6th Grade Social Studies
Unit 1 – Text Packet
Chapters 1-2
Unit 1: The Geographer’s World
Ch. 1 – The Tools of Geography
Ch. 2 – A Spatial Way of Thinking
Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography
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Introduction to Geography Alive - Regions and People
Welcome to Geography Alive! Regions and People. You have just begun an active, hands-on journey into the
world around you.
The Field of Geography
Geography is the study of Earth and its people. It helps us understand how people, places, and environments
came to be and how they affect each other.
When geographers look at something on Earth, they ask questions. Where is it? Why is it there? How did it get
there? How does it affect the people who are living there? How does it affect the natural environment in this
area? That “something” could be as ordinary as a nearby factory. Or it could be as extraordinary as a distant,
fire-belching volcano.
To answer such questions, geographers look at the
world in spatial terms. This means they look at how
things are arranged in space relative to each other.
Look at the photograph of the camels below. The first
question to pop into a geographer’s mind about this
photograph would be a spatial one. Of all the places
on Earth, where were these camels when this picture
was taken? Why were they there?
Physical Geography Geographers divide their field into two broad
branches: physical and human. The word physical
means relating to things that can be seen, tasted, or felt. Physical geography is the study of natural features on
the surface of Earth. These are things that can be seen (and sometimes tasted), such as mountains, plants, and
animals. They also include things that can be felt more than seen, such as temperature, wind, and weather.
Physical geographers looking at the camel photograph below would be interested in its desert landscape. They
would wonder how this place got to be so very dry and what might live in this sea of sand.
Human Geography
Human geography is the study of people as they have spread across Earth. Human geographers seek to
understand who lives where, how, and why. They are also interested in human-made features such as towns,
farms, dams, and roads.
Viewing the same camel picture, a human geographer would wonder who is driving those camels. Where did
the people come from? Where are they going? And why are they traveling through such a harsh, dry land?
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The Geographic Inquiry Process
Geography is a very old field of study. Around 450
B.C.E., a Greek scholar named Herodotus created the
first map of the known world. You can see a modern
version of it at the bottom of this page. Looking at this
map, you may notice two things. First, how much of
the world it shows. Second, how much of the world is
missing. What you cannot see is how Herodotus
created his map. He followed a series of steps known
as the geographic inquiry process.
Asking Geographic Questions Herodotus began by asking geographic questions. What is the world like? What lands and seas cover Earth?
What peoples does the world contain? Where do they live?
Acquiring Geographic Information To answer his questions, Herodotus needed geographic information. He traveled widely to see the world. He
interviewed other travelers and traders. They told him many tales, some true and some tall, about distant lands.
In this way, Herodotus learned about peoples and places he would never see.
Geographers today still travel in search of geographic information. Those travels may take them to nearby
places or to distant lands. Like Herodotus, they also look for information gathered by others. This information
can often be found in books and on the Internet.
Organizing Geographic Information Once Herodotus had collected his information, he needed to organize it in some way. There are many ways to
organize geographic information. The most common, however, is the one he chose to organize information
about all of the places he had learned about: a map.
A map is a way of showing how things are arranged in space. On his map, Herodotus showed what he had
learned about the locations of lands, seas, and peoples.
Analyzing Geographic Information To analyze means to examine something in detail in order to discover more about it. Analyzing geographic
information involves seeing patterns and making connections.
As Herodotus analyzed his information, he compared different ways of life. He noticed that Egyptians, for
example, did many things “backward” from a Greek point of view. They wrote from right to left, instead of
from left to right. They ate outdoors but washed indoors, while the Greeks did just the opposite.
Answering Geographic Questions At the end of his inquiry, Herodotus tried to answer the questions he had started with. He wrote down all that he
had learned. He also recorded conclusions about peoples based on his analysis. People still read his books
today.
Throughout this course, you will be engaged in the geographic inquiry process. You will ask questions and
gather information. You will organize and analyze that information. Finally, you will try to answer your
questions. You may find, however, that each answer leads to new questions. When that happens, you are
thinking like a geographer.
Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography
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Section 1 - Introduction
In the early 1800s, the United States was just starting to expand across North
America. No European Americans had ever crossed the land that lay west of the
Mississippi River. This vast area was mostly a huge blank space on their maps.
To find out about this land, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led a team of
explorers on a journey to the Pacific Ocean. Lewis and Clark mapped mountains
and rivers as they crossed them. They collected samples of wildlife and plants.
They also learned about the Native Americans of the West and how they lived.
In many ways, today’s geographers are explorers like Lewis and Clark. They study
the natural features of the land, the sea, and even the sky. They try to understand
the way people interact with the world around them. For example, they look at where people choose to live and
why. They study the way people use Earth’s resources, such as forests, water, and minerals. They explore the
advantages that come with living in cities or in the country. Often they use maps as a basic tool for recording
information and making new discoveries.
In this chapter, you will learn how to use different kinds of maps. You will see how maps can show information
about people and places on Earth. You will use these tools throughout your own study of geography.
Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography
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Section 2 – The Geographic Setting
In September 1805, Lewis and Clark crossed the Rocky Mountains on their way to the Pacific Ocean. They
wanted to find the Columbia River, which could take them to the ocean. But they didn’t know how to find it. A
Native American chief named Twisted Hair came to the rescue. He drew a map on a white elk skin that showed
how to reach the Columbia. The river, said Twisted Hair, was “five sleeps” away.
Today we still use maps to find the locations of places and how far apart they are. Like Twisted Hair’s drawing,
the most basic map is a diagram that shows what is where.
Locating Things on Earth: The Main Purpose of Maps For geographers, maps are tools that show where
things are on Earth. With these tools, we can find the absolute location [absolute location: the precise point
where a place is located on Earth] of any place in the world. Every feature is located at a precise, or absolute,
point on Earth. There are many ways to describe this precise point. Your street address, for example, indicates
the absolute location of your home. Later in this chapter, you’ll learn how a grid, or system of lines, can be used
to show the absolute location of places on a map.
Maps also show the relative location [relative location: where a place is located in relation to another
place] of places on Earth. This is the location of one place compared to another. For instance, one place might
be located east or west of another one. You probably use relative location when you give directions. Suppose
you want to tell a friend how to find the street where you live. You might tell her to go down a main street and
turn right one block past the park. You would be telling her your street’s location relative to a place she knows
well.
Distortion: The Big Problem with Maps Maps are great tools, but they’re not perfect pictures of Earth’s
surface. Maps are two-dimensional, or flat. Earth is three-dimensional and shaped like a sphere, much like an
orange. The only way to show a round Earth on a flat map is by stretching some parts of it. This changes the
shape, size, and position of its features. These changes are called distortion [distortion: a change in the
shape, size, or position of a place when it is shown on a map]
. The picture at the right shows how severe this distortion can be.
One way geographers deal with the problem of distortion is to
use globes. Because they are spheres, globes are better models of
the whole Earth than maps. They show the size, shape, distance,
and direction of places on Earth very accurately. Unfortunately,
globes cannot show a lot of detail without becoming huge. Maps
can show smaller areas of Earth and include much more detail.
In addition, maps are much easier than globes to carry around.
Flattening a Sphere Distorts Features A person’s head is shaped almost like a sphere. If you try to flatten a head, its features stretch and change shape. As a result, the person becomes almost unrecognizable. In a similar way, flat maps can distort information about Earth’s features.
A second way to deal with distortion is to use map projections [map projection: a way of representing the
spherical Earth on a flat surface] . A map projection is a particular way of showing Earth on a flat surface.
All map projections have some kind of distortion. For example, a projection that accurately shows the sizes of
places will distort their shapes. One that shows accurate shapes will distort sizes and distances. Geographers
choose the projection that best suits the kind of information they want the map to show.
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Section 3 – Map Titles and Symbols
Like Lewis and Clark, early explorers often had no maps to guide them on their journeys. Lewis Carroll, the
English author of Alice in Wonderland, made fun of their situation in a poem called The Hunting of the Snark.
The poem tells of sailors in search of an imaginary creature called a snark. To assist them, the ship’s captain
unrolls a large map of the sea without a trace of land. The snark-hunting sailors, Carroll wrote,
were much pleased when they found it to be
A map they could all understand . . .
“A perfect and absolute blank!”
Luckily for us, maps are not blank. Instead, they are filled with
information.
The Top of a Map Doesn’t Always Point North On most maps, the top of the map points north, but not all maps work this way. This map turns our usual view of Earth upside down. The map isn’t right or wrong. After all, Earth does not have a “right” side up as seen from space. When you look at any map, be sure to check the compass rose so you know which direction is which.
The Title Tells What a Map Shows A map’s title gives us our first clue about its content. It usually describes
the area shown on the map. It also identifies the map’s main topic. The topic might be gold mining, politics,
farming, or even the night sky. Often the title lists a date. The date tells us that the map shows the locations of
places at a certain time.
A Compass Rose Shows Directions on a Map Have you ever used a magnetic compass to find your way in a
strange place? If so, you know that the needle of a compass always points north, or toward the North Pole.
Knowing where north is can help you decide which way to go.
Mapmakers use a diagram called a compass rose [compass rose: a diagram on a map that shows directions
such as north, south, east, and west] to show directions on a map. On early maps, these diagrams often looked
like a flower. For this reason, sailors called this direction-finding tool a compass rose.
A simple compass rose has two short lines that cross at right angles. The points at the ends of the lines are
labeled north, south, east, and west. These four directions are called cardinal directions [cardinal directions:
the four main directions on a compass rose: north, south, east, and west] . A more complicated compass
rose has lines between the cardinal points. These lines show the intermediate directions [intermediate
directions: the directions on a compass rose, such as southeast, that are located between the cardinal
directions] . They are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest.
A Legend Identifies Symbols on a Map A compass rose is one of many symbols used to show information on
a map. Some symbols use color to show features. Blue lines, for example, are symbols showing rivers. Lakes
and oceans are often colored blue as well. Other symbols use shapes to show information. A bold star is a
common symbol for the capital of a state or country. Tiny airplanes are often used to show the location of
airports.
The symbols used on a map are usually identified in a box known as the map legend [map legend: a box or
other display on a map that explains the meaning of the symbols used on the map] , or sometimes the map
key [map key: another name for map legend] . The map legend lists each symbol and explains what it shows
on the map.
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A Grid Organizes Space on a Map Mapmakers often use a system of
imaginary lines to divide up space on
their maps. This system of lines is
called a map grid [map grid: a
system of imaginary lines that
divides up the space on a map] . You
can see an example of a grid on the
map above. To form this grid, the
mapmaker drew horizontal lines and
vertical lines that meet at 90-degree
angles. (Remember that horizontal
lines go straight across. Vertical lines
go up and down.)
Geographers make map grids useful by
giving each line a label. For instance,
on some maps horizontal lines have
letters, and vertical lines have
numbers. Once the grid is labeled, any
location on the map can be indicated
by a letter and number combination,
such as C3 or H7. The letter and
number indicate where a horizontal
and vertical line meet. Find this point,
and you will have found the place you
are looking for close by.
One very useful type of grid is the
system of latitude and longitude. This
global grid [global grid: the system
of imaginary lines (called parallels of
latitude and meridians of longitude)
used to divide the surface of Earth
on maps and globes] allows you to
locate any place on Earth with a simple
number code. You’ll learn more about
the global grid in the next section.
Using a Map’s Title, Compass Rose, Legend, and Grid You can use this map to tour a historic site. The map title tells which site you will be exploring. The compass rose shows which way north is on the map. The map legend tells you what the symbols on the map mean. Once you know what you want to visit, the map grid will help you locate it on the map.
Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography
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Section 4 – The Global Grid: Latitude and Longitude
In early November of 2003, a hiker set up camp high in the Adirondack
Mountains of New York. Heavy snow trapped him there with no way to hike out.
Luckily, he had a Personal Locator Beacon. He pressed a button to call for help. A
helicopter soon flew him to safety.
How did the rescuers find the stranded hiker? His locator beacon showed his
location on the global grid. Geographers use this same global grid to show the
absolute location of every place on Earth.
32° North, 4° West Any place on Earth, no matter how lonely, has an exact address on the global grid. This lonely spot lies 32° north of the equator and 4° west of the prime meridian.
Lines of Latitude Parallel the Equator The global grid system is made up of two sets of imaginary lines. The
first are called parallels of latitude [parallels of latitude: an imaginary line around Earth that runs parallel
to the equator] . These lines run east and west around the globe.
The equator [equator: the line of latitude that
circles Earth exactly midway between the North
and South Poles] is the most important parallel of
latitude. It circles Earth exactly midway between the
North and South poles. All other lines of latitude are
parallel to the equator. Parallels of latitude are
measured in degrees (°). The equator is 0° latitude. It
is a reference for measuring other parallels of latitude.
Lines of Longitude Run from Pole to Pole The other lines in the global grid are half-circles that run from the
North Pole to the South Pole. These lines are called meridians of longitude [meridians of longitude: an
imaginary line between the North and South poles that crosses the equator at right angles] . They are not
parallel to each other, so the distance between them varies.
The most important of these north-south lines is the
prime meridian [prime meridian: the meridian of
longitude labeled 0 degrees, from which all other
degrees of longitude are measured. The prime
meridian passes through Greenwich, England.] . It
runs through Greenwich, England. Like parallels of
latitude, meridians are measured in degrees. The prime
meridian is 0° longitude. It is a reference for
measuring other meridians of longitude.
The next most important meridian is the International Date Line [International Date Line: the meridian of
longitude located at 180º. By international agreement, the date is one day earlier to the east of this line.] .
This line runs through the Pacific Ocean halfway around the world from the prime meridian. When travelers
cross this line, they cross over to a different day. Travelers moving west across the line go forward a day.
Travelers moving east across it go back a day.
Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography
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The Absolute Location of Cities Latitude and longitude mark the absolute location of cities. The coordinates of Rio de
Janeiro are 23°S, 43°W. To find this location, look for the parallel of latitude that is 23 degrees south of the equator. Move your finger along it until you come to the prime meridian. Now move west along the same line until you reach 43 degrees. You should be pointing to Rio de Janeiro.
Latitude and Longitude Mark Absolute Location The numbering system of this global grid makes it easy to
locate any place on Earth.
Moving north from the equator, the parallels of latitude increase in number from 0° up to 90°N (north) at the
North Pole. The same thing happens moving south of the equator. There the numbers of the parallels increase
from 0° to 90°S (south) at the South Pole. One degree of latitude covers about 69 miles, or 111 kilometers.
Meridians of longitude start from 0° at the prime meridian. Going east from there, the numbers on lines of
longitude increase until they reach 180° at the International Date Line. These numbers are labeled E (east). The
same thing occurs going west from the prime meridian. The numbers increase until they reach 180° at the date
line and are labeled W (west).
The absolute location of any place on Earth can be described as the meeting point of a parallel of latitude and a
meridian of longitude. The numbers of these lines are the geographic coordinates [coordinates: a set of
numbers that together describe the exact location of something, such as a place on a map] of a place.
These coordinates are like a street address for your house. They tell exactly where that place is located.
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Section 5 – Dealing with Distances: Map Scale
In Ithaca, New York, there is a winding path called the Sagan Planet Walk. The path takes people past models
of the sun and the planets. In less than a mile, walkers pass through a model of the entire solar system. The
model shrinks the vast distances of space to make them easier to understand. For instance, people can see that
the planet Mars is about one and a half times Earth’s distance from the sun.
A map does a similar thing for the area it shows. The scale on a map tells you how the distances on the map
compare to the actual distances on Earth.
How Scale Affects Details A map can be large scale or small scale. A large-scale map gives a close-up view of
a small area. It shows lots of detail. You could use a large-scale map to find a store in a mall or on a
neighborhood street. A small-scale map shows a larger area, but with fewer details. Small-scale maps are best
for finding your way between cities, states, and larger areas.
Estimating Distance with a Map Scale A map scale [map scale: an element of a map that shows how a
unit of distance on the map (such as an inch) relates to actual distance on the surface of Earth] appears on
most maps. The scale tells you how to read the distances on the map. For instance, an inch on a map might
equal 10 miles on Earth.
The map scale is usually made up of two short lines with notches on them. One line measures distance in miles,
the other in kilometers. The easiest way to use a map scale is to make a scale strip. Take a strip of paper and
place it under the map scale. Mark the scale’s notches on the paper, and label the marks with the numbers of
miles or kilometers. Then place your strip with the “0” mark at one point on the map. Line up the strip with a
second point. Now read the closest number on your strip to this second point. You’ve just figured out the
distance between the two points.
Maps with Different Scales The map on the left is a small-scale map. It shows where Washington, D.C., is located in relation to nearby cities. The map does not show details like city streets. But it does show larger features, such as major highways. The map on the right is a large-scale map. It focuses on Washington, D.C. You could use it to find your way through the city’s streets to the White House or other monuments.
Chapter 1 – The Tools of Geography
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Section 6 – Hemispheres, Continents, and Oceans
“One of my favorite things to do when I have time off is to just watch the world
go by,” said astronaut Ed Lu about his time in space. In 2003, Lu watched Earth
go by from the International Space Station. “It isn’t exactly seeing the Earth like a
big blue marble,” he explained. “It’s more like having your face up against a big
blue beach ball.” On the “beach ball,” he saw Earth’s wide continents and blue
oceans.
Few of us will ever see Earth from an astronaut’s point of view. But we can use
maps and globes to get a view of our planet’s natural wonders. Geographers make
these features easier to understand by dividing Earth into different areas.
A Hemisphere Is Half a World Geographers divide Earth into halves. These
halves are called hemispheres [hemisphere: one half of a sphere. Earth can be
divided into eastern and western hemispheres or into northern and southern
hemispheres.] . The equator divides Earth into two hemispheres. The northern
half is the Northern Hemisphere. The southern half is the Southern Hemisphere.
Hemispheres The equator splits the globe into Northern and Southern hemispheres. The prime meridian and International Date Line split the globe into Eastern and Western hemispheres.
Geographers also divide Earth in half by longitude. The Western Hemisphere lies west of the prime meridian.
The Eastern Hemisphere is east of it. The two hemispheres divide again at the International Date Line.
Continents and Oceans Cover Earth Geographers also divide Earth’s lands and seas into areas. Ocean water
covers more than 70 percent of Earth. This ocean is really just one big body of water. But geographers usually
divide it into four oceans. They are the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic oceans.
These oceans lap the shores of continents [continent: the seven largest areas of land on Earth] , the largest
areas of land on our planet. Geographers identify seven continents. From largest to smallest, they are Asia,
Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. Europe and Asia are actually parts of
one huge landmass [landmass: a very large, unbroken area of land] . But geographers usually think of them
as two continents because they have different cultures and histories.
Earth’s Continents and Oceans You can see from this map that oceans cover most of Earth. The four major oceans are actually a single body of water that surrounds the seven continents.
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Section 7 – Earth and the Sun
For centuries, most people believed that Earth stood still in
space. Today we know that our planet is in constant motion.
That motion creates our years, months, and days. It also helps
to create our seasons.
The Moving Earth Earth moves around the sun in a nearly
circular path called an orbit. One round trip, called a
revolution [revolution: one complete trip by Earth around
the sun] , takes about 365¼ days. This is an Earth year.
As Earth revolves around the sun, it spins like a giant top on
its axis [axis: an imaginary line that runs from the North
Pole to the South Pole through the center of Earth] . The
axis is an imaginary line that runs from the North Pole to the
South Pole through the center of Earth. The spinning motion
of Earth is called rotation [rotation: the spinning motion of
Earth around its axis] .
The Tilted Earth The tilt of Earth on its axis means that some areas receive more sunshine than others each day. This difference creates Earth’s seasons.
Earth makes one full rotation about every 24 hours. As Earth spins, it is daytime on the side facing the sun. On
the side facing away from the sun, it is night.
Earth’s Tilt Creates the Seasons Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle relative to the sun. Because of this tilt, the
Northern and Southern hemispheres receive different amounts of sunlight as Earth moves around the sun. These
differences create Earth’s seasons.
Look at the diagram on this page to see the changing seasons in the Northern Hemisphere. During the north’s
summer, this half of Earth is tilted toward the sun. At this time the Northern Hemisphere receives more sunlight
for more hours, and most places enjoy hot days. Winter comes when this hemisphere tilts away from the sun.
Then the days are short and cool.
Of course, during these same months the Southern Hemisphere tilts toward the sun, so in the south it is summer.
Similarly, when it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in Earth’s southern half.
Tropics, Circles, and Zones Because of Earth’s tilt, the sun never beats straight down on places in the far
north and south. Two lines of latitude mark the northernmost and southernmost points where the sun’s rays ever
beat straight down. The northern line is called the Tropic of Cancer [Tropic of Cancer: the northernmost
line of latitude where the sun’s rays ever beat straight down. This line marks the northern limit of the
tropical zone.] . The southern line is called the Tropic of Capricorn [Tropic of Capricorn: the
southernmost line of latitude where the sun’s rays ever beat straight down. This line marks the southern
limit of the tropical zone.] . The areas between these two lines and the equator are known as tropical zones
[tropical zone: the area between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer and between the equator and the
Tropic of Capricorn, where the climate is generally hot] . Tropical zones receive a lot of sunshine. They are
hot all year round.
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Two other lines of latitude mark the points
farthest north and south where the sun
doesn’t shine at all on one day each year.
On that day, night lasts a full 24 hours.
These lines are the Arctic Circle [Arctic
Circle: the line of latitude at 66°33’N
that marks the boundary of the northern
polar zone] and the Antarctic Circle
[Antarctic Circle: the line of latitude at
66°33’S that marks the boundary of the
southern polar zone] . The areas between
these circles and the North and South poles
are known as polar zones [polar zone: the
area between the Arctic Circle and the
North Pole or between the Antarctic
Circle and the South Pole, where the
climate is generally cold] . These zones
receive little direct sunlight and are cold
most of the year.
Between the tropical and polar zones lie the
temperate zones [temperate zone: the
area between Earth’s tropical zones and
polar zones, where the climate is
relatively mild] . Generally, in these zones
summers are warm and winters are cool.
Earth’s Revolution and the Seasons This diagram shows how Earth’s tilt creates the seasons during our planet’s year-long trip around the sun. Notice that the seasons are reversed in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
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Section 8 – Showing a Round World on a Flat Map
In this chapter, you have learned how geographers show information on maps. A
map’s title, legend, and symbols can help you understand what a map shows.
You learned how geographers describe where a place is in terms of its absolute
location. The global grid allows mapmakers to indicate the exact location of any
place on Earth using lines of latitude and longitude. Map scales are useful for
describing the relative location of two places. Using a scale, you can estimate
about how far two places are from each other.
Mercator Projections Show Direction but Distort Size Gerardus Mercator designed his map projection in 1569. It shows directions between places accurately near the equator. But it distorts the size of continents, especially near the North and South poles. This is called area distortion.
All Flat Maps Have Distortion Geographers use maps to show features of Earth,
such as oceans and continents. But every flat map involves some distortion. The
size or shape of landmasses may be distorted. The distances between places may
not be accurately shown.
To deal with distortions, mapmakers use different map projections. Many
projections are named after the mapmakers who designed them. For example,
Arthur Robinson designed the Robinson projection. The world map in section 6 is
a Robinson projection. It is a popular projection because it balances the distortions
of size and shape. In this way it gives a fairly accurate picture of the world.
Lambert Projections Show Polar Areas that Other Maps Distort A Lambert projection is a circular map. It shows size accurately at its center, but not distance or shape. It is good for showing the areas around the North or South pole. Most other map projections distort the shape and size of the Arctic and Antarctica.
You can see several map projections on this page. Note how each projection does some things better than
others. As you look at them, think about what type of information each map projection might show best.
Eckert IV Projections Show Size but Distort Shape The Eckert IV projection is an equal-area map. Equal-area maps show the sizes of places accurately. However, they distort shape near the poles. This is called shape distortion. Geographers often use Eckert IV projections to show the number of people in different areas.
Goode’s Homolosine Projections Show Continents but Distort Oceans Goode’s Homolosine projection uses a trick to help us see how the continents compare in size. It snips bits out of the oceans. This trick allows the continents to stretch without distorting their shapes. But it distorts the shape and size of the oceans.
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Summary
Maps are important tools geographers use that show information about people and places on Earth. Many maps
feature important devices such as compass roses, legends, grids, and scales. The global grid system, which is
made up of lines of latitude and longitude, help people find the absolute location of a place.
Some maps show the entire world, including the continents and oceans. Because the world is round, all flat
maps involve distortion. Different types of map projections deal with distortion in various ways.
Chapter 2 – A Spatial Way of Thinking
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Section 1 - Introduction
In the late summer of 1854, a dreaded disease called cholera struck a neighborhood in
London, England. People suddenly began suffering cramps, vomiting, and terrible thirst.
Many died within hours. In just 10 days, the disease killed about 500 people. Wagons
carried away corpses for mass burials.
No one knew how cholera spread or how to stop it. But one doctor, John Snow, had an
idea. Snow convinced officials to remove the handle from a water pump on Broad Street
so that no one could use the pump. Soon the cholera stopped spreading. Snow had
guessed correctly that the disease was spread through polluted drinking water.
Snow had, in effect, solved the mystery by using the skills of the geographic inquiry process. First he asked a
question: How was cholera spread? Next he gathered information by going door to door to find out where
people were dying. He then organized his information on a neighborhood map, marking the house of each
cholera death. His next step was to analyze his map. He was able to answer his question: The Broad Street
pump must be spreading the disease, because most of the deaths were clustered around it.
John Snow’s map is an example of a thematic map [thematic map: a map that shows a particular theme, or
topic] . A thematic map presents information related to only one theme or topic. In this chapter, you will learn
how to identify and read different types of thematic maps. You will see how geographers use these tools to
make sense of Earth’s physical and human features.
Section 2 – The Geographic Setting
Thematic maps are all around us. Tune in to a news program and you’re likely to see a weather map showing
high and low temperatures. To find your way on the local bus system, you might use a map of bus routes. These
maps focus on a specific topic, or theme. They show information about some aspect of physical or human
geography.
Thematic Maps Can Show Physical Geography Some thematic maps focus on
physical features [physical feature: any natural characteristic of Earth’s
surface, such as landforms and bodies of water] . Physical features are natural
parts of Earth’s surface. They include landforms [landform: any natural feature
of Earth’s surface that has a distinct shape. Landforms include major
features such as continents, plains, plateaus, and mountain ranges. They also
include minor features such as hills, valleys, canyons, and dunes.] like
mountains, plains, and plateaus [plateau: a raised area of land, such as a hill or
mountain, with a flat top] . They also include bodies of water. A physical
features map of Earth will show oceans, seas, bays, rivers, and lakes.
The Steep Rock Walls of Canyon de Chelly A canyon is a landform found mostly in the southwestern United States. Canyon de Chelly was once home to Anasazi Indians. They built their villages in the steep canyon walls. You can find Canyon de Chelly on a physical features map of Arizona.
Thematic maps can show other aspects of the physical environment. For example, some maps focus on climate
[climate: the pattern of weather over a long period of time] , or long-term patterns of weather. Climate maps
show how much rainfall various areas receive. They also show how hot or cold places tend to be in winter and
summer.
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Climate has a big effect on the types of vegetation [vegetation: all the plants and trees in an area] , or trees
and other plants, that will grow in an area. You can see this by comparing a climate map of Earth with a
vegetation map. A vegetation map shows the kinds of trees and other plants that grow in various places. In
many ways it looks like a climate map, although other factors also affect what will grow where.
Thematic Maps Can Show Human Geography Thematic
maps can also focus on human geography. John Snow’s map
of the cholera deaths near the Broad Street pump is a good
example. Another example is a political map. The map on the
next page shows the borders of the 50 U.S. states. It also
shows the borders between countries. In addition to borders,
political maps also show important cities, such as the capitals
of states and countries.
Another type of thematic map shows population density
[population density: the average number of people who live
in a unit of area, such as a square mile. Population density
measures how crowded an area is.] . This is the number of
people per unit of area, such as a square mile. The higher the
number, the more crowded an area is. A population density
map reveals where large numbers of people cluster.
Besides showing where people live, a thematic map can show
what they do. A map of economic activity [economic
activity: any action that relates to the making, buying, and selling of goods and services] focuses on the
ways people produce, buy, and sell goods and services. This kind of map might show the main types of business
and industry in an area. It might also show the natural resources [natural resource: a useful material that is
found in nature, such as water, wood, coal, or oil] that fuel the area’s economy. Natural resources are useful
items found in nature, such as wood, coal, and oil.
A Map’s Title and Legend State Its Theme To read a thematic map, first look at its title. The title states the
topic of the map. Then look at the map legend. It tells you how to read the map’s symbols. On the U.S. political
map, the legend shows the symbols for the national and state capitals. A map legend may also explain how the
map uses colors. For instance, a thematic map might use colors to show differences in elevation or population
density.
Political maps help us see where countries,
states, and important cities are located. On this
map of the United States, you can see the borders
of your state. A star marks the state’s capital. A
star with a circle around it shows the nation’s
capital.
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Section 3 – Mapping Earth’s Physical Features
In the winter, snowboarders look for a snowy
mountain to practice their sport on. In the summer,
vacationers often cool off by a lake or river. These are
just three of the landforms and bodies of water that
you might see on a physical features map.
Common Landforms Geographers have given names
to the many landforms found on Earth. Some
landforms have distinctive shapes when viewed from
above. A long, narrow peninsula, for example, juts out
from a continent into water. Other landforms, like
mountains, have distinct shapes when viewed from the
ground.
Physical features maps show the shapes of features as
seen from above. They also show the elevation
[elevation: the height of the land above sea level] ,
or height above sea level, of various features. Usually
physical features maps use colors and shading to show
changes in elevation.
This map shows major physical features in India. The Himalayas are India’s highest physical feature. Two long rivers, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, flow out of the Himalayas. They form one of the world’s largest river deltas where they meet the Bay of Bengal.
Bodies of Water Geographers also label bodies of water on physical features maps. Many kinds of water
bodies appear on the continents. For example, rivers flow down from mountains and make their way to the sea.
Lakes are entirely surrounded by land. Other water bodies are created where oceans and seas meet the
continents. A bay is partly enclosed by a wide, curving stretch of land. A strait is a narrow channel that connects
two larger bodies of water.
Landforms and Water Bodies: You will see both landforms and bodies of water labeled on maps. This
diagram shows many of these physical features.
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Section 4 – Hot, Cold, Wet, Dry: Earth’s Climates
Do you check a weather report each morning to see
what the day will be like? Are most days sunny? Or
does it rain a lot where you live? Such long-term
patterns in weather are called climate.
Climate Zones To study climates, geographers divide
Earth into climate zones [climate zone: a large area
of Earth with a particular pattern of weather] .
Each zone has a particular pattern of temperature and
precipitation [precipitation: moisture that falls
from the sky as rain, snow, sleet, or hail] —rain,
snow, or other moisture. This pattern is often shown
on a climagraph [climagraph: a graph that shows
the average temperature and precipitation in a
place over a year] , like those you see below.
Australia has seven climate zones. This climate
map shows each zone in a different color.
A climagraph shows the average temperature and
precipitation in a place over a year. The letters along the bottom of the graph stand for the months of the year.
The curved line indicates the average monthly temperatures. The bars show the average monthly precipitation.
Location Affects Climate Many factors affect a place’s climate. One of the most important is latitude. Places
in tropical latitudes, close to the equator, get the most direct rays from the sun all year. Most of these places
have hot weather year-round. Places at high latitudes, close to the North and South poles, receive much less
sunlight. As a result, they are very cold.
Another factor affecting climate is elevation, or altitude. Places at high elevations have colder climates than
those lower down. You’ll learn more about the factors that affect climate throughout this book.
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Section 5 – Trees and Other Plants: Earth’s Vegetation
Think about the climate where you live. Now think about the kinds
of plants that grow nearby. In an arid [arid: dry or lacking
rainfall; also a climate or climate zone that is hot and dry all
year with very little rain] climate, like a desert [desert: a
geographic region with too little rainfall to support much plant
life; also a vegetation zone] , you might see hardy cacti. In a
humid continental [humid continental: a climate or climate
zone with warm, rainy summers and cool, snowy winters]
climate, you might see lofty trees that stay green all year. Climate
has a major effect on the kind of vegetation that grows in a place.
Vegetation Is Adapted to Its Environment Plants of some kind
grow nearly everywhere on Earth. But in order to survive, plants
must adapt to their environment.
Plants can adapt to even extreme environments. A tundra climate zone is very cold and dry. Yet small plants
and bushes grow there. In arid climates, cacti can go for long periods without water. Other kinds of vegetation
need lots of rainfall to survive.
This map shows the vegetation zones found in North Africa. Chaparral thrives beside the Mediterranean Sea. Desert and desert scrub are found in the dry Sahara. A narrow band of broadleaf evergreen forest appears in the northeast corner of North Africa. What do you think allows tropical trees to survive in such an arid region?
Other factors besides climate affect what plants grow where. Among them are elevation, amount of sunlight,
and richness of the soil.
Global Vegetation Zones Geographers study where different plants grow by dividing the world into
vegetation zones [vegetation zone: a large area of Earth with a certain mix of plants and trees that are
adapted to similar conditions] . In each zone, a certain mix of plants has adapted to similar conditions.
Like climate zones, vegetation zones are affected by their location on Earth. They range from the barren ice cap
zones at the poles to the dense broadleaf evergreen forest zones near the equator.
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Section 6 – Where People Live: Population Density
In 2007, about 8 million people lived in New York
City. They were jammed into an area of about 300
square miles. Compare this with the town of
Skwentna, Alaska, where approximately 150 people
were spread out over about 450 square miles. When it
comes to crowding, these two places are about as
different as they can be. Geographers show these
kinds of differences using population density maps.
Population Density Measures Crowding Population
density tells us how crowded a place is. To calculate
the density of a place, divide the number of people
there by its land area. The higher the result, the more
crowded the place is. In 2007, New York City had a
population density of about 26,000 people per square
mile. In contrast, Skwentna had less than 1 person per
square mile.
Population Density Maps Population density maps show patterns of where people live. On this map, much of the North China Plain is colored purple. So are many coastal areas. These are the most crowded parts of China.
Population density affects how people live. In Skwentna, houses are spread out. There are no roads. People use
airplanes, boats, or snowmobiles to get to the local store and the post office. Skwentna’s version of rush hour
comes in February, when dogsled racers speed through town.
In New York City, people live packed in high-rise apartments. They may have hundreds of neighbors just in
their own building. Every day millions of “straphangers” hold on tight as they jostle one another in the city’s
crowded subways.
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Section 7 – Economic Activity: Land and Resources
Do you like chocolate? This sweet treat comes from
cocoa beans, the fruit of the cacao tree. The cacao
tree grows only in hot, tropical areas near the
equator. But factories that use cocoa beans to make
chocolate candy are found in Europe and the United
States. The locations of cocoa plantations
[plantation: a large farm, especially in a hot
area] and candy factories are examples of the kind
of information you might see on an economic
activity map.
Land Use Shows How People Make a Living Economic activity maps often show patterns of land
use [land use: the ways in which people use a
particular area of Earth’s surface; for example,
for farming, development, or preservation] .
Land use is the way people use the land they live on
to meet their needs. In some areas, people use land
for farming. In others, they may use it for mining.
Economic Activity Maps The colors on this map show land use patterns in Europe. The most widespread land use is commercial farming. The symbols show the locations of important resources in Europe. Where is petroleum, or oil, found in Europe?
Natural Resources Affect Economic Activities Economic activity also depends on a country’s natural
resources. Forestry [forestry: the planting, growing, and harvesting of trees] , or the harvesting of trees to
produce wood products, is important in forested areas. Near oceans, fishing is an important industry.
Many resources lie hidden beneath the ground. This is true of both minerals and fossil fuels [fossil fuel: any
fuel, such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, that is made from the remains of prehistoric plants and
animals] such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Uranium is another underground energy resource. It provides fuel
for nuclear power plants. In contrast, moving water is an easy-to-find energy resource. Dams can be built on
rivers to harness the moving water’s energy and convert it to hydroelectric power [hydroelectric power:
electricity that is generated from the power of moving water] .
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Land Use and Resources How people use land depends on the natural resources in their area. Some still get
their food by hunting and gathering. Some grow crops and raise animals to sell. Others make and sell goods
created from natural resources. Natural resources are not evenly distributed around the world.
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Section 8 – Organizing Earth’s Surface: Regions
As you have learned, geographers use many kinds of maps to
make sense of the world. Some of these maps focus on physical
geography. Others focus on human geography. All of them reveal
interesting patterns to explore.
Geographers use these patterns to organize the Earth’s surface
into regions [region: an area defined by one or more natural
or cultural characteristics that set it apart from other areas] .
A region is an area with one or more features that set it apart from
other areas. As you’ll see, the concept of region allows
geographers to divide the world in useful ways.
Unique Features Define a Region Think about the community
you live in. Does it have a business district? A shopping mall? An
industrial park? A civic center? A residential neighborhood? Each
of these areas has features that set it apart from other areas. You
might think of one as a business region, another as a shopping
region, and still another as a housing region. Each region looks
different. Each has a different purpose. Each has different needs.
Transportation Region Maps A region is an area with one or more features that set it apart from other areas. A feature might be something physical like climate. Or it might be a human feature such as roads and train lines. The network of routes on this map defines a transportation region in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Geographers define regions in several ways. The Sunbelt is a region defined by physical features. It is a region
made up of states in the southern part of the United States. What sets the Sunbelt apart from other regions is its
warm, sunny climate. The Corn Belt is a region defined by human features. It is made up of states in the center
of the country where raising corn is an important economic activity.
Dividing the World into Seven Major Regions The world is a
very large place to make sense of. For this reason, geographers
usually divide it into regions to study. These world regions are
still very large. But each has its own special features.
This book divides the world into seven major regions. Each
region is shown in a different color on the world regions map
below. These colors are your guide to finding each region in this
book. Your study of a region will begin with an introduction to its most important physical and human features.
In that introduction, you will begin to see what makes each of these regions unique.
World Regions Maps This book divides the world into seven large regions. Each region has certain distinct physical features. Each also has unique human features.
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Summary – Summary Geographers use maps for many different purposes. Thematic maps, which present information related to only
one theme, help geographers make sense of Earth’s physical and human features. Because thematic maps focus
on one topic, geographers are able to find out specific information about a place. Thematic maps can tell
information about physical features of a place or even what type of economic activities take place there.
The world is divided into seven major regions. These regions are divided into smaller regions. Because unique
features define a region, different types of maps apply to different places.