseculardemocracyandpresidentialrepublic,howeverinrealityitishighlyauthoritarianandthecountryisunderfullcontrolofPresidentGurbangulyBerdimuhamedovandtheParliament.5Thegovernment’scredibilityremainsverylow.6ThereisagenerallackofknowledgeofWesternbusinessproceduresandprofessionalswithadequateEnglishlanguageskillsbeingscarce.7

ThecurrentPresident,Berdimuhamedov,wasappointedin2006andsincehisoccupationofofficetheConstitutionhasbeenamendedtoallowhimtostandforelectionagain;in2017hewonwith98%ofvotes,leavingnoroomforotherpoliticalforces.Heislikelytobea‘presidentforlife’aswasthepreviousPresidentNiyazov.Theelectoralprocessdoesnotmeetinternationalstandardsduetothelimitedchoicebetweencompetingparties.8

1https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/turkmenistan;http://www.coface.com/Economic-Studies-and-Country-Risks/Turkmenistan;https://import-export.societegenerale.fr/en/find-your-market/country/turkmenistan/economy-country-risk2https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/turkmenistan/risk3http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/turkmenistan4http://www.coface.com/Economic-Studies-and-Country-Risks/Turkmenistan5https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/tx.html;https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan6https://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Turkmenistan.pdf7https://photos.state.gov/libraries/turkmenistan/49351/pdf/2015TurkmenistanCCGFIN060915.pdf8https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan

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Thereisalackofconsistentandtransparentbusinesslegislation,andthelegislationthatexistsissubjecttofrequentchangeandvariouscontradictoryinterpretationsbymultiplegovernmentagenciesandorgans.9

TurkmenistanisaUnitedNations-recognisedpermanentlyneutralstate,namelybecauseofthegeographicalsurroundingsofmorepowerfulstatesagainstwhomTurkmenistancouldnotprevailinmilitaryconflict,plustheunwillingnesstogiveupsovereigntybysidingwithRussia.10ThisneutralityissetoutintheConstitutionofTurkmenistantomaintainitsdefensivecharacter.11Thepositionofneutralityissecurity-focusedasshownbythewillingnesstojoinnon-securitybasedinstitutionssuchastheEconomicCooperationOrganisationandtheNon-AlignedMovement.12

TheGDPin2015wasUS$54billionwiththemainindustriesbeingnaturalgas,oil,petroleumproducts,textilesandfoodprocessing.Currently70-80billioncubicmetresofgasareproducedannuallyinTurkmenistan,withitholdingthe4thlargestnaturalgasreservesglobally,and20-25%ofthisproductionisconsumedinternally.13Theeconomyhoweverremainsverymuchstate-controlled,theprivateindustryremainsunderdeveloped,andforeigninvestorsanddeterredbythegenerallackoftransparency.14

LEGALSYSTEMOVERVIEW

ThelegalsysteminTurkmenistanisCivillawbased,withIslamiclawinfluences.15Theenforcementofanypartofthelegalframeworkisverypoor,withalackofaneffectiveandindependentimplementationbody.16

HierarchyofLaws:17-TheConstitutionofTurkmenistan-ConstitutionalLaws-Codes-OrdinaryLaws-DecreesandactsofthePresident-ResolutionsoftheMejlis-ResolutionsandordersoftheCabinetofMinisters-Normativeactsoftheorgansofstatepowerandgovernment

9https://photos.state.gov/libraries/turkmenistan/49351/pdf/2015TurkmenistanCCGFIN060915.pdf10https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/119141/SSR_full-text.pdf11https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=0ahUKEwjS2Iqy97LTAhWfF8AKHSqSCZgQFgg8MAU&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dcaf.ch%2Fcontent%2Fdownload%2F35357%2F525931%2Ffile%2FBook_3.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHQ0eLuV_NAvXchEG-IM_Cl02N8ow12https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/119141/SSR_full-text.pdf13https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan14https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan15https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/geos/tx.html16http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/turkmenistan17http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Turkmenistan.html

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-Resolutionsofthegovernor(hyakim)oftheregion-Decisionsoflocalmeetings(gengeshi)

TheConstitutionissupreme,andprimacyisgiventogenerallyrecognisednormsofinternationallaw.18

TheprincipleoftheseparationofpowersoperatesasintheUK,withthehighestgovernmentalpowersbeingexercisedbythePresident,Parliament,theSupremeCourt,theSupremeCommercialCourt,andtheCabinetofMinisters.19However,thejudicialbranchoperatesunderdirectinstructionfromthePresidentmeaningthattheseinstitutionsdonotremainseparate.20Plus,thePresidentcanmodifydeliveredcourtdecisionsandappointjudgesofthecourts.21

Thejudiciaryisnotoriouslycorrupt,arbitrary,andopentobribery.PermitstoengageinlegalworkareissuedbytheMinistryofJusticeinaveryopaquemanner.22

THECIVILCODEOFTURKMENISTAN

UponthedissolutionoftheUSSRTurkmenistan,alongwithGeorgia,adoptedthe19thCenturyGermanCivilCodeapproach,whereasallotherformer-USSRStatesbasedtheirCivilCodesontheRussianFederation’sCodeandwerevirtuallyidentical.Therearehowevermanysimilaritiesbetweenthetwotypesofcodesfromtheformer-USSRStates.23

BothtypesofCodesaredraftedverygenerally,meaningthatacademicandjudicialinterpretationisrequired,howeveralthoughtherearemultiplesourcesofjudicialandacademicinterpretationoftheRussianCivilCode,thiscannotbeappliedtotheTurkmenistanCivilCodeastheyarenotthesame.NorisitpossibleforTurkmenistantoproduceinterpretativematerialontheirCodethemselvesduetotheirunderdevelopedjudiciary.24

TheCivilCodeofTurkmenistanisnotavailableinitsentiretyinEnglish.Thefirstpartisavailablehere:http://cis-legislation.com/document.fwx?rgn=2363TheGermanCivilCode,onwhichTurkmenistan’sCivilCodeisbased,isavailablehere:http://www.fd.ulisboa.pt/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Codigo-Civil-Alemao-BGB-German-Civil-Code-BGB-english-version.pdf

Article1(2)oftheCivilCodeofTurkmenistansetsoutthatpartiesarefreetodecideontheirowncontractualprovisions,aslongastheseprovisionsdon’tcontradictthelaw,settingoutthegeneralprincipleofautonomyofthepartiestothecontractoragreement.

18ConstitutionofTurkmenistan,Article5,Article619ConstitutionofTurkmenistan,Article4820https://photos.state.gov/libraries/turkmenistan/49351/pdf/2015TurkmenistanCCGFIN060915.pdf21http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/turkmenistan;https://www.pwc.kz/en/about-us/dbg-eurasia/dbg-turkmenistan-2011-2012.pdf22https://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Turkmenistan.pdf23https://pages.law.illinois.edu/p-maggs/codes.htm24https://pages.law.illinois.edu/p-maggs/codes.htm

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Section249oftheGermanCivilCodesetsoutthenatureandextentofdamagesavailable,asfollows:“(1)apersonwhoisliableindamagesmustrestorethepositionthatwouldexistifthecircumstancesobliginghimtopaydamageshadnotoccurred”.

Section280oftheGermanCivilCodesetsoutdamagesforbreachofduty,asfollows:“(1)Iftheobligorbreachesadutyarisingfromtheobligation,theobligemaydemanddamagesforthedamagecausedthereby.Thisdoesnotapplyiftheobligorisnotresponsibleforthebreachofduty.(2)Damagesfordelayinperformancemaybedemandedbytheobligeonlysubjecttotheadditionalrequirementofsection286[defaultoftheobligor](3)Damagesinlieuofperformancemaybedemandedbytheobligeonlysubjecttotheadditionalrequirementsofsections281,282and283[damagesinlieuofperformancerequirements]”.

Section433oftheGermanCivilCodesetsoutthedutiesinapurchaseagreement,namelythatthebuyerisobligedtopaytheagreedpurchaseprice.25Therefore,therewillhavebeenabreachofdutyifthecontractpricehasnotbeenpaid,thereforeresultingindamagesastheaboveprovisions.

AlthoughtheRussianlegislationcannotbereliedon,itisverysimilartothatofTurkmenistan,thereforeitcouldpotentiallybeusedasamethodofinterpretationwheretherearegapsinourknowledgeoftheTurkmenprovisions.

ContractualremediesunderRussianlawcanbeforlossesorasapenalty.Lossesaredefinedasthoseexpensesincurredbythenon-breachingpartytorestorethebreachedrightplustheprofitsthatwouldhavebeenreceivedhadthecontractnotbeenviolated.Inordertoclaimlosseshowever,thebreachofthecontractmustbethesolecauseoftheloss,ratherthanjustacauseoftheloss.26

Thenon-breachingpartycanclaimthepaymentofoutstandingdebtincourt.Inaddition,ifthecontractitselfdoesnotprovideforapenaltyfordelayinpayment,thenon-breachingpartycanalsoclaimfortheoutstandingperiodduetothedelay.InRussia,thisrateisequaltothekeyrateoftheBankofRussia.27

SPECIFICLEGISLATION

ThePetroleumLawofTurkmenistan(availablehere:http://crudeaccountability.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/19961230-PetroleumLawOf1996en.pdf)setsoutprovisions

25GermanCivilCode,Section433(2)26https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.comDocument/I0f967dcce15811e698dc8b09b4f043e0/View/FullText.html?transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default)27https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.comDocument/I0f967dcce15811e698dc8b09b4f043e0/View/FullText.html?transitionType=CategoryPageItem&contextData=(sc.Default)

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relevanttotheoilandgasindustry,andappliestoallrelationsarisinginthecourseofconductofpetroleumoperations.28

Thislegislationfurtherguaranteesthecontractors’rightsinaccordancewithprinciplesofinternationallaw,legislationofTurkmenistan,theLicenceandtheContract.29

Thecommonprincipleofforcemajeureappliestothefulfilmentofcontracts,thereforeonlyallowingdeparturefromthecontractualprovisionsforreasonsof“war,actofwar,militaryconflicts,naturalhazardsorothereventsbeyondthewillandactionsoftheContractor”.Therefore,withoutanyofthesesituationsarising,thecontractwillbebreachedforanynon-fulfilmentofobligations.30

However,theprincipleofforcemajeure“shallnotapplyontherequirementofpaymentstobemadeinduetime,asprovidedby[thePetroleumlaw],theLicenceandtheContract”.Therefore,eveniftherewerecircumstanceswhichfallunderforcemajeurethiswouldnotextinguishtheobligationofpaymentsbeingmade.31

TheTurkmenlawaboutBusinessActivitysetsoutprovisionsforwhenoneofthepartiesisforeign,establishingthatinthissituationinternationaltreatiesonlyapplyifthecurrentlegislationdoesnotestablishtherulesitself.32

TheTurkmenModelProductionSharingAgreementforPetroleumalsoemphasisesthattheprincipleofforcemajeuredoesnotapplytomoniesdue,highlightingtheimportanceofthepaymentofduemonies.33ThisModelAgreementalsoconfirmsthatmoniesdueaccrueinterest.34

INTERNATIONALLAW

PrimacyisgiventogenerallyrecognisedinternationallawsandTurkmenistanissignatorytomanytreatiesandmostmajorhumanrightsinstruments,howeverimplementationofnationallegislationisdifficultandofinternationallegislationevenmoreso.35

TurkmenistanisamemberoftheInternationalLabourOrganisationsandhasratified9ofitsconventionsincludingthoserelatingtotherightsofchildren.

28PetroleumLawofTurkmenistan,Article229PetroleumLawofTurkmenistan,Article5530PetroleumLawofTurkmenistan,Article5931PetroleumLawofTurkmenistan,Article5932LawofTurkmenistanofOct1st1993No.863-XIIAboutBusinessActivity,Article233https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwjZ-93UlqHTAhUFaRQKHVVMC3YQFggcMAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffaolex.fao.org%2Fdocs%2Ftexts%2Ftuk81989E.doc&usg=AFQjCNEgd2QW1dw38u3qvnU6_qP8sHOL-QArticle3134Asabove,AnnexD1.4(c)35https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan

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Turkmenistanisamemberofnumerousinternationalorganisations,includingbutnotlimitedto:InternationalMonetaryFund,OrganisationforSecurityandCo-operationinEurope,andWorldHealthOrganization.TurkmenistanisalsointerestedinjoiningtheWorldTradeOrganisationbutiscurrentlynotamember.

Turkmenistanisalsosignatorytomanyinternationaltreaties,includingbutnotlimitedto:GenevaConventions,InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,TreatyontheNon-ProliferationofNuclearWeapons,UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange.36

DISPUTERESOLUTION

ThecorruptionoftheTurkmengovernment,anditsinvolvementinthejudicialsystem,meansthatthejudiciaryhighlyfavour,ifnotalwaysfavour,nationalpersonsandentitiesindisputes.

Turkmenistan’smilitarycourtswereabolishedin1997,sonowcasesinvolvingthearmedforcesaretriedinciviliancourts.37

TurkmenistanisnotasignatorytotheNewYorkArbitrationConvention,soarbitralawardsfromforeignarbitrationtribunalsarenotenforceableandrecognisableinTurkmenistan.38

Turkmenistan,althoughbeingamemberoftheUnitedNations,hasnotsubmittedanoptionalclausejurisdictiondeclarationtotheInternationalCourtofJusticeunderArticle36ICJStatute.

TurkmenistanarehoweverpartytotheInternationalCentrefortheSettlementofInvestmentDisputes(ICSID)ConventionandhaveacceptedeitherICSIDArbitration,adhocarbitrationundertheUnitedNationsCommissionforInternationalTradeLaw(UNCITRAL)ortheCourtofArbitrationoftheChamberofCommerceinmanyoftheirBilateralInvestmentTreaties.Therefore,investmentdisputesaremoreaccessiblysolvedbyarbitration.

BUSINESSRISKS

TheattractionofdoingbusinessinTurkmenistan,bothcommerciallyandpolitically,isthatithasthe4thlargestreservesofgasintheworld,plusmajorinfrastructureprogrammesareunderway.39

Turkmenistan’sneutralityisbeneficialfordoingbusinessbecausethecurrentbusinessrelationshipswhichTurkmenistanhavearenotpoliticalormilitaryandthereforedonot

37http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Turkmenistan-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.html38http://www.taitwalker.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Doing-Business-Guide-Turkmenistan.pdf39https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan;https://blogs.fco.gov.uk/leighturner/2013/03/12/turkmenistan-business-opportunities/

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penalisecompetitors.40ThisalsomeansthatTurkmenistangenerallyhasgoodrelationswithallcountries.41However,duetoamultitudeoffactors,doingbusinessinTurkmenistandoesremainverychallenging.42

ThebusinessclimateinTurkmenistanhasbeendeemedtobe‘veryhighrisk’duetothelackofaccurateinformationavailable,thecorruptandunpredictablelegalsystem,andtheweakinstitutionalframework.43AccurateinformationwithregardsthebusinessenvironmentisdifficulttocomebyduetothesecretivecharacteroftheState,thereforeitisoftenadvisedthatthoseinterestedinworkinginTurkmenistanshouldworkthroughalocalpartnerinordertoovercomevariousissues.44

ThemainchallengesinTurkmenistanaretheobtainingofvisas,theunderdevelopedcommercialworld-especiallythebankingsector,highlevelsofwidespreadcorruption,andanunpredictablebusinessenvironmentwherethegovernmentplaysanexcessiveroleinprivateaffairs.45

ExpatriateemployeesarerequiredtoobtainworkpermitswhichareissuedbytheTurkmenistangovernment,inadditiontovisas,andthisprocessisequallybureaucraticallylengthy.SecurityisofparamountimportancetoTurkmenistan,unsurprisinglygivenitsneighbouringcountries,andthereforetherearesignificantobstaclestoobtainingvisasandworkpermits.46ItisverydifficulttoobtainvisaswhenthecompanyinquestionemploysnationalsfromregionswhichTurkmenistandeemtobe‘conflictregions’(theMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandSouthAsia).ItisalsoverydifficulttoobtainvisasforbusinessdevelopmentsbecauseTurkmenistanpreferstoissuevisastoalreadyexistingcontactsandbusinesses.47

Turkmenistan’smajorpartnerinhistorical,cultural,commercial,economicandpoliticaltiesisTurkey,andmorethan600TurkishcompaniesareregisteredinTurkmenistan.RussiaandChinaareimportantexportpartners,andtherearesignificantcommercialrelationships

40http://www.turkmenistanembassy.org/business-opportunities/41https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan42https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan43https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/turkmenistan/risk44https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan45https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan46https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan47https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan

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withIran,UAE,Italy,Germany,KazakhstanandtheUkraine.48TheUK’sbilateraltradeingoodswithTurkmenistanalsoincreasedby200%in2013.49

TheStatehasaveryhighlevelofcontroloverforeigntrade,thereforemakingitnotaveryopenandindependenttradingpartner.50

TherearesignificantadministrativehurdlestocrosswhenthinkingofdoingbusinessinTurkmenistan:allnewlyestablishedenterprises,subsidiariesandbrancheshavetofollowtheonerousregistrationproceduresassetoutbytheMinistryofEconomyandDevelopmentofTurkmenistan,whichincludeslegal,taxandstatisticsregistrationwhichisaverylengthyprocess.Allaccountingrecordsandfinancialstatementsmustalsobemaintainedandrecordedasperthelocallegislation.51

SECURITYINDUSTRY

ThesecuritypersonnelinTurkmenistanareverypoorlypaid,equippedandtrainedleadingtowidespreadcorruptionandinexperienceinthesecuritysector.52Thesecuritysectorisinneedofreformhoweverthisischallengedbythecountry’sclosedandopaquepoliticalculture.Forinstance,thestaffoftheStateSecurityCouncilareappointedbythepresidentandthereisacompletelackoftransparencyinpolicyformulation.53

TurkmenistantightlycontrolsitssecuritysectorincooperationwiththeUS.TherearevariousassistanceprogrammesbetweenTurkmenistanandtheUSwithregardsthemilitary,lawenforcementandbordercontrolagencies.54

Thelawsregulatingtheuseofweaponsbysecuritypersonnelareverystrictandonlyalimitednumberofsecuritypersonnelareauthorisedtocarryhandguns.55

ThesecuritypresenceinTurkmenistanisquitehigh,makingitasafecountrytovisit,howevertherealwaysissueswiththeunpredictablepoliticalandsecuritysituationsinAfghanistanandIran.56

ARMEDFORCES

ThePresidentisthesupremecommanderofthearmedforcesmeaningthatthemilitaryisunderthedirectruleofthePresident.

48https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan/overseas-business-risk-turkmenistan49https://blogs.fco.gov.uk/leighturner/2013/03/12/turkmenistan-business-opportunities/50https://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Turkmenistan.pdf51https://www.taitwalker.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Doing-Business-Guide-Turkmenistan.pdf.52https://www.osac.gov/pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=1944453https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/119141/SSR_full-text.pdf54https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/eur/rls/rpt/eurasiafy07/115982.htm55https://www.osac.gov/pages/ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=1944456https://www.intelligent-protection.co.uk/turkmenistan-country-brief.html

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UponthedissolutionoftheSovietUnionin1991TurkmenistaninheritedthelargestarmedforcesinCentralAsia,butduetotheneutralandisolationistcharactertheseforceshavebeenneglected.TheTurkmenistanarmedforcesareoftenperceivedtobeill-equippedandnotpreparedtofaceterroristthreatsbecauseofalackofpracticethroughoperationsortrainingexercises.57

TherearenonuclearweaponsinTurkmenistan,andwerenoteitherinthesovietera.MuchofTurkmenistan’smilitaryequipmentisofthesovieterawhichtheyinheritedondissolution.58

ThebranchesoftheTurkmenmilitarycomprisetheGroundForces,Navy,AirandAirDefenceForces.MuchliketherestofTurkmenistan,themilitaryisbelievedtobeverycorrupt.59

In1992,viabilateraltreaty,RussiawasnamedastheguarantorforTurkmenistan’ssecuritywiththeprovisionthatcommandoverthearmedforceswouldmovegraduallyfromRussiatoTurkmenistan’sofficers.WiththegradualremovalofRussianforcestherearecurrentlynootherforeigntroopsremaininginTurkmenistan.60

TheannualmilitaryexpenditureinTurkmenistanishigherthanmanyStatesintheregion,andbetween2003and2005thedefencebudgetwasincreasedfromUS$83milliontoUS$173million.61

In2006theArmyhad21,000activepersonnel,theAirForcehad4,300andtheNavyhad700.62Turkmenistan’sarmy,unlikeotherStates’armies,doesnotperformpolicefunctionsordealwithinternalhostilities.63

ThemainNavalbaseisinTurkmenbashi,AirbasesareinMaryandAshgabat,andArmybasesareinGysylarbat,AshgabatandGushgy.

Militaryserviceiscompulsoryfor2yearsasperArticle38oftheConstitutionofTurkmenistanandthereisnoalternative,howeveraround25%ofconscriptsareassignedtocivilianwork.64

TurkmenistandoesnotparticipateinthemilitarystructuresoftheCIS,SCOorCSTOandonlypartiallyengageswithNATO.65Turkmenistanwasthefirstof5CentralAsianStatesto

57http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/319729/445099_en.html58http://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Turkmenistan/sub8_7d/entry-4833.html.59http://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Turkmenistan/sub8_7d/entry-4833.html60http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/Turkmenistan%20Profile.pdf61https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&ved=0ahUKEwjS2Iqy97LTAhWfF8AKHSqSCZgQFgg8MAU&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dcaf.ch%2Fcontent%2Fdownload%2F35357%2F525931%2Ffile%2FBook_3.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHQ0eLuV_NAvXchEG-IM_Cl02N8ow;http://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Turkmenistan/sub8_7d/entry-4833.html62http://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Turkmenistan/sub8_7d/entry-4833.html63http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/3-2002/dp/aft/64https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/119141/SSR_full-text.pdf

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joinNATO’sPartnershipforPeaceProgramme.Becauseofthepositionofneutrality,TurkmenistandoesnotofferanyarmedforcesorinfrastructuretoNATO-ledoperations,butwillcontributeonacasebycasebasistodisasterrelief,humanitarianandsearchandrescueoperations.66

TurkmenistanhasallowedthelandingofNATOplanesinoneoftheirairbasesandmanyofficialsfromtheirarmedforcesparticipateintrainingcoursesranbyNATOandNATOmemberstates.67

TurkmenistanhasallowedasmallcontingentofUSpersonneltooperateinAshgabattoassistrefuellingoperationsforhumanitarianpurposesinAfghanistan.TurkmenistanhasalsoofferedinvaluableassistancetotheOperationsEnduringFreedomandIraqiFreedom,howeverthisassistancedoesremainnon-militaryinnature.68

InMarch2009theTurkmenmilitarycompletedamajorexercisetoshiftnationalprioritytoacounter-narcoticsmissionontheAfghanistanborder.69

InOctober2015TurkmenistanhadtoreacttoproblemswhichbrokeoutontheAfghanistanborderwhenTalibanmilitantssoughtshelterontheislandintheAmu-Darya(theriverdividingTurkmenistanandAfghanistan).Turkmenistanremainedneutralbyhalvingtheislandbyafence,feedingthemilitantsandsendingthembacktoAfghanistan.70

However,givenitspermanentneutrality,thereisaheavyimportanceplacedondefenceoperations.Thearmedforceshavebeenconductingunprecedented,large-scale,unannouncedexercisesforthepractisingofairstrikesagainstenemyarmedgroups.Thecurrentemphasisforthemilitaryistoacquirenewweaponryandmodernisethearmedforces.71InJanuary2016,anewmilitarydoctrineofadefensivenaturewasendorsedwhichisaimedatsecuringsecurityandterritorialintegrity.72Turkmenistanhasbeguntoundertakemoremilitaryexercisesinordertoincreasethecapabilityoftheirunits,butalsoprovethattheyarecapabletofacemodernthreatsandchallenges.73

65https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/119141/SSR_full-text.pdf66http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_50317.htm67http://www.rferl.org/a/1144519.html;http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_50317.htm

68http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav071209.shtml69http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/turkmen-army.htm70http://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-turkmenistan-afghanistan-taliban-border/27330020.html71http://www.eurasianet.org/node/7799172http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/319729/445099_en.html73http://central.asia-news.com/en_GB/articles/cnmi_ca/features/2016/09/07/feature-01

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PARAMILITARY

TherearethreetypesofparamilitaryforcesinTurkmenistan:theborderguard;thenationalguard;andtheinternaltroopsoftheMinistryofNationalSecurity.Thenumbersofpersonnelintheseforcesinunknown.74

POLICING

Thenationalpoliceforceisestimatedtoinclude25,000personnel.75Thepoliceforce’sroleistheroutinemaintenanceofpublicorder,crimeprevention,detectionandinvestigation,protectionofpeopleandproperty,roadandfiresafety,passportcontrol,lawenforcementtrainingandinternationalpoliceco-operation.76

ThecriminaljusticesystemhasnotreallychangedfromtheSovietsystem.TheMinistryofInternalAffairsdirectstheoperationsofpolicedepartmentswhomustensurethatthegovernmentremainsinpower,usingwhatevermeasuresnecessary.77

Duecriminalprocessisrarelyobserved,therightsareenshrinedbylawbutthegovernmentcan,andoftendoes,denytheserights.78Warrantsarenotrequiredforarrests.Theprisonsareovercrowdedandfullofdisease,withprisonersanddetaineesfrequentlytortured.79

Turkmenistanpromotesmodelofnon-interference,non-alignmentandneutralityinrelationtodomesticaffairs,soinformationabouttheirpolicing,intelligenceagenciesandsecurityservicesisdifficulttoaccess.80

RECENT/ONGOINGCONFLICTS

WithTurkmenistan’sgeographicallocationtherearealwaysunderlyingthreatsoftheconflictsinAfghanistanandIranspillingovertheborders,alsowithTurkmenistanholdingthesouthernborderoftheCISStatesthiswouldbecomeaproblemforothercountriestoo.81Thisongoingsituationisunlikelytoimproveanytimesoon,howevertheTalibanforcesinAfghanistanhavenotexpressedanyintentiontoextendtheiroperationsbeyondAfghanistanborders.82However,in2014and2015therewereatleastthreeattacksonTurkmenborderguardsbyallegedTalibanmilitantsinanassumedattempttostealweapons.83

74http://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Turkmenistan/sub8_7d/entry-4833.html75http://factsanddetails.com/central-asia/Turkmenistan/sub8_7d/entry-4830.html76https://www.interpol.int/Member-countries/Asia-South-Pacific/Turkmenistan77http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/Turkmenistan%20Profile.pdf78http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Turkmenistan-JUDICIAL-SYSTEM.html79http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/Turkmenistan%20Profile.pdf80https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/119141/SSR_full-text.pdf81https://www.riskadvisory.net/news/turkmenistan-moscow-courts-ashgabat-for-security-support.php82https://www.riskadvisory.net/news/turkmenistan-moscow-courts-ashgabat-for-security-support.php83https://www.riskadvisory.net/news/turkmenistan-moscow-courts-ashgabat-for-security-support.php

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Turkmenistanhassincetakenfurthermeasurestoprotecttheirborderinmobilisingreservistsandmoving70%ofarmedforcestotheborders,howevernootherconcretemeasureshavebeentaken.Turkmenistanhasdownplayedthethreatsandclaimsthattheborderisstable,theoppositeapproachtothattakenbyTajikistanandUzbekistanwhoexaggeratedthethreattosecuresupportfromRussiaandtheUS.84

TurkmenistanispossiblytheCentralAsianstatewhichisthemostvulnerabletothreatsbecauseitisnotpartofamilitaryallianceanditsarmedforceshavelittleoperationalexperience,thereforelackincapabilitytomanageexternalthreatssuchasasurgeofcriminalactivityattheborder,aninflowofrefugees,aninsurgency,ormilitaryaggression.85TherefusalofsupportfromtheUSandRussiaalsoputsTurkmenistaninapotentiallyvulnerablepositiontoinstabilityinAfghanistan.

TensionsbetweenTurkmenistanandUzbekistanwerehighbetween2002and2004becauseofbilateraldisputesandaccusationsthatUzbekistanplayedaroleintheattemptedassassinationofthenPresidentNiyazov.However,friendlyrelationsbetweenthetwoStateswererestoredin2004bybilateraltreatiesandalthoughtensionsroseagainin2006,Turkmenistanwasneverunderacrediblemilitarythreat.86

TurkmenistanhasalsohadconflictswithAzerbaijanaboutitsbordersontheCaspianSeaduetooilfieldsandbothStatesandIran,claimingtheyfallwithintheirnauticalborders.ThethreeStateshaveclashedoverthisissuebefore,andarelikelytoagain.TherewerealsoinformalallegationsthatTurkmenistan’sNavalforcesfiredshotsatAzerbaijan’soilrig.87

84https://www.riskadvisory.net/news/turkmenistan-moscow-courts-ashgabat-for-security-support.php85https://www.riskadvisory.net/news/turkmenistan-moscow-courts-ashgabat-for-security-support.php86http://www.marines.mil/Portals/59/Publications/Turkmenistan%20Profile.pdf87https://worldwideconflicts.wordpress.com/tag/turkmenistan/