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December 1969 (22nd year) - U. K. : 2 -stg - Canada : 40 cents - France: 1.20 F
THE SCULPTURE
OF VIBRATIONS
I
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WORLD ART
Punic pendant
This little masterpiece of paste jewellery (actual size shown on right)
is a neck lace pendan t fa sh ioned by a craftsman of ancient Carthage in
the form of a mask whose white face contrasts sharply with the deep blue
tones of the eyes, hair and b ea rd . F ou nd ed by the Phoenicians about
750 B.C., Carthage quickly became the greatest commercial power in the
western Mediterranean, exporting to its overseas trading posts a wealth
of "mass produced" objects which, as we may judge from this pendant,
did not debase the ancient Phoenician tradition of elegant craftsmanship.
Bardo Museum, Tur is. Photo i Lur loubert
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Cour ierDECEMBER 1969
22ND YEAR
PUBLISHED IN
THIRTEEN EDITIONS
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U.S.A.
Published month ly by UNESCO
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The UN ESCO COURIE R is published monthly, except
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All correspondence should be eddressed to th e Editor-in-Chief
6
10
CYMAT ICS : THE SCULPTURE
OF VIBRATIONS
(I) Patterns of a world
permeated by rhythm
29
13
19
31
32
(II) M us ic made visible
in a film of l iquid
(III) The vast spectrum
of cosmic vibrations
By Hans Jenny .
CYMATIC BALLET
E IGHT PAGES IN FULL CO LO UR
DEATH OF A BR IDGE BY VIBRATION
35
42
QUASARS AND THE BIRTH
OF THE UNIVERSE
By György Marx
THE WEAVING OF AN ENGINEERING
MASTERPIECE: A SPIDER'S ORB WEB
By Bert E. Dugdale
UNESCO NEWSROOM
TREASURES OF WORLD ART
Punic pendant (Tunis ia )
5
Cover photo
Cymatics is a new fie ld o f
research which studies th e effects
o f rhy thm ic v ib ra tions in nature.
It reveals an ever-changing
world of unusua l forms in which
f igures appear, currents and
eddies are se t in motion,
structures take shape and
pu lsa ting pa tt erns materia li ze .
The curious forms shown here
dance and leap u pward s whe n
vibrations ar e transmitted to
a v iscous l iqu id (see also photos
pages 13, 14, 15).
Photo © JC . Stuten , Do rnach ,Switzerland
3
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y D r. H ans Jenny
Photos J. Christiaan Stuten
Hans Peter Widmer
Throughout the living and non-living world we find patterns o f recu rrentrhythms and periodic systems in which everything exists in a state of continualvibration, oscillation and pulsation. These rhythmic patterns can be observednot only in the beating of the heart, the c ircu lation of the blood and theinhaling and exhaling of breath ing, but also in the recurrent fo rmation o fcells and tissues, in th e rhythmic movements of th e oceans, th e wave motionof sound and hypersonic vibrations, and in the vast universe extending fromthe cosmic systems of solar systems and galaxies down to the infinitesimalworld o f atomic and nuclear structures. In th e fol lowing article. Dr. Hans
Jenny, a Swiss scientist and artist, describes some of the experiments he hascarried ou t in a long study of these rhythmic vibrations and presents some ofthe extraordinary results
whichthis
newfield
he hastermed "Cymatics"
(from the Greek kyma, wave) already reveals to us. Dr. Jenny believes thatthese experiments will give us new insight into the world of vibrationsterrestial and extra-terrestialand eventual ly serve fie ld s o f research as
diverse as astrophysics and biology.
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CYMATICS
1 - Patterns of a world
permeated by rhythmOiUR world is permeated
throughout by waves and vibrations.
When we hear, waves travelling
through the air impinge. on ou r ears.
HANS JENNY w as b orn in Basel, Switzerland,
and studied natural sciences and medicine.
Fo r many year s he has b ee n in medical prac¬tice a t D o rnach , near Basel . He is a natur¬
alist an d p ain te r a nd has undertaken exten¬
sive research into zoological morphology.
The problems of modern physiology and bio¬logy led him to study the phenomena of
experimental periodicity, a field of research
that was extended to inc lude th e effects of
vibration, a new field he has termed "Cyma¬
tics.' Dr. Jenny's a rt ic le r epo rt s on more
recent experim ents carried out since he
publ ished his original study, "Cymatics, the
Structure an d Dynamics of Waves an d Vibra¬
tio ns ," h ig hly illu st ra te d w it h bil ingual Ger¬man-English text, published by Basilius Presse,
Basel, Switzerland, 1967.
When we speak, w e ourselves generate
air waves w ith our larynx. When we
turn on our radios an d televisions,
we are utilizing a waveband.' We talk
about electric waves and we are a ll
fami li ar w ith waves of light. In an
earthquake the whole earth vibrates
and - seismic waves are produced.
There are even whole stars which
pulsate In a regular rhythm.
But it is not only the, world w e live
in that is in a state of v ibration (atomicvibrations are another example) fo r our
body itself is pene trated by vibrations.
Our b lood pulses through tis in waves.
We ca n hear the beat- of the heart.
And above all ou r muscles go into a
state of vibration when we m ove them.
QUARTZ
QUARTET
How cymatic exper iments
visual ize sound is shown in
pho tos le ft. Q uartz sand
strewn on a steel plate Is
"excited" by vibrations from a
crystal oscillator.
Approximately the sameconfiguration is seen in all
four illustrations, but the
pattern becomes more
elaborate as the pitch of the
acoustic tone rises.
Frequencies used here, left
to right and top to bottom,
are: 1,690 hertz ( cy cle s per
second), 2,500, 4,820 and 7,800.
(See also centre colour pages,photo No . 5).
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Photo <Q J.O. btuten
BIRTH OF A VORTEX
This photo, w ith its graceful curves and shimmering movements , i s a detail of
a vortex in the course of formation. The pattern of flow of the vortex is clearly
visible because of the use of coloured dyes by the exper imente r
which delineates each current sharply (see colour photo No. 7).
When we flex th e musc les of our
arms and legs, t hey actua lly begin to
vibrate. It is even possible to hear
these musc le sounds and record them
with a telephone. A ll th is means no¬
thing more or le ss than that the many
complicated chemical, energetic, bio¬
electric processes in th e musc le fibres
take place in a series of vibrations.
This raises a problem: What tan¬
g ib le e ffec ts do wave and vibrational
processes produce in a specific mat¬
erial, in a particular milieu? The pur¬
pose of the studies reported here is
to provide an answe r to th is q ue stio n.
Experiments have been devised to
display a whole world of curious phen¬
omena in which figures appear, cur¬
rents and eddies are formed, struc¬
tures take shape, harmonically pulsat¬
ing patterns can be seen, and so
forth.
Our first reaction to t his who le wor ld
of wave phenomena is one of astonish¬
ment; its features e xc ite the wonder
of both the scientif ic investigator and
the artist. In studying al l these phen¬
omena, ho wever, w e are concerned
not only with comp le te d fo rms bu t
also with the ways in w hich they
come into being. Movement is annex¬
ed to form . Thus we may be said to
have the whole phenomenon before
our eyes.
This is someth ing tha t can have a
par tic ula rly p roductiv e e ffe ct on the
mind of the creative artist. Not only
does the realiz ed form appeal to usthrough its beauty, but it also presents 7itself to us as a l iv ing pattern of motion
which is revealed in, say, a heap of
sand. The vibration lays hold of the
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE
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Photos © J.C. Stuten
8
WEAVING
BY SOUND
When l iquids are made to
vibrate, very unusualpatterns result Above, a
cellular pattern, no t unlikethose found in nature.
Right, scale-like structures
(technically know as
im bric ate ). W he n the
materials and frequencies
are ch an ge d th e p atte rn s
change an d we se e
beauti fu l ly s t ructured
arrays , hexagona l,
rectangular and overlapping
patterns In th e form of
honey-combs, networks and
lat t ices. Somet imes th e
texture itself undergoes a
marked change and the
most astound ing
d isp lays resu lt .
CYMAT ICS (Continued)
grains of sand and transports them in
a way determ ined by the arrangement
of the vibrational field.
Those artists in particular who are
interested in kinet ic a rt will f ind here
a doma in of nature in which kinetics
and dynamics have free play until a
configuration emerges. This high¬
lights a very important charac ter is ti c
of w ave an d v ibrat ional processes: on
th e one hand, there is movement an d
an i nterp lay of forces ; on the o ther, the
creation of forms and figures.
But invariably both the kinetic and
th e structural elements are sustained
by the vibrational p ro ce ss. Thus we
are always confronted by th ese three
components: vibration or wave which
is manifested in figures and in dyna¬
mics and kinetics. It is hardly an
exaggeration, then, to speak of a basic
triple phenomenon of vibration.
How are such experiments perform¬ed. The German scientist E. Chladni
(1756-1827) was the first to show how
so lid o bje cts v ib ra te . He scattered
sand on a metal plate, making it
vibrate with a violin bow, so that th e
sand formed a definite pattern of lines
characteristic of th e s ou nd heard . The
vibrat ion transports the sand from spe¬
cific areas called loops into certain
l inear zones. But th e condi t ions of
the experiment could not be selected
at will nor could th e results be seen
as a whole unti l new m ethods were
found.
One of these will be described by
way of example. What are known as
crystal oscillators were used. The lat¬
tice structure of these crystals is de¬
formed when electric im pulses are
applied to them. If a series of such
impulses is applied to the crystal, it
begins to osc illa te and the vibrations
actually become aud ib le . T he se vibra¬
tions can be transmitted to plates,
d iaph ragms, s trings , rods , etc. (photo
page 6 and colour photo number 5).
By means o f th is method conditions
can be freely selected, and accurately
determined: th e number of vibrat ions
pe r second ( fr equency) , the extent of
the vibratory movement (ampli tude) ,
and th e e xa ct point of excitat ion are
al l known with precision. Several
acoustic tones can be experimented
with at one and th e same tim e; the
scope of t he experiment can be extend¬
ed at wil l and, above all, each ex¬
periment is precisely reproducible.
With the aid of such methods, re¬
search can reveal a whole phenomen¬
ology of v ibra tiona l e ffects . The name
"cymatics" was chosen fo r this field
of s tudy (kyma, Greek fo r wave, kyma-
tica, th ings to do with waves).
CONTINUED ON PAGE 10
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SPIRALLING
SANDS
Photos right and below show
how vibration produces rotational
effects. Here w e have a steel
plate strewn w ith qu artz sand.
On right we see piles of sand
rotating under vibration. Sand
is flowing river lik e, towa rd the
c en tre p ile , in long, narrow
arms coming from vario us
directions. These fo rms s tr ange ly
recall the rotating, spiralling
masses o bse rve d by telescopes
in nebulae and o ther ga lac ti c
phenomena. Below, tw o
d isc -shaped p il es of sand have
been form ed by the flow of
th e sand s t reams. Each disc is
constant ly rotat ing and has a
nipple of sand like a nucleus
in th e centre.
m
^**ï
* ,. ..¿,«1-
.. .. r*. '"V*'
Photos © J.C. Stuten
* 7
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CYMATICS (Continued)
2 - Music made visible
in a film of liquid
|T is possible to generate
v ib ra tions sys tema tically th rough a
continuous series of tones and to
transmit them to any object at will.
Consequently sonorous figures are no t
the only phenomena produced (photos
page 6). Vibrationa l condit ions are
found, called phases, in which the
particles- do not m ig ra te in to stationary
figures but form currents. These cur¬
rents run side by side in opposite dir¬
ections as if in obedience to a law.
The whole v ibra tiona l pattern is nowin motion.
These con tinuous waves also pro¬
voke rotary movement. The sand be
gins to turn round a point. These
rotary processes are continuous. Th e
masses are not ejected. If coloured
grains of sand are used to m ark rotat¬
ing piles, the m ovem ent pattern re¬
vealed is continuous and due entirely
to vibration (photos page 9).
It is interesting to note that all the
phenomena of cymatics have not only
been photographed but, since move¬
ment is invariably involved, also film¬
ed. Still and motion pictures com¬
plement each other as documentat ion.
Just as vibration can be transmitted
to solid particles (sand, powder) it can
also be commun icated to liquids. Once
again we find the whole spectrum of
cymatics. A richly diverse field of
structures appears. Delica te lat tices
a re genera ted. Then hexagonal, im¬
bricated (scale-l ike) and richly curved
patterns (photos pages 8 and 28) ap¬
pear. If the exciting tone Is removed,
al l the formations natural ly vanish.
Currents also occur in liquids. In a
film of liquid, bilaterally symmetrical
pairs of vor texes lik e those d is cove red
in the ear by G eorg von Békésy ro ta te
in con tr ar y d ir ec tions (photo page 7
and colour photo number 7). These
pairs o f vorte xes are formed charac-
CONTINUED ON PAGE 12
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MOZART'S 'DON GIOVANNI'
Pattern (left) ¡s a musical sound from the 27th
ba r of the ove rtu re of Mozart's opera "Don G iovanni" .
The sound has been made visible by imp ress ing the
sound vibration patterns on a film of liquid. Not only
the rhythm and volume become visible bu t a lso the figures
which c orre sp ond to the fre quen cy s pe ctrum exc itin g
them. The patterns are extraordinarily comp lex in the
case of orchestral sound. See also Bach p ho to n ext page.
CRESTS OF THE WAVE
Above , suggest ive of gap in g mou th s in some bizarre mask of
Antiquity, these orifices are actually a series of wave crests
(photographed f rom above) produced when a viscous liquidis i rrad iated wi th sound. When pou re d onto a vibrating membrane,
the fluid becomes a f lowing, pulsating mass in which w ave
formations soon appear. Change s in the amplitude and frequency
of vibrations and modifications to the viscosity of th e liquid
produce further strange effects (see photos pages 13, 14, 15).
11
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CYMATICS (Continued from page 10)
teristically in the cochlea of the ear
by the action of sound. The vortexes
appearing in the liquid can be made
visible by adding a few drops of
marker dye. They rotate continuously.
Th e louder the tone, the more rap id the
rotation.
Turbulences o r u ns ta ble w a ve s de¬
serve special mention (bottom photo
page 16). In the marginal areas of a
wave f ie ld or w he n tw o trains o f w a ve s
are contiguous, agitated wave for¬
mations appea r whic h are constantly
changing. Vibration causes "turbu¬
lence" in liquid. It is a characteristic
of such t urbu lences tha t t hey sens it ize
a medium (liquid, gas or a flame) to
th e a ctio n of sound.
For example , it is only when a gas
f lame is m ade t ur bu le n t t ha t i t becomes
recep tive to irradiation by sound, i.e.
it is only then that it forms into son¬
orous figures. These turbulences are
important in the design of wind in
struments, e.g. the mouthpieces of
t rumpets .
S ince these experiments enta il the
transmission of v ib rat iona l p rocesses
in conformity with natural laws, it was
a logical step to attempt to visualize
music (photos pages 10 and below).
It is in fact possible with the aid of
diaphragms to make the actual vibra¬
t iona l patterns of music visible in fi lms
of liquid. One and the same vibrat¬
ing diaphragm is used to radiate themusic and also to visualize th e mu sic al
processes in the sonorous figures ap¬
pearing in the liquid . In this w ay, we
se e what we hear an d we hear wha t
we see.
The eye is, of course, unaccustomed
to "seeing Mozart or Bach"; if films
of this visible m usic are show n with¬
ou t sound, it is by no means apparent
that what can be seen is, say, Mozart's
Jupi ter Symphony. It is only when the
mus ic is sw i t ched on that th e a ura l im
pression can be experienced visual ly .
The question whether it is feasible
to visualize the human voice is a
particularly interesting one. A specially
des igned appara tus ca lled the tono-
scope (sound-seer) makes it possible
to p roduce without intermediate agency
the actual vibrational pa tt ern o f a vowel
(see colour photo number 6). The
figures reveal character ist ic features
which reflect the spoken vowel andits frequency spectrum, the pitch of
the vowel, and the in div id ua l v oic e o f
th e spea ke r. If condit ions are con¬
stant, precisely the same form appears.
For dea f-mu tes t his v is ib le speech
is a substitute fo r the normal person's
ability to hea r h imse lf. The deaf-mute
sees what he says. He can practise
producing in the tonoscope the same
forms as those made by persons with
normal hea ring. If he succeeds in
doing so, this means he is producing
CONTINUED ON PAGE 16
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BACH'S
TOCCATA
IN D MINOR
The mus ic al n ote s s hown in tiny
photo below are a sound from
the 28th bar of the famous
Toccata an d Fugue in D minor
(1st movement) fo r the organ
by Johann Sebastian Bach.
Photo left shows the samemusic al no te as revealed by
cymat ics. V ib ra tiona l f ig ur es
re pro du ce a ll music precisely,
bu t if we look at these passa¬
ge s on a s ilen t film , we can
at first make nothing of them,
the eye being unaccustomed to
"seeing" music without the
guidance of the ear. When
th e mus ic is heard simulta¬
neously, the aural impression
quickly becomes a visual one.
MANUAL)
PEDAL
P-
m
^© i .C. Stuten
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f*I
FRENZY OF A
CYMATIC BALLET
Photo © H.P. Wldmer
These shapes, leaping and gyrating like dancers in a frenzied ballet, are some of the
dynamic "sculptures" created during a series of experiments that demonstrate the amazinglydiverse effects produced by vibration under certain conditions. In these experiments,a viscous fluid is poured onto a vibrating membrane, producing first one and then a series
of annular waves. By modifying the frequency, and the viscosity of the liquid, a changingworld of new forms is created, some of which are shown on the following page.
13
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CYMATIC BALLET (Cont inued)
THE SOUND
AND THE FURY
Sugges ting the storm-tossed waves of
an ocean o r a se a of mo lte n la va .
surging under the Im pact of
volcanic forces, these remarkab le photos
show a laboratory-size s to rm, c rea ted
by v ib ra ting a liquid with the
aid of sound waves. Increasing
the vibrations produced
by an oscillating diaphragm
conjures up iceberg-like waves (right).
When the liq u id is made more fluid
and greater vibrations are used, the w aves
rise still higher, lifting into plates,
pillars and peaks (below left). ' Finally,
the mass o f liq u id , filled with pulsations,
currents and turbulences, flings up
with dynamic force tiny droplets that
form a curtain of flying spume
(below r igh t) . The experiment can be
con tinued until the liquid is completely
transformed into spray.
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15
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IRON FILINGS AND SMOKE IN HIGH PITCH
Iron filings when vibrated in a magnetic field p roduce t he craggy peak effect
seen above. Oscillation red uc es th e a dh es io n b etw ee n the part ic les, prov id ing
them w it h extr a fr eedom of movement. Filings thus strewn in a magnetic field
subjected t o v ib rat ion fo rm mobile shapes which seeming ly da nce in the vibrational
field. Here, camera has temporarily frozen the dan ce of the Iro n filings. Below,
a downward s tr eam of smoke takes on a fabric-like appearance when irradiated
by high frequency sound. Becom in g turbulent, the gas is sensitized to sound;
structures appear, their form depending on th e sound waves .
CYMATICS (Continued from page 12)
the sounds correctly. In the same
way he can learn to pitch hi s voice
right and consciously regulate his flow
of breath when speaking.
To give some idea of the ric hness
and diversity of cymatic effects we will
look at one examp le more closely. If
vibration is applied to lycopodium
powder (spores of th e c lu b moss), the
results are curious and specific. The
particle s o f this powder are very fine
and of even consistency. If a plate
or diaphragm on which the powder has
been uniformly strewn is e xcited by
vibration, a number of circular piles
of powder form (photo below right).
This clumping in circular heaps is
extremely characteristic of cymatic
effects. These piles are in a constant
state of circulation, i.e. the particles
are tra ns po rte d from the inside to the
outside and from the outs ide back to
th e in sid e by the vibration. This cir¬
culation is parti cu lar ly typ ica l of theaction of waves.
If the tone is in tensif ied , wh ich is
perceived by the ear as a crescendo,
the circular heaps gravitate toge the r
and unite in a larger heap, which, how¬
ever, continues to c irc ula te (p ho to
above right and centre spread, colour
photo number 4). If the tone is intens¬
ified still more, the masses are flung
into v ery vio le nt motion. They are
thrown or even hurled out, ye t the
process o f c irc ula tio n s till continues.
A,CTUAL currents ca n also
be produced in ly copodium powder.
The powder rushes along precisely
defined paths (photo page 30). If new
mater ial is cast into such an area of
currents, th e result is not chaos; in¬
stead the freshly added masse s are
immediately assim i la ted in to the sys tem
of the vibrat ional f ie ld. Throughout al l
th e change s and transformations the
dynamics of the figure and the figura¬
tion of the dynamics are preserved.
When these conglobations move,
they do so in a characteristic manner.
They invariably move as a whole, and
if a process is put out, the rest of the
heap creeps after it just like an
amoeba. There- is no crumbling or
d is in te gra tio n. Wheth er the heaps
unite to make larger ones or whether
t hey break up into a number o f smalle r
piles, they in va riably fo rm whole units.
Each of them is participative in the
whole in regard to both form and
process.
This brings us to a particular feature
o f v ib ra tional e ffec ts : they may be said
to exemplify the p rin cip le o f whole¬
ness. They can be regarded as
models of th e doctrine of hol ism: each
CONTINUED ON PAGE 18
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CO
ü 7fr. TT\
MIGRATION
TO THE CENTRE
When the spore powder of the club moss
(lycopodium) ¡s spread evenly on a
vibrating diaphragm, it forms a galaxy
of tiny piles (ph oto below ). Each pile
rotates on its o wn a xis and also rotates
as a s in gle b od y lik e the elements of
o ur so la r system. When the vibrations
are increased the piles migrate towards
the centre (photo left) in wh ich the paths
of migration can be seen as streaky
lines. While forming large central pile,
they continue to rotate on the diaphragm.
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CYMATICS (Continued from page 16) COLOUR PAGES
single element is a whole and exhibits
un it a ri ness wha teve r th e mutat ions an d
changes to which it is subjected. And
always it is the underlying vibrational
processes that sustain this unity in
diversity. In every part, the whole is
present or at least suggested.
To study vibrational effects in space,
fir st o f all d rops were made to vibrate.
Experiments with mercury showed that
the oscil lat ing drops moved in regular
forms. Systems in ari thmetical series
of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc., appear, so that
it is leg it imate to speak of harmonics
and symmetry. Pulsating drops of
water a ls o re veal th is poly gona l ar¬
rangement with the difference, how¬
ever, that the liquid t ravels regu larly
from th e centre to the per iphe ry and
from th e periphery back to the centre.
It must be imagined, then, that these
vibrations take place roughly in sys¬
tems with 5, 4, and 3 segments. The
pic tures formed are strikingly reminis¬
cent of th e shapes of the flowers of
higher plants. Thus a true harmony
becomes apparent in the series of cy¬
matic processes.
E are taken still further
in to the three-dimensional when soap
bubbles are excited by vibration (colour
photo number 8 and photos page 27).
These reveal a regular pulsation and
might be visualized as "breathing
spheres" The higher the tone produc¬
ing the oscillation, the larger the
number o f pulsating zones.
Curious phenomena result from the
fact that a dh es io n b etw ee n m a te ria ls
and the suppor ting surface of plates
or diaphragms is reduced by vibration.
The partic les o r masses acquire a cer¬
tain f reedom of movemen t as a result
of the reduced adhesion. If, fo r
example, iron filings are placed in a
magnetic field on a vibrating diaphragm,
adhesion between the filings and the
surface Is reduced and they become
to some extent mobile. They formfigurines which appear to dance in the
magnetic field and by their motion
reveal its density and configuration
(top ph oto page 16).
Changes in the state of matter are
also strangely in fluenced by vibration.
Fo r instance, if a blob of hot, liquid
kaolin paste is allowed to cool while
being vibrated, it does no t solidify in
a uniform mass but is so twisted and
churned that cur ious branch-like struc¬
tures are fo rmed wh ich are due simp¬
ly and s ole ly to vib ra tio n.
The experiment results in a whole
array o f s tru ctu red elements which
eventually solid ify (colour photo
number one).
CONTINUED ON PAGE 29
1. KAOLIN CAKE
Curious configurations occur when a material is vibrated while itis changing from liquid to solid . Here a blob of heated kaolinpaste forms a ribbed cake-like structure as It cools and solidifies.The ribbed pattern pulsates and pushes currents of plastic kaolinup the sides and down through the centre of the "cake". As thekaolin grows rigid, branch-like formations begin to appear on theouter ribs of th e vibrat ing mass.
2. THE RHYTHM OF INDIA INK
These flowing whorls and meander ing currents, made by drops
of red emulsion p laced in a solution o f bla ck In dia in k, show a
periodic process in which no outside vibration Is used. Theemulsion slowly d if fu ses i nto the Ink with a periodic, rhythmic
to and fro movement, creating a pattern of thick serpentine
spurts and delicate fo rmati ons tha t vanish like wisps of mist. It
must be imagined that everything is not only f lowing, but
ac tua ll y f lowing in patterns and rhythms.
mm
3 . PHANTOM POTTER
This perfectly shaped d ou ble rin g is no t a f inished design In
porce lain turned on a potter's wheel. It is a "fluid figure" formed
when h ig hl y v is cous liq u id Is vibrated on a d ia ph ragm . It s s ta tic
appearence is d ecep tiv e. Th e entire structure Is in movement ,
constantly ro tating, w ith m ateria l flowing to the centre
and back again, the whole- generated and sustained" entirely
by vibration. (Other shapes created in this exper iment a re s hown
on pages 11, 13, 14 an d 15.)
4. LANDSCAPE IN THE ROUND
This dusty, petrified looking landscape,recalling photos of the moon's sur face , Iscomposed of spores of th e club moss
( ly copodi um powder ) se t in motion byvibrat ion. Each circular mound of f ine
powder, both large and sm all, is rota¬ting on its ow n axis an d th e whole sur¬
face Is in Itself rotating and pulsating.Patterns change according to the fre¬quency of vibration. Increasing it cancrea te "sand storms" or unite tiny mounds
into a single large one, as seen In photos
on page 17 .
5. THE SOUND OF COPPER
Inspired by the research of Ernst Chladnl , the 18th century Ger¬man physicist and musician, who first demonstrated the modes ofvibration of solid objects, Hans Jenny, using more sophisticated
techniques, has assembled a collection of " sonorous" f igu res.
Sound pattern shown here was created on a steel plate strewn with
copper filings, and corresponds to a frequency of 2,200 cyclespe r second.
6. VOWEL 'O'
The vowel "O " produces this vibrational pattern when spokeninto the tonoscope, or sound-seer, an apparatus des igned tovisualize the basic components of human speech. Using thetonoscope, deaf and dumb persons can familiarize themselveswith normal pat terns of speech and practise producing the samesound forms.
7 . SOUND PATTERNS IN THE EAR
In these vortex patterns we see a vibrational model of the
hydrodynamlc behaviour of the cochlea, (the conical spiral tubewhere hearing t akes p lace In the In ne r ear, and where vortexes
are formed by the action of ¿ound). Vortexes, made visible by
adding marker dye to liquid, are rotat ing continuously In opposite
directions. Th e louder tone, th e m ore rap id t he rotat ion .
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BUBBLE DANCE
Some strange things can
happen to an ordinary
soap bubble when it is
made to vibrate on a
diaphragm. One can almost
say that it starts to "brea the"
as rhythmic pulsat ions
gather strength inside its surface.
The original sphere beg ins
to change shape. Photo
right shows an early
stage of pulsation,becoming more complicated,
below, as vibrations increase.
Pulsations occur in
regular zones.
Colour photo, opposite,
show s w hole soap
bubble, resembling a lovely
crystal wine-glass, in
full oscillation. They sh ow h ow
three-dimensional s ha pe s a re
structured by vibration.
Phot09 © J.C. Stuten
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DOES SOME UNIVERSAL LAW
GOVERN FORMS IN NATURE?
The forms and configurations result ing from experiments in varyingthe pitch of vibration o fte n bear so strong a resemblance withstructural pat te rns found in nature, be it in plant or animal life
or the world of minerals, that one is tempted to see here some
f undamenta l law govern ing the creation of all forms In our universe.
The perfect honeycomb structure, left, was obtained by vibratinga liquid with high frequency sound waves. The sculptured formresembling a growing bud or coral formation, below, was creat¬
ed by varying the f requency of v ibra tion of a v iscous l iqu id . The
fishbone pat te rn , bot tom right, was made by sound vibrations
in a film of glycerine. Cowrie shell or bean . shape, bottom left,
was produced when a paste-like substance was made to vibrate.
Photos © H P. Widmer
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o.
I
CYMATICS (Continued from page 18)
Nature is p ermeated by periodic and rhythmic processes In
many of which no actual vibration is involved. Circles,
left, known as "Liesegang rings", demonstrate one well
known periodic process in the field of chemical reactions.
When p ota ss ium b ic hromate is c ombin ed w ith silver nitrate
it forms silver Chromate in a remarkable, way: concentratingthe silver Chromate in a series of concentr ic r ings proceedingfrom the centre to the periphery in ever large r circles.
3 - The vast spectrum
of cosmic vibrations
iHE examples we have
given will afford some idea of the
w id e fie ld of research opened up by
vibrational effects. By scrutinizingthese curious structures, figures, flows
and movemen ts , we widen ou r range
of vision. We are alerted to manyth ings which had hitherto gone un¬
noticed. Suddenly we rea lize to what
extent nature is permea ted by rhythms
and periodicities.
It will be recalled that periodicity is
cha racter is tic o f organic cell tissue.
The elements of organisms are repeat¬ed as fibre networks, as space lattices,
and quite literally as woven tissues
with an infinite diversity. The rhythms
of these forms are apparent to the
naked eye. The leaf patterns of plantsar e an example. But in both the
optical and th e e le ctro n m icro scope
the law of repetition still prevails.
In everyday life we meet w ith o th er
examples of rhythm, seriality and
periodicity. Every water jet, every
water surface, every drop of water
re veals comp lexes o f a cymatic nature.
Who le oceans of wave tra ins, wave
fields and wave crests appear in cloud
formations. The smoke rising from a
chim ne y fo rm s vortices and turbu¬
lences in a periodic manner. Wave
formation, turbulence, pulsation and
circulation are to be found throughoutthe fields of hydrodynamics (colour
pho to numbe r 2) and aerodynamics.
By seeing all these phenomena as
an integrated whole the observer
comes to develop what is really an
intuitive faculty fo r rhythmic and perio¬
dic things. He begins to appreciate the
cymatic style o f nature. This applies
w ith p articu la r fo rc e to the creative
artist. Numerous contacts with archi¬
tects, painters, graphic and industrial
designers have shown that fo r them
cymatics canno t be merely a matter
of copying sonorous f igures or adopt¬
ing them purely as'. decoration.
A .productive c on fro nta tio n w ith
cymatics lies rather in th is : le t us sup¬
pose that someone is working with
geometrical shapes, say with squares
o r c irc le s. Usin g th ese e lements he
constructs his designs. But the forms
he is handling are finished and com¬
plete: the nascent e lemen t is a bse nt.Ye t he must be aware that everything
has its origin and genesis.
Now th is genera tive p rocess is onethat he can experience particularly wellin th e fie ld of waves an d vibrat ions.
On seeing a sonorous figure take
shape, one cannot help bu t say: the
c rea ti ve process is just exac tly where
"nothing" can be seen, and the poin ts
whither the part icles of sand and
powder are carried are the very places
where there is no movement . The
figure must take shape ou t of its
environment; bound up w ith th e finish¬
ed form is the circumambient spacecreating it. With each thing shaped
goes the experience of th at w hich
shape s it; with each thing fash ioned,
of that which fash ions it. In th is way
the space round things becomes vital¬ized fo r the sculptor, the architect and
the painter. The rig id fo rm is seen
in term s of th at which gave it b irth .
But th e converse case is also i l lum¬
inated by the study of cymatic pro¬
cesses. Le t us suppose someone's
interest is focused on kinetics, on
moving elements and the interplay of
forces. Then he is confronted by the
problem of how a configuration canemerge from such a mobile system.How is a dynam ic proce ss re lated to
form, to a specific figure? Here aga in ,
thinking of the problem in terms of
v ib ra tio n p ro vid es the answer, fo r
however g reat the changes and trans¬fo rmations , p recis e figurai aspects
prevail in the v ib ra tiona l f ie ld . Even
turbulences, fo r al l their instability,
have a formative, repetitive element.
Hence wave phenomena and v ibra¬
t iona l e ffec ts form a kind of totality
(colour pho to numbe r 3, and photos
pages 11, 13, 14 and 15). They throw
an explanatory light on the processof format ion as much as on that
which ultimately takes shape; theyi l luminate movemen t as wel l as th e
stationary form. And here again it isa question of looking behind these
fixed forms to see wha t genera tive
process leads to them . Th e obvious
procedure is to find out what stages
precede the figured shapes and toscrutinize them closely. And this
brings us to the signif icance of cyma¬tic phenomena.
First of al l it must be said that mere
similarity between natu ra l phenomena
and the results of experiments do not
warrant th e conc lus ion that there is
any essential identity. Undoubtedly
many wave e ffe cts lo ok like various
natural phenomena. But in te rp re ta¬
tion and analogizing lead nowhere;
they m iss th e h ea rt of t he ma tter .
Wha t is involved here is this. The
observation o f vibrations an d waves
yields a whole series o f specif ic and
particular categories of phenomena.
It also shows th at the se d iv ers e ele¬
ments appear in a vibrational systemas a whole . In one and th e same
vibrational system we f ind s tructura l,
pulsating, and dynamic-kinetic fea¬
tures, etc. Thus we can say that
when dealing with vibrational systems,
. there will appear in them, appropriatelytransformed, the cymatic effects
we have observed in ou r experiments.
Exper imen ts thus provide us with
con ceptu al mode ls which can stimul¬
ate re search . Needless to say, eachfield must be understood in its ow n
terms. However, experience with
cymatics tutors the in tu it ive facu lty
in such a way that attention is drawn
to many in ter re lated facts which would
previously have gone unheeded . Thu s
while it must be firm ly re ite ra ted that
all interpretation is pointless, it must
be borne in mind that in actual f ields
o f experience the effects o f natural
c yma tic s must be apparent.
Le t us take the example of astro¬physics. There can be no doubt that
in this f ie ld spec if ic v ib ra tional e ffects
must appear on th e lines we have
indicated. A compilation of cymatic QQphenomena embraces a whole range £jof features and relationships fo rwhich appropriate verification must be
discoverable in astronomy, whether
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE
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DEATH OF A BRIDGE
BY VIBRATION
SJtm
7-1
Like a violin string vibrated by a bow, a suspension b ridge s trung
between its high towers is vibrated by winds. Soldiers crossing a
bridge in column always break step to prevent the bridge f rom "entering
into vibration" as the second prong of a tuning fork does when the
first prong is struck. Vibrations can reach the point whe re the y setup strains and stresses powerful enough to bring a bridge c rash ing
down. These spectacular photos show in sequence the disastrous
effects of the Tacoma bridge in vibration (State of Washington, U.S.A.),
when its main span collapsed on November 7, 1940. (1) A 70 km.
(45 mph) wind sets the bridge vibrating, causing it to twist and sway.
Twisting effect worsened Swhen a suspension cable came loose.
(2 3) As v ibrational forces i ncrease , roadway is twisted and wrenched
upwards (abou t 35 degrees f rom the horizontal) as shown by automobile
being tilted first one way then the other. (4/5) Vibrations have built
up to a critical pitch, tear ing away th e who le centre span. Below, the
main span has disappeared; only a jag ge d section of side w all remains.
Another spec tacular example is Ven ice, whe re vibrations from w aves
and tidal currents during many centuries and more recently from
ocean-going ships and power boats have inf li cted grievous damageon the city's ancient buildings and monuments.
a I
fl
li-l.r
Photos r F.B. Farquharson, Eng ineer ing Exper iment Station,
University of Wash in gt on , S ea tt le , U .S .A .
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by György Marx
QUASARS
AND THE BIRTH
OF THE UN IVERSE
Text copyright © Reproduction prohibited
LOOKING upwards on a
clear night, we see myriads of stars,
thousands upon thousands of them
twinkling in the dark sky. The bright¬est sta rs are visible to the naked
eye up to some thousands of light-
years away. With the aid of tele¬
scopes they can be distinguished at
d is tances thousands of t imes grea te r,
up to some millions of light-years.
At a greater dis tance sti ll , individual
stars can no longer be distinguished,
although they can be seen as galaxies,
similar to our own of which th e sun
is part. These gala xie s c omp ris e
thousands and hundreds of thousands
of millions of stars. The tota l lig ht
emitted by such galaxies can berecorded up to distances of some
thousands of millions of l ight-years.
The light we reg ister on a photo¬
graphic plate began its journey at a
tim e whe n life had barely commenced
on earth .
An d yet we can probe In th is w ay
only a minute portio n o f the universe.
We should have to p enetra te much
further into the depths of space andt ime to discover th e st ructure and th e
history of the universe. The heavenly
bodies, s tars and galaxies we can seenow began to form more than ten
thousand mi llion years ago. It would
therefore be necessary to go back at
least ten thousand m illion years into
the past in order to understand the
h is to ry o f the genesis of matter.
Before Copernicus, man had a
simple picture of the univ ers e. Its
2
GYORGY MARX is professor of theoret¬
ical p hy sic s a t the Un iversi ty o f Budapest
and chie f edit or of the Hungarian scien¬
tific publication "Fizikai Szemle" (Physics
Review). For h is s tud ies on the quantum
theory of particles he was awarded the .
Hungar ian Kossuth Prize in 1955. Thisarticle Is condensed from a ' series of
six talks recorded by the author fo r the
International Un iversi ty o f the Air.
c en tre w as th e earth, t he natural focus
for th e condensat i on of matter.
Copernicus removed the terrestrial
globe from this privileged position.
The Neapolit an ph ilosopher Gior¬
dano Bruno, an admirer of Copernicus
and friend of Galileo, had already
conce ived th e not ion of an infinite
number of worlds al l of equivalent
importance. From then on the
un iverse was re pre se nte d as being
full of h ea ve nly b od ie s distributed
uniformly in space and time and of
homogeneous density , in the same
way that the molecu le s of gas aredistributed in a storage tank.
.A t first th e stars and our sun were
taken as being the molecules of this
cosmic gas. But, following the work
of th e U.S. astronomer, Edwin Hubble,
the galaxies those islands of matter
con ta in ing thousands of millions ofstars have b ecome th e m ole cu le s of
cosmology.
However, things are no t quite so
simple . Galile o taught that the samelaws of physics are applicable in the
heavens as on earth. If we attempt
to apply the laws of universal
gravitation to a gas of infinite extent,
like that in which the galaxies aremolecules, a simple calculation shows
that th is gas could no t be in a state
of equilibrium. E ither the force of
attraction will prevail or the cosmic
repulsion will predominate. A gas
formed of galaxies must of necessity
either expand or contract.
In 1926 observations made by
H ub ble s ho we d that th e universe is
receding. The further into the dep ths
of space we look the faster are the
galaxies we can see receding from us.All these observations have con¬
firmed Hubb le 's law that th e speed of
recession of galaxies is proportionalto their distance from us.
Galaxies at a distance of a thousand
million light-years have a recession
speed of 30,000 kilometres per second,
that is a tenth of the speed of
ligh t. Those that are twice as fa r
away two thousand million light-
years a re re cedin g from us twice asfast, and so on . The universe is no t
a static, in va ria ble fo rma tio n. It
unfolds be fore us a picture that
changes with time.
Living in an evolving universe we
canno t bu t specu la te as to wha t to ok
place in the past and what is to happen
in the future. How long will this
recession, this expansion of the
u nive rse con tinu e? If it is to c ont in ue
indefinitely the galaxies will end up at
such v as t d is ta nc es one f rom th e
o th er th at the light em itted from one
galaxy will no longer be able to reach
even those galaxies that at one time
were closest. Is our own galaxy , the
Milky Way, destined then to float like
a solitary island in the v oid ?
s>UPPOSE that we, as it
were, run the film backwards towards
the past. We should then see the
galaxies getting closer to one another,
and it can be deduced that about te n
thousand m illio n years ago all the
matter of the universe was very highlycondensed. Expansion must have
taken place from an extremely dense
state and have begun in a manner
similar to an explosion.
Many astronomers , relying on the
Friedman calculations, have adopted
this hypothesis of an original state in
which matter was very dense and haveattempted to deduce from it, by
calculation, the v ario us c on ditio ns
observable in the universe as it now
is . Others have had some reserva¬
tions about this, po in ting ou t that a
chain of deduction going so fa r back
is at the mercy of the slightest cir¬cumstance that might have been over¬l ooked.
In the midst of this sea of specula¬
tion, a first point of reference became
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t.
Quaiar 3-C-9 *.
8.000 MILLION LIGHT YEARS
Photo © National Geographic Society
Palomar Univers i ty , Cal i fornia
available with the discovery In 1965-1966 of rad io waves coming from the
depths of space.
In the range of metric waves and
above, we can distinguish radio
emissions from galaxies and various
extra-terrestrial bodies. In th e milli-
met ri c wave range, emiss ions or ig ina te
from our atmosphere and the iono¬
sphere. But in the intermediate, centi-
metric range th ere was silence.
In probing th is sile nt range more
closely weak thermal radiation was
discovered. This incoherent radiation
does not originate from knownheavenly bod ie s nor from a particular
sector of the sky. It ¡s a background
noise that fills th e e n tire u n iv e rs e in
a homogeneous manner and Is identi¬ca l In all directions. It corresponds
to a temperature of 3 degrees
absolute, that is to say 270 degrees
below zero centigrade (1).
This background radia tion is appar¬ent as a weak r ad io nois e, b ut w hen
it is c on sid ere d th at it is present
uniformly throughout the universe its
importance becomes evident. It con¬
tains a thousand million t imes as many
photons as there are atoms in theuniverse and the ene rgy density ofth e radiat ion is a hundred thousand
times g reate r than that of the light
com ing from al l the stars.
If we make th e d ed uc tio n that in
the past the univ erse occup ied a
smaller and smaller volume of space,
the further we go back in time, we
find greater and greater in tens ities o f
radiation and higher and' higher
radiation tem peratures. Since the
tempera tu re today is three degrees
absolu te , then five thousand million
years ago it must have been six
degrees absolute, and thirty degreesabsolute 7,000 mi lli on years ago.
MESSAGES 8,000 MILLION YEARS OLD
Six years ago, a lively new branch of astronomy was born with the publication in theMarch 1963 issue of the English journal Nature of fo ur papers by Australian and American
scientists reporting the discovery of myster ious ce les tial ob jects, now known as quasarsor QSOs (quasi-stellar obje ct s) . S in ce that date ou r knowledge of quasars has grown
s tead ily . Above le ft, Quasa r 3-C-9 (arrowed) a tiny luminous do t in space visible through,
a powerful t ele scope. Its light, reaching earth after 8,000 million years (a t a speed of
300,000 km . a s ec ond), is h elp in g scien tis ts t o r econst ru ct cosm ic events as old as the
birth of our own galaxy. Comparative distances shown in drawings above and below help
us to v isualize the awe-inspiring dimensions of the universe.
(1) Absolute zero is approximately minus
273 degrees C.
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE
Nebula of Orion.Solar system
i i
1,000 LIGHT-YEARS
3
it- ''! ..."
Andromeda, near es t g a la x y to ou r own
i
'>-
Our galaxy .*"
2 MILLION LIGHT-YEARS
5
4 '
c
'ûtij'-V--'' .i¿"' '
Our galaxyi i
i -t
100.000 LIGHT-YEARS
>.
1 * , * ' X 1 »
' ' / s m
* ' * . ., / r \
/ 5
* / x
1 Á ' »
' * * ' -*. ' N ' *
* * 3 - * * \ '
' #" i'*.
Range of cosmic observation with the most
powerful photographic telescopes (continuous l ine)
an d with radiotélescopes (dotted line)
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QUASARS (Continued)
There is only one possible ex¬
planation for such a large number ofphotons in space. They were produc¬ed in th e hea rt of matte r tha t is highly
condensed and extremely hot, just as
it must have been 10,000 mi ll ion years
ago when the universe began to
expand.
From th is s ta rtin g point, with the
radiat ion spreading over a greater and
greater volume, the temperature
diminishes. At th re e degree s abso¬lute, radiation today bears witness
that the starting point fo r the expan¬sion of the universe was a special
state of matter with th e temperature
doubtless exceeding a billion degrees
and with r ad ia tion p redom inating ove r
atomic matter (1).
A<ICCORD ING to Jacob Zel-
dovitch's calculat ions, during the first
second of expansion the temperature
dropped to ten thousand million de¬
grees, and, at the end of the first mi¬nute, to some millions o f degrees . At
this point m atter began to d om ina te
with th e formation of th e first atomic
nuclei. During the first ten million
years the temperature dropped to four
thousand degrees and, in the heart of
the ionised plasma, neutral atoms, that
is to say a toms having their full com¬plement of peripheral electrons, were
able to form.
After that, vast clouds of gas were
able to develop, each of them forming
the basis of a galaxy. Gradually the
universe took on the aspec t that we
know to da y and we move from therealms of misty speculat ion to those of
scientif ic research based on observa¬
tion.
Natu ra lly, th e re sid ua l ra dia tio n at
three degrees absolute gives only a
confused p ic tu re o f the birth o f atoms
and galaxies without providing anydetai ls. The informat ion that can be
drawn from th e present state of atomic
matter gives a no less distorted pic¬ture.
Heavy elements are being formed
continuously in the universe of today.
It is, then, almost imposs ib le to deduce
from ou r present knowledge the origi¬na l p ro po rtio n o f the elements and,
hence, the density and temperature
conditions prevail ing at the beginn ing.
This is w hy astronom ers w ould find it
of in e stim a b le v alu e if direct undis-
torted evidence, p rovid ing specific
information about the initial phase of
t he unive rse, were to be discovered.
In fact we should need beacons
visible a t eno rmous distances, a billion
times brighter than the stars and a
hundred times brighter than thegalaxies, to find our way far enough
into the depths of space and tim e tobe able to discover there th e structure
of o u r u n iv ers e.
Now it is precisely such beacons
that a stro nome rs b elie ve were dis¬
covered dur ing the early years of thisdecade. These stars have been
named quasars, a word fo rmed from
the contraction of the p hra se "quasi-
stellar". In fact they are galaxies of
a particular kind which were at firstmistaken for stars.
Quasar 3-C-9, which has been iden¬
tified both optically and by radio-
telescope, has a light spectrum whoserays are displaced 215 per cent
towards the longer wave lengths. If,
as is generally accepted, th is "red-
shift", as it is c alle d, is due to the
velocity of recession, and if this
velocity is proportional to distance
(in o th er word s, if our u niverse is
expanding), this redshift corresponds
to a recession ve loc ity o f 240,000 kilo¬
metres per second and to a distance
of eight thousand mill ion light-years.
The aston ish ing thing is that these
stars em it enough light or radiation
energy to be discernible at such
distances. Their o utp ut o f energy canbe est imated at m ore than a billion
times the light of the sun.
Beyond th is d is ta nc e the objects
are too pale fo r it to be possib le to
measure their redshift and our opt ical
telescopes can probe no further. Bu t
eight thousand m illion light-years
indicates that the light from Quasar
3-C-9 has been travelling fo r that
length of time. To look at this
quasar- is, therefore, to look eight
thousand million years into the past,
that is to say, to cover about 80 per
cent of the history of ou r universe.
I
(1) In this text "Bil l ion" is used In th e
Engli sh sense to mean a million million.
though at present
eight thousand million light-years
appears to be th e extreme limit fo r
optical observation, radio-astronomy
ca n take us further. In fact, radio
sources of the same type as quasars
and weaker than 3-C-9 have been
detected by radiotélescopes. If we
assume that a ll these radio sources
have the same absolute intens ity, their
apparent intensity allows us to estimate
the range of our radiotélescopes asbeing nine thousand m illio n lig ht-
years. This range is largely exceeded
by the new giant radiotélescope sited
in a natural bow l at Arecibo, Puerto
R ico (See "Galax ies Caught in a Steel
Mesh," "Unesco Courier", Jan. 1966).
It is expected that the new radio-
telescope will be able to record
emissions from rad io galaxies and qua¬sars s itu ate d a t d is ta nc es of te n to
twelve thousand mil lion l ight-years. This
means that it will be possible, so
to sp ea k, to listen to a direct broad¬
cast of the beginnings of the universe.
This poss ib ilit y, wh ich just a few
years ago would have been consid¬
ered fantastic, has become a reality
thanks to the extraord inary intens ity
of th e qua sa rs' output both of light
and rad ia tion . The ir rad io em iss ion
is th e resul t of one o r severa l
exp losions wh ich, at the same t ime,
heated the centra l nucleus in such
a manner that it could shine like a
million suns fo r a m illio n y ea rs or
longer. Radio emission from theradio galaxies is due to an explosion
of a similar kind, but perhaps less
intense.
These beacons in space can be
used as triangulation points fromwhich to map the entire stellar field
in space and in time. This is not just
a hope fo r the fa r o ff fu tu re . The
map-making venture has already begunand th e re su lts o bta in ed are o f
enormous interest.
w H AT can we assume about
the behav io ur o f quasars throughout
time? During the hun dred thousand
years t ha t followed the first flash, ra¬diat ion must have been of constant
intensity. From then on the strength
of the radiation began to dec rease ex¬
ponentially. A million years after this
spark-off the power o f ra dia tio n was
a lre ad y only a thousandth of what
it had been at th e start, and after te n
million years it had again diminished
a thousand times. At th is po int the
quasar fades to the exte nt th at it
is no longer discernible. No quasars
have been detected whose age hasbeen assessed at m ore than a few
million years.
The ir d is ta n ce and their distribution
in space can be calculated by their
apparent intensity. It then becomes
noticeable that their density in space
is more or less homogeneous within
the limits of one to two million light-
years. Beyond this distance the
number of quasars appears to increase
in al l directions. Their density
doubles (Tver a spher ical laye r witha radius of some thousands of millions
of lig ht-y ea rs . Beyond that it dimin¬
ishes again strongly and, at the radio
horizon, nine th ou sand m illio n lig ht-
years away, the density is only a
fiftieth of that observed in th e close
range.
In rea lity, this arrangement in space
expresses evolution in time, the
quasars being observed at distances
that correspond to the date of their
existence. If quasars seem to usto be more num ero us a t a distance
of some t housands o f millions o f
l ight-years, this is because in that
d ista nt perio d o f time their eruptions
were more frequent.
If we look fur ther still, w e se e
scarcely any quasars , despite the fact
that our radiotélescopes are now
powerful enough to detect radio
sources even further away. This isbecause we are reaching back into
an era preceding the first quasars.
If we can liken quasars to the
nuclei of galaxies burning themselves
CONTINUED ON PAGE 41
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SECOND STAGE
ENG INEERING MASTERP IECE (Continued)
An innate sense o f geometr ical precision
6
the spider had worked, alongside my
family's log cabin, one of several
inhabi ted by nature- lov ing vacationers
in summer. About two metres (6 ft.)
f rom th e corner of the cab in was arocky knoll, with a small bush sprout¬
ing ou t of a crevice in the rock. A
branch of a larger plant, a hazel bush,reached over the knoll toward the
cabin . Between th e cabin and th e
knoll grew a small patch of wild irises,
daisies, asters, and other wild wood¬
land flowers in their season.
It is p ro bable th at the protection
p rovided by the ove rhanging eaves of
the cabin, the presence of the protrud¬
ing corner logs, the pa thway between
the cab in and th e wild f lower bed,
and the stone s teps lead ing up to the
rocky knoll al l combine d to p ro du ce
an id ea l lo ca tion fo r an orb-weaving
spider to set up housekeeping.
Many times , over a span of several
years, I had seen o rb webs suspended
almost vertically in th is exact location,
and I had wa tched numerous spiders
of several species carrying on various
stages of web const ruction there
indeed, I had often walked into these
webs while fe tch in g firewood.
It is also probable that on that morn¬
ing the f avourab le a ir cur ren ts around
the cabin, and the prospect that insects
attracted by the flowers would fly
head-on into the hang ing web, werebonus in du cemen ts th at caused one
Micrathena graci lis, an orb-weavingspider, to start spinning its silken lines.
Of a species reported to be widely.
distributed in North Americ a, it was
grayish in colour, about 6 mm. (1/4 in.)in length, and its abdomen was
armed with d is tinc tive spines as well
as the more conventional pairs ofappendages called spinnerets. It is
through these organs that spiders
excrete threa ds o f silky material.
The entire p rocess took about tw o
an d one-hal f hours and consisted of
four stages, which can be describedas follows:
First Stage: Placing structural sup¬
porting lines to provide a triangular-
shaped f ramework fo r the web , whic h
would itself be roughly 15 cm. (6 in.)
in d iamete r ( drawing I shows the
scene when first observed, and the
establ ishment of the web centre).
Second Stage: Comple ting a systemof radial l ines to co nnec t th e web
centre with the surrounding framework
(drawings 2 to 4).
Third Stage: Building a temporary
scaf fo ld ing spiral , extending from the
web centre to the outer frame (draw¬
ing 5).
Fourth Stage: Installing the final
viscid spiral webb ing and removal o f
the scaf fo ld ing (drawing 6).
S TAGE ONE : When I first observed
the web, it already had the three main
supporting lines, with crosslines C-D
and E-F in place (drawing 1), thus com¬pleting the polygonal, outer web fram¬
ing, BCDEFA (except fo r a crossline
between A and B, which was not
p laced until later),.
The spider had also reinforced each
main structural line by traversing it
from time to time, add in g a new strand
on ea ch passage . These strands fann¬
ed out at the anchorage points toprovide multiple attachments (a com¬
mon human practice when anc ho rin g
the cables of a la rge suspension
bridge).
The spider now proceeded to estab¬
lish th e web centre (d rawin g 1). First,
it attached a free-running line at point
1 on AF ; then, moving through pointF down to ED, it a tta ch ed th e other
end at point 2. A quick movement
of the spider's spinnerets fas tened
the line sufficiently well.
Now it moved up th is line and,
approximately midway between 1 and
2, attached one end of another l ine.
Again sp in nin g o ut a line as it went,
the sp id er carried it down to 2 and
th en a lo ng DC to line CB, where the
other end was attached at point 3.
This time the line was pulled taut
before it w as a tta ch ed . It was this
pull that b rought radial lines 1, 2 and
3 to th e positions shown on drawing 1.
The conjunction of these first three
radia is determ ined the web centre,
which was then stabilized by the plac¬
ing of radiais 4, 5 and 6.
The1 web f rame, with the in itia l
radiais 1 through 6, was not in a com¬
ple te ly vert ica l plane; it was inclined
about 15 degrees o ff vert ical, w ith the
upper p art le an ing away from me.
I was no t sure on which s ide the
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THIRD STAGE FOURTH STAGE
Spider has constructed a spiral
scaffolding, laid anticlockwise from
the centre, which will be removed in
stage 4. Lines marked "X " are partialradiais added to facilitate scaffold
construction. When the spider reached
the outer end of radial 14, it reversed
direction and made a fu ll c ircuit to
comple te the scaffold spi ra l at radial 1 1 .
Scaffold completed, the weaver now
installs the sticky s pira l w e b that will
serve to catch p re y. T h e web, this time
laid clockwise starting from the
outside, has an average diameter of
17 cm . (six and a half in c hes ). S p ide r
then cuts a hole at centre of web,
giving itself access to either side. It
then waits for vibrations, the tell-tale
sign that a victim ha s been t rapped.
spider would ope ra te , b ut inasmuch as
viewing was most convenient wi th my
back to the sun, all my observationsand sketches of the web were made
with the sp ider working from the others ide. This was fortunate. As the
weaving proceeded, my position
a ffo rded c lose -ups of the weaver's
use of abdomen, legs, mandibles, and
spinnerets.
Having now established a web
centre the spider proceeded to the
second stage of const ruc tion.
STAGE TWO (drawings 2 to 4): A
complete system of radial lines joining
the centre p oin t to the severa l enclos¬
ing framework lines was now pu t
into place.
The method o f installing the addi¬tional rad ia is was like that for th e
initial radiais, e xc ep t th at each new
ra dia l w a s first at tached to th e cent re
and then carried to a se le c ted lo ca tio n
on the e nclo sin g fram e. The spiderw as adept at holding a hind leg high
and keeping the freerunning line from
becoming entangled with existing lines.The fact that the spider was workingon th e unders ide of th e off-vertical
web many have helped, as gravity
wou ld te nd to draw its body and the
free line away from the web plane.
If the reader will run his eyes over
the radiais in their numerical sequence,
sta rtin g w ith th e th re e in itia l lines, he
must be impressed by the fact that
never was a new rad ial pla ced adja¬
cent to one just laid, b ut alw ays at
a distance from it, so as to continually
equaliz e the tens ions on the system
and thereby maintain the location of
th e web centre. Otherwise, because
of the elasticity of the fibres, the
cen tr e wou ld have constantly sh if ted
to new points, and the polygona l formof th e f ramewo r k wou ld have assumed
ever changing shapes and distortions.
Drawings 1 to 3 s how the structural
frame as straight lines. This was not
actually the case. As each new radial
was a tta ch ed to a frame line, the
t en sio n p la ced upon that lin e cau sed,
it to deflect to a more curved line.
Fo r convenience in f ie ld ske tching,
I kept the straight-line form fo r the
frame, until all the radiais were placed.
When radiais 20 and 21 were plac¬
ed , there was as ye t no cross member
from A to B. The spider, after plac¬
ing 21, went back down it w ith ou t
hesitancy, up 20 to A, then returned
the same way with a running line thatbecame crossline AB and was attach¬
ed to radial 6 at their intersection
point. The full polygonal frame,
ABCDEF, was now complete, and
other radiais could be attached to AB .
It is o f in te rest to note that during
th is selective method of locating the
radiais, in only one in sta nc e was a
new one anchored too near an existing
radial, and that was 22, adjacent to
radial 2. In a few cases there was
too much s pa ce b etw ee n ra dia is . In
each case the spider later filled the
gaps with part ia l rad ia is .
That an apparent ly del iberate method
was used by the spider to maintain
the approximate web shape estab¬
lished by the first six radiais is sug¬
gested when the next eight radiais
are studied (drawing 2).
Lines 8, 10, and 13 are well dispers¬
ed be tween po in ts A and F, and radiais
7, 11, and 14 are similarly spaced
between poin ts B and C. Further
evidence of deliberate planning at this
CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE
37
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A SPIDER THAT
SIGNS ITS NAME
The Argiope, a tiny spider ( rig ht) found widely
in Europe, is easy to spot because of its
b right yellow abdomen crossed w ith black
stripes. It has also the unique characteristic
of signing its name to its web with a zig-zagband o f silk f ixed between tw o ra dia l lines.
NEW SKINS FOR OLD
This greatly enlarged pho to of a spider's leg in the process
of moulting ( be low) r ecalls the delicate brush strokes of a
classical Chinese i nk d raw ing . Old claws bein g shed with
the skin (to p o f p ho to ) a re being replaced by new ones. Spiders
shed th eir o ute r skin severa l t imes wh ile growing.
ENG INEER ING MASTERP IECE (Continued)
Ready for occupancy
stage is seen in the p la cing of num¬
bers 15 through 21.
Again, in drawing 3, one sees thatt ens ions on the cent re of the web
remain balanced by the spider throughits c ho ic e of r ad ia l lo c a tio n s for l ines
22 through 33. With so many radiais
now in place, further care in spacing
would no t have been necessary, ye tthe weaver cont inued its care fu l selec¬
tio n o f lo ca tions as radiais 34 through
44 (drawing 4) were added.
STAGE THREE: With all full-length
radiais in place, the weaver proceeded
with the n ex t item of construction, th e
s ca ffo ld ing, wh ic h would be removed
after serv ing its purpose. It consistedof a spiral starting from the centre andcontinuing to the outer perim eter of
the web (draw ing 5).
The first seven circuits of the spira l
were spaced very closely, about .8 mm .
to 2.4 mm. (1 /32" to 3 /32") apart. Thenext four or five were spaced 6.3 mm.
to 8 mm. (1/4" to 5/16") apart, and
9.5 mm. (3/8") apart. To maintain an
even spacing the spider kept a foot
on the preceding circuit as it hurriedaround the web.
Several interesting examples of
what appeared to be decision makingoccur red dur ing this stage. At a few
places w here radiais were too fa r
apart and the spider would have to
s tre tc h to re ach th e next one, it dis¬
continued the spiral and installed a
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SPIDER 'S DOMAIN
IN A
DIVING BELL
Photos © Holmè9-Lebel
Numerous spiders are found on the
surfaces of ponds and qu ie t s tr eams,
bu t the only one th at liv es all its
life un de r w ate r is the Europeanwater spider (A rgyone ta aquati ca ).
This ingenious spider builds a rough
f ramework fo r its bell-shaped under¬
water home b y attaching a few
threads to the s tems of water plants.
Then, rising upwards, it co lle c ts a ir
on its abdomen and rea r legs by
projecting them through the surface
of the water (above right). Carrying
this a ir bubble to Its building site,
it places it whe re th e silken cables
will hold ¡t prisoner. The spider
repeats the operation until it ha s
collected about one cubic centimetre
of air (above left), and then com¬
pletes the nest b y wea vin g a silken
covering around the bubble. To this
home it brings water bugs and other
prey (photo left) and here too it
lays its eggs and raises a family.
Baby w ater spiders (photo right)
are c omple te ly tra ns pa re nt b efo re
they moult fo r the f irst t ime.
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ENG INEER ING MASTERP IECE (Cont inued from page 39)
determine, or stabilize, a plane. Also,
the triangle is the basic form used inc on stru ctio n to secure stability and
equilibrium.
The division of th e web -weavin g
process into four separate steps
closely ref lects s imi la r procedures in
the cons truc tion o f a building:
Laying the foundation.
Placing the structural framework.
Building the scaffolding fo r en¬
closing the structure.
P re pa rin g the place fo r occu¬pancy, and removing the scaffolding.
After construction, the s pid er w ill
continue to have engineering prob¬
lems, but now under th e headin g of
"Repairs and Maintenance".
It was hard no t to think in human
terms as well as strictly engineering
terms when contemplating th e e vents
at this place. These questions occur¬red to me:
Why was it that so many webshad been constructed a t this same
lo ca tio n, th e various spiders ta king
advantage of the same existing cabin
logs, tree branches, protruding rocks,
etc., to build above the little wild
garden? Are spide rs able to stand of f
fa r enough and in some way survey
all the attributes of a p ossib le w eb
site?
Having selected a site, can the
spider then determine which of several
logs, branches, etc.,would
be most
suitable fo r anchorages?
Can a spider, having established
a line from the end of a certain log
to a b ra nch , sa y six feet distant, then
use some dec is ion -making process
tha t e lim inates severa l a lte rnate pos¬
sibilities in favour of centering the
web directly above th e pathway, where
i nsec t traffic will be heav ies t?
T hese and many other questions are
unanswered, as fa r as I have been
able to d is cove r. I myself have no
answe rs but it is my belief, based on
many years of observation, that scores
of spiders, of various species, havebuilt webs at th is site in a manner
that suggests that the answer to thesequestions could be "yes".
At least, I can say that the same
structural problems had been faced byi nnumerab le bu ilders , and all of them
had been solved in the sam e compe¬
tent manner.
SPINNING LESSONS FOR THE SCIENTIST
The web building spider can be a unique laboratory animal that may helpscientists to investigate many aspects of physiological, behavioral and psychologicalr esearch, say three scientists who have made extensive studies of spiders at work
on their webs. Their conclusions are published in a short and easy-to-read little
book, "A Spider's Web, P roblems of Regulatory Biology" (1).
Their study reveals many interesting and little-known facets of the spider's habitsand working methods. Spiders produce with amazing speed large amounts of silk
wh ich t hey daily spin into a we b o f spec if ic design. The authors d iscuss the anatomy,
physiology and histology of the silk glands, as well as the composition of the silkitself.
The web is of u tmost importance in the life of the spider, and its d es ig n haspresumab ly evo lved through some select ive process. The authors p oin t o ut that
the spider nervous system is programmed to achieve construction of a we b through
the spreading of silk. The specific nature of th e web enab le s it to be characterized,
and thus computational methods fo r describing it in mathematical or geomet rical
terms can be drawn up.
The au thors sugges t that the deta iled geometr ic patterns of webs are important
fo r proper mating by providing a clear and unambiguous signal fo r an approaching
male. They also note that spiders are able to catch and process flies on strange
webs as efficiently as on their own.
The scientists s tud ied the many d if fe rences tha t occur in web patterns resul ting
from natural processes such as aging, growth and weight changes in spiders, as
well as others in du ced b y "manipulating" spiders through the use of drugs and by
other means, and they describe the effects of drugs on web wea vin g b ehav io ur.
S in ce s pid ers b uild web s fre qu en tly , it is possib le to have a spider in "normal"
cond it ion cons truc t a web, th en make some a lterat ion to the spider and compare
the resulting web with the n ormal or standard from the same animal.
(1) By P.N. Witt, CF. Reed and D.B. Peakall. Springer-Ver lag , Berl in ; He ide lberg ,
New York, 1968, 107 pp .
QUASARS AND THE BIRTH OF THE UNIVERSE (Continued from page 34)
ou t and aging rapidly, the date that
they flare d up must be related to
the b irth o f the galaxies The quasars
must be contemporary with the birth
of the galaxies or have followed at
a lim ite d inte rva l of time. Theytherefore si tuate in t ime th e
birth of the galaxies which inturn denotes a critical state of th e
matter of the universe, already con¬
s iderab ly cooled down after the initial
e xp lo sio n. T herm al turbulence must
already have reduced sufficiently
to allow gravitational forces to
accumulate th e vast mass of th e
proto-galaxies, that is, the galaxies
in the process of condensation.
From these observations it seems
to follow that the period in which
quasars flared up reached its cul¬
mination eight to nine thousandmillion years ago. It is unlikelythat m ore than nine thousand million
years ago th ere were many quasa rs .
We are living in a comparatively
calm period of the development of
the universe, at a time when matter
has long been gathered together in
galaxies or stars. But with ou r
r ad io té lescopes we can survey the
past and reach back to an earl ier
stage in the life of the univ erse to
an epoch in which thermal flux and
not the accumulation of matter was
the dominant factor. We are on the
point of h avin g a cc es s to the very
dawn of th e wor ld at a t ime when,
perhaps, there were no stars and all
that existed was amorphous ma tte r.
The initial results of this investiga¬
tion are still fa r from p re cise . The
given facts of time and distance willhave to be checked an d verified. This
will be the task of larger telescopes
that are today planned or under
construction. The r esults they supplywill enable astronomers and as tro¬
physicists to re-constitute the historyof our universe.
The first r ad io té lescope was built
scarcely a quarter of a century ago
and the first optical telescope three
centuries ago. Man has existed on
earth fo r a million years and life fo r
a thousand million years. The sun,
the earth and the planets are six
to seven thousand million years old
and th e gala xy of which we are part
goes back eight to nine thousand
million years . The expansion of the
universe, which ca n still be observed
today, may have begun ten to twelve
thousand m illio n yea rs ago. But the
further back we go into the pastth e more uncertain become the events
that marked the prehistory of theuniverse.
It is no t so long since scientists
began their enquir y in to the past of
man and of th e earth . To avoid
straying in the labyrinths of specula¬
tion or losing their way in th e m istsof space and tim e, they now have
as guides t he quasa rs , those beacons
whose light and radio sig na ls tra ve ltowards us across thousands of
millions of years.
41
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0 El sa
ILO awarded
Nobel Peace Prize
The N ob el P ea ce P riz e for 1969 has been
awarded to the International Labour Orga¬
nization, wh ic h th is y ea r c ele bra te s its 50th
ann iv er sa ry ( see the "Unesco Courier",July 1969) . In making the award th e Nobel
committee commended the 110 as an orga¬nization which has worked to create stable
social relations and thus contributed to
safeguarding world peace, and noted the
ILO 's impor tant work in the fie ld of tech¬
nical a ss is ta nc e to develop ing countr ies .
The ILO is the third U.'N. b od y to receive
t he award . The U.N. Children's Fund (1965)
and the Office of the U.N. High Commis¬
sioner fo r Refugees (1955) were previously
honoured.
Unesco Indian
translations honoured
Special editions are being prepared of
two outstanding Indian n ovels recently
published in English fo r the Unesco Liter¬
ature Translations Programme, by Allen
and Unwin in U .K. and Indiana University
Press in U.S.A. Pather Panchali by Bib-
hutibhushan Banerj i will be the first of over
130 volumes published in English in the
Unesco. Collection to appear in a special
book club edition (Folio S ocie ty o f Great
Britain). The Gift of a Cow (Godaan ) by
Premchand will be th e first book in th e
collection to be published in Braille (Natio¬
nal Library fo r the Blind, London).
'Prospects in Education'
Unesco recently publ ished the first issue
of "Prospects in Education", a new quar¬
terly which aims to bring to educators,
educational institutions and teachers articles
an d in format ion from worldwide sources
and to give teachers especially in pri¬
mary schools an insight into educational
problems and their solutions in other coun¬
tr ie s. Annual subscription: $3.50 or 21/-stg.Subscribers will r ec e iv e t he first s ix i ssues
(1969-70) free of charge, and their sub¬
scription will cover Nos 7-11 (1971). Order
fr om Unesco natio na l distributors (P. 43).
Developing Asia's
book industry
A centre fo r the promotion of book
publishing in Asia has been se t up in Tokyo
(Japan) by th e J apanese Publishers' Asso¬
ciation with aid from the Japanese National
Commission fo r Unesco. It will carry ou t
research on publish ing technology, prov ide
training courses fo r the industry and report
new trends in Asian publ ish ing. Unesco is
contributing $36,000 to p rovide courses fo r
trainees from 18 countries.
Hazards o f food poison ing
The danger o f fo od poisoning is every¬
where increasing, no t only from food-borne
d iseases but a ls o through chemical contam¬
inants that find their way into food
through m ishandling, re po rts the World
Health Organization. Mass production and
distribution of food and the growth of
international trade and travel al l contribute
to the dange r.
Dial-a-lesson Classrooms
Teachers in Ottawa, Canada, wil l be able
to dia l-a- lesson under an experimental pro¬
ject in four schools. Each of the schools'
110 c lass rooms will be c on ne cte d to a
v ideo l ib ra ry , and teachers will be able to
choose recorded p rogrammes by telephone
to be p laye d ba ck over a coaxial cable
network an d received on classroom TV .
IVAN KOTLYAREVSKY
P oe t L au re ate of the Ukraine
(1769-1838)
This year's bi-centenary of the birth of Ivan Kotlyarevsky,
"Poet Laureate of the Ukraine," was marked by celebrations
throughout the Soviet Union, inc lud ing spec ia l ceremonies
in th e Bo lsho i Theatr e, Moscow, in September.
Ivan Kotlyarevsky was the leading figure in the literary revival of the Ukrainian
cultural renaissance th at to ok place early in the 19th century- He w ro te th e first
Uk ra in ian musical drama, "N ata lk a o f Poltava" an d his translations of La Fon¬
taine's Fables in to U k ra in ia n an d o f G reek an d Latin l i terature into Russian are
still widely read. But th e work which brought him the greatest fame and established
him as th e fo un de r o f U kra in ia n literature is his poem, "The Aene id T ransposed ."
This vigorous, sparklingly witty poem is in no sense a parody of Verg il's master¬
piece. Borrowing only the story outline, Kotlyarevsky produced a brilliant and
original work whose purpose was to challenge Tsarist despotism at a time when
the v ery surviva l of the Ukrainian language and culture was at stake. In it s verses,
th e g ods on Olympus, the T ro jan, Carthaginian and Latin peoples speak, act, dress,
eat and qua rre l lik e Ukra in ia ns at the close of the 18th century. The author's
style, his humour and philosophical irony have led many to compare him with Rabe¬
lais, Swift, Ariosto and Anatole France.
Kotlyarevsky shook of f the shackles of 18th century classic ism, raised a verna¬
cular language to th e rank of a literary one and int roduced Ukra in ian l iterature intoRussia 's cultural life . H is "Aeneid" is so rich in Ukrainian folk wisdom an d turns
of speech that few have attempted to translate it, although it well deserves to be
read In every country.
BOOKSHELF
Deser t Travel ler
(The Life of Jean Louis Burckhardt)
By Katherine Sim
Victor Gollancz Ltd., London, 1969
(60/-).
Scribes an d Scholars
(A Guide to the Transmission
of Greek and Latin Literature)
By LD . Reynolds and N.G. Wilson
Oxford Univers ity Press, London,1968 (15/-).
Writing in French from Senegalto Cameroon
Selected by A.C. B rench
Three Crowns L ib ra ry
Oxford Univers ity Press, London,
1967 (10/6).
Language Today
(A Survey of Current LinguisticThought)
By Mario Pel and William
F. Marquardt, Katherine Le Mee,
Don F. Nilsen
Funk and Wagnalls, New York, 1967
($5.95).
M EuropeBy Jasper H. Stembridge and DavidParnwell
The New World Wide Geographies,
Second Series, Oxford Univers ityPress, 1968 (12/6).
Human R ights and Fundamenta l
Freedoms in Your CommunityBy Stanley I. Stuber
Associated Press, N ew York, 1968
(Cloth: $3.95; paperback: 95 a) .
The Complete Poems
of Michelangelo
Trans la ted by Joseph Tusiani
(Unesco 's Trans la tions Series)
Pete r Owen Ltd., London, 1969
(38/-).
Ocean exploration decade
A long-term and expanded programme of
oceanic research, which would comprehend
the proposed International Decade of
Ocean Exploration, was recently adopted
by the Intergovernmental Océanographie
Commiss ion meeti ng at Unesco headquar¬
ters in Paris. It comprises some 50 projects
covering the whole spectrum of oceano¬
grap hy from the study of the earth' s c rus t
under the ocean basins an d research on
th e ocean as th e "boi ler" fo r th e world's
weather system to ways of doubling or
even quadruplin g the p re sent annual salt¬
water fish catch of nearly 60 mil li on tons .
Flashes...
Seven ty per cent of Soviet doctors are
women, w ho se numbe rs re ach ed 438,000
la st y ea r c ompa re d w ith 96,000 in 1940.
Traffic congestion in Great Br ita in , which
has nearly 60 vehicles fo r every mile of
road, is increasing more rapidly than in
an y o ther ma jo r country, according to the
British Road Federation.
By 1975 the world's nuclear power sta¬
tions are likely to number 300 with a total
genera ti ng capac it y of 150,000 megawattsas against 20,000 today.
One out of every seven persons in the
world is a cit izen of India. India's popu¬
lation (over 520 m illion last year) grow s
annually by 13 million.
ce
o
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UNESCO COURIER INDEX 1969
January
CAN WE KEEP OUR PLANET HABITABLE? (M. Bât isse ) The biosphere
(R. Dubos). A look at the animal world (J. Dorst). Man against
nature (F. Fraser Darlin g). W a te r p ollu tio n. Unesco's programme
(1969-1970). Art treasures (30) At ease beneath a tree (U.S.S.R.).
February
CIVILIZATIONS OF CENTRAL A SIA A ND TH E H IMALAYAS . Kushan
Civilization (B . Gafurov). Himalayan ar t (M . S in gh ). Philippine folk
ballet. Khorassan earthquake, Iran (R. Keating). Art treasures (31)
Young E trus can (Italy).March
NEW FOOD REVOLUT ION (G . Gregory). India's progress in food
production. A lg ae in ste ad of steak. Nurse ri es o f the sea (W. Ma rx ).
Forms of n atu re (A . Feininger). Synthetic cuisine (A . Nesmeyanov
and V. Belikov). Communications on the moon (G. Phélizon). Arttreasures (32) Nas re din th e sage (Turkey).
April
YOUTH 1969. Youth in fe rment ( spec ia l Unesco study). Angry
g en era tio n (M . Hicter). Youth and society (A . Gorbovsky). Youth
in developing, socialist, and weste rn c oun tr ie s (E. Naraghi). Art
treasures (33) Legend of ancient Persia.
May
ARTS AND MAN (d'Arcy Haym an). The crafts (K . Chattopadhyay).
Art of African pulleys (F. N 'D ia ye ). U te ns ils as works of ar t
(V . Fabritsky and I. Shmelyov). N ew shapes and curving rhythms.
Popular im age ry from Brazil. Art treasures (34) From Mexico's
a nc ie nt p as t.
June
GLAC IE RS ON THE MOVE (G. Avsyuk and V. Kotlyakov). New
world of the oceans (D. Behrm an). Alaskan earthquake. Under¬
standing Oriental music (Trän Van Khé). Art treasures (35) Goddesson a silver cauldron (Denmark).
July
FOR 1,500 MILLION WORKERS. I nt erna ti ona l Labou r Organ iza ti on
50th anniversary (G.F. Pompei). World emplo yment programme (D.A.
Morse). 'Participation' (ILO study). Safety and health on the job.
Labour re la t ions today (J. de Givry). The working woman (P. Sartin).
In ternat iona l migra t ion of workers (P. Kuin ). Emp lo ymen t or exile
(S. Parmar). Art treasures (36) Water-carrying centaur (Hungary).
August-September
UNESCO COURIER ANTHOLOGY. Earthlings in the space age
(Lord R i tch ie-Calder ). Antonio Arango (G . Nannetti). Saving our
vanish ing forests (K.H. Oedekoven). Th e menace of 'extinct' volcanoes
(H . Taz ie ff ). N in th centur y Sa le rno science school (R. Luzzato). Ruins of
Nem ru d D ag h. Antarctica (G . Wendt). Hie roglyphs o f Easter Island
(A. Métraux). Pierre Loti at Èaster Island. Galapagos islands: laboratoryof evolut ion (J. Dorst) . Heri tage of the 'Bounty' (H. Shapiro). Buddhist
culture (A . de S ilv a). C ha lle ng e o f th e Spaceship (A.C. C la rke ). F ir st
steps in space (A. Leonov). Art o f Mex ic o. V ern ac ula r languages in
changing Africa (P. Diagne). Po ll ut ion o f th e O ce an s (N . Gorsky ). Ou r
poisoned planet. 700 million i l l iterates (R . Maheu). Avicenna (C . Abous-
souan). Nuclear weapons and world sanity (L. Pauling). Ants and men(Sir James Gray). Canaletto's pa in tings he lped rebu ild Warsaw (J. Hrynie-
wiecki) . Pictures in our heads (5. Klineberg). Art of decoratingou rse lves . Cent re of the map (M.G .S . H odgs on ). New science of
ar t conservation (H.J. P le nd erle ith ). G rowin g w orld w ate r shortage
(M. Bâ ti sse ). Rousseau father of anthropology. (C . Lévi-Strauss). Art
of writing. Africa rediscovered (B . Davidson). Ancient art of Japan
(S. Noma). Racism in South Africa (L. Nkosi). Camel facts and fables(B. and K. Schmidt-Nielsen). Royal highway of the Incas (J. Carrera
Andrade). Don Quixo te o f the radio (D . Behrman). Peking man inthe apothecary's s hop (G .H .R . von Koenigswald). Stones also die
(R. Sneyers). Art t reasures : funerary mask (Nubia) .
October
GANDHI (R. Rao). Landmarks in his life (O . Lacombe). Heritage
of non-violence (R. Habachi). Martin Lu the r K ing. Th e wa y of Bapu
(H. Kab ir ). C ommen ta ry on Gandhiji (K. Jaspe rs ). Gandhi on stu¬dents and polit ics (M.S. Adiseshiah). Gandhi on education. Art
treasures (37) Puzzling masterpiece (Czechoslovak ia) .November
MONGOLIA (K. Facknitz and L. Kostikov). Erasmus (J.C. Margolin).
U.N. and Mongolia. New light on civilization in Ir an (P .P . Delougaz
and H.J. Kantor). Men die earl ier (B . Ur lan is) . Three-d imens iona l
history class (P. Almasy). Art treasures (38) Viking god (Sweden).
December
SCULPTURE OF VIBRATIONS (H . Jenny). Death of a bridge by
vibration. Quasars (G. Marx). Spider engineers: the b uild in g of a
web step by step (B . Dugdale). Art treasures (39) Pun ic pendant
(Tunisia).
WHERE TO RENEW YOUR SUBSCRIPTION
and order other Unesco publ icat ions
Order from an y bookseller, or write direct to
th e National Distributor in your country. (See list
below ; names of distributors in countries not
l isted will be suppl ied on request . ) Paymen t is
made in th e national currency ; the ra tes quotedare for an annual subscription to THE UNESCO
COURIER in a ny o ne la ng ua ge .
AFGHANISTAN. Panuzai, Press Department, Royal
Afghan Ministry o f Edu ca tio n, K ab ul . AUSTRALIA.
Publications : Educational S upplies P ty Ltd, P.O.
Box 33, Brookvale. 2 100 NSW ; Periodicals:
Dominie Pty. Limited, Box 33, Post O f fi ce , B r oo k -
vale 2100 NSW Sub-agent United Nations As¬
sociat ion of Austra l ia, Victor ian D iv is ion , 4th
F lo or , A s kew House, 36 4 Lonsdale St., Melbourne
(Victoria), 3000. ($ 2.75). AUSTRIA . Verlag GeorgFromme & C*., Spengergasse 3 9, V ie nn a V (AS 82)
BELGIUM. A ll publicat ions: Editions "Labor" , 3 42 , ru e
Royale, Brussels, 3. Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles,
42 , a v. P aul Héger , Bruxelles S. NV Standaard-We-
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Ta iwan (Fo rmosa ). CYPRUS. "MAM", Archbishop
M aka rio s 3 rd Avenue, P.O. Bo x 1722 , Nicosia.
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publications: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Rosenheimerstrasse
145,8 Munich, 80. Forthe Unesco Kurier (German ed only)
Bahrenfelder-Chaussee 1 60 , Hamburg-Bahrenfeld, C.C.P.
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1 7 Park Stree t , Ca lcu tta 1 6 and Sc ind ia House , New Del¬
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IRAN. Iranian Nat ional Commission fo r Unesco, 1/154
Avenue Rooseve lt , B.P. 1 533, Teheran. IRAQ. McKen¬
zie^ Bookshop, AI - Rashid Street, Baghdad ; University
Bookstore, University of Baghdad, P .O . Box 75 , Baghdad.IRELAND.The National Press,2,Well ington Road, Balls-
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Street, Port Louis. MONACO. Br it ish L ibra ry , 30 ,
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çao. N.A. (N A fl 5 .2 5). NEW ZEALAND. Govern¬
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La Renaissance d'Egypte, 9 Sh. Adly-Pasha, Cairo.
U N IT ED K IN G DOM . H .M . S ta ti one ry O ff ic e, P.O.Bo x 569, London, S.E.I., an d Government Bookshops
in London, Edi nbur gh , Cardiff, Belfast, Manchester,
Birmingham and Bris to l. (20/ -) . UNITED STATES .
Unesco Publications Center, P .O . B ox 433, New York ,
N.Y. 10016 ($ 5). U.S.S.R. Mezhdunarodnaja Kniga,
Moscow. G-200. YUGOSLAVIA. Jugoslovenska
Knjiga ,Terazije, 27 , Be lgrade ; Drzavna Za luzba Sloven ije ,
Mestni Trg. 26 , L jub l jana .
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