Report
Updated August 7, 2010
BeachHallRoom413,354MansfieldRoadUnit2137∗Storrs,CT,USA,06269‐2137Phone:(860)486‐3997∗http://web2.uconn.edu/prls
UniversityofConnecticut,InstituteforPuertoRican&LatinoStudies
UnitedStatesCitizenshipinPuertoRico,AShortHistory
Preparedby:
CharlesR.Venator‐SantiagoAssistantProfessor
UniversityofConnecticutInstituteforPuertoRicanandLatinoStudiesand
PreparedfortheLatinoandPuertoRicanAffairsCommission(LPRAC)
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ExecutiveSummary
ThePuertoRican legislature enactedLaw191 inDecember2009 to authorize
theissuanceofanewbirthcertificatetoallpersonsbornintheislandofPuerto
Rico.Law191willinvalidateallbirthcertificatesissuedtopersonsborninthe
island.OnJuly1,2010theOfficeofDemographicRegistryforthePuertoRican
HealthDepartmentwillbegin issuingnewbirthcertificates topersonsborn in
the island. The new birth certificates incorporate new technologies that are
designed to combat fraud andprotect the identity of all United States citizens
bornintheislandofPuertoRico
TodaytheUnitedStates(U.S.)recognizesfourtypesofcitizenship.Congresscan
createlawsthatauthorizethenaturalizationofindividualimmigrantsorgroups
ofpeople.Congresscanalsoenactlegislationthatrecognizesthejussanguinisor
derivativeparentalrightofachildtoacquireU.S.citizenship ifbornoutsideof
theUnitedStates.AnypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtotherightto
acquirecitizenshipatbirth.AndCongresscancreatespecialstatutoryformsof
citizenshiptogovernparticularpopulationsindiscriminatoryways.
SincetheUnitedStatesacquiredPuertoRicoin1898,Congresshasextendedat
leastthreeformsofcitizenshiptopersonsborninPuertoRico:
• APuertoRicancitizenshipunderthetermsofSection7oftheForakerAct
of1900.ThisformofcitizenshipwassubsequentlydeemedtohavebeentantamountorequaltoaformofU.S.nationality.
• A derivative or parental form of jus sanguinis (bloodright) citizenshipunderthetermsofSection5oftheJonesAct.
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• A birthright or jus soli form of citizenship under the terms of theNationality Act of 1940 available to persons born in Puerto Rico after1941.
BecauseCongresshasneverenactedlegislationtoincorporatePuertoRicoasa
territoryoftheUnitedStates,questionsremainwhethertheformofbirthrightor
jussolicitizenshipthatextendstopersonsborninPuertoRicoisconstitutional
orstatutoryinnature.
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AboutthisReport ThisreportprovidesashorthistoryoftheextensionofUnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRicoandpersonsborn in the island. Thereportdocumentsrelevantlegislationandlegalopinions.
AbouttheAuthorCharles R. Venator‐Santiago is an assistant professor at the University ofConnecticut where he holds a joint teaching appointment in the Institute forPuertoRicanandLatinoStudiesandtheDepartmentofPoliticalScience,Collegeof Arts & Sciences. Professor Venator‐Santiago can be reached [email protected].
RecommendedCitationCharles R. Venator‐Santiago, United States Citizenship in Puerto Rico, A ShortHistory.UniversityofConnecticut:PRLS,2010.
Acknowledgements
FundingforthisresearchwasprovidedbyaLargeGrantfromtheUniversityofConnecticut’sResearchFoundation.IamgratefulforthesupportofthestaffattheLibraryoftheUnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior.
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TableofContents ExecutiveSummary i AboutthisReport iii AbouttheAuthor iii RecommendedCitation iii Acknowledgements iii
Introduction 2CitizenshipandtheUnitedStatesConstitution 3UnitedStatesCitizenshipandPuertoRico 5RecommendedReferences 15
AppendixA:StatusofPersonsBorninPuertoRicoSince1898 17
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Introduction
The Puerto Rican legislature enacted Law 191 in December 2009 to
authorizetheissuanceofanewbirthcertificatetoallpersonsbornintheislandof
PuertoRico.Law191willinvalidateallbirthcertificatesissuedtopersonsbornin
theisland.OnJuly1,2010theOfficeofDemographicRegistryforthePuertoRican
HealthDepartmentwillbegin issuingnewbirthcertificatestopersonsborn inthe
island.Thenewbirthcertificatesincorporatenewtechnologiesthataredesignedto
combatfraudandprotecttheidentityofallUnitedStatescitizensbornintheisland
ofPuertoRico.1
The state of Connecticut’s Latino and Puerto Rican Affairs Commission
(LPRAC)hasinitiatedaninformationcampaigndesignedtoassistPuertoRicansin
theprocessofacquiringnewbirthcertificates. Thisinformationcampaignaimsto
provide clear and forthright information to the public that can facilitate a better
understandingofthisprocess.
Thisshortreportprovidesanintroductiontothehistoryoftheextensionof
UnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRicoandpersonsbornintheisland. AsPuerto
Ricansandotherscontemplate the importanceofacquiringanewbirthcertificate
thatguaranteestherighttobirthrightor jussolicitizenshiptopersonsborninthe
island of Puerto Rico, it may be of interest to further understand the historical
natureof this formof citizenship. The reportbeginswithanoutlineof themajor
forms of citizenship that have been used in the United States. This outline is
followedbyashortdescriptionof thevarious formsofnationalityandcitizenship
that the Federal government has extended to Puerto Rico and its residents since
1898,theyearthattheUnitedStatesacquiredtheisland.Thereportconcludeswith
1 For more information visit the website for the Puerto Rican Department of Health at:
http://www.salud.gov.pr/Programas/RegistroDemografico/Pages/NuevosCertificadosdeNacimiento‐English.aspx, or the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration at: http://www.prfaa.com/.Alternatively, more information can be obtained by calling the Latino and Puerto Rican AffairsCommissionat(860)240‐8330.
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abriefcommentsuggestingpossiblequestionsofinterestthatareconnectedtothe
extensionofUnitedStatescitizenshiptoPuertoRico.
CitizenshipandtheUnitedStatesConstitution
Theconceptofcitizenshiphastraditionallyservedtodefinethemembership
orrelationshipbetweenpersonsandtheirpoliticalcommunities.Differentpolitical
communities have often developed different types of citizenship to recognize
variousdifferencesand/orsimilaritiesamongtheirmembers.Broadlyspeaking,the
United States has used at least five types of citizenship to classify its members.
Thesetypesofcitizenshipincludetwoconstitutionalformsofcitizenship,twotypes
ofstatutoryorlegislativecitizenshipandastate‐basedformofcitizenship.
ArticleI,Section8,Clause4andthefirstsentenceofthe14thAmendmentof
theConstitutionauthorizeCongressto“establishanuniformruleofnaturalization.”
ThismeansthatCongresshasthepowertoenactlegislationthatcanprovideforthe
naturalizationortheextensionofcitizenshiptopersonsbornoutsideoftheUnited
States. In some cases Congress has enacted legislation that authorized individual
immigrants to become citizens, and in other cases it has collectively naturalized
groupsofpeople.
Congress has also developed a legislative form of derivative or parental
citizenshipmodeledaftertheRomantraditionofjussanguinisorbloodright.Early
jus sanguinis citizenship was enacted to extend rights and responsibilities to the
children of members or the armed forces and embassy staff serving overseas or
outsideoftheUnitedStates.Formostofitshistory,thisformofparentalcitizenship
requiredthatchildrenthechildrenofcitizensbornoutsideoftheUnitedStateshad
toresideforaportionoftheirlifeinastateorterritorywithintheUnioninorderto
acquireUnitedStatescitizenshiprights.AlthoughtheConstitutiondoesnotcontain
anylanguageauthorizingtheextensionofparentalor jussanguiniscitizenship,the
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SupremeCourthasconsistentlyaffirmedthepoweroftheCongresstodevelopthe
necessarylegislationtoextendthisformofcitizenship.
Throughouthistory,theUnitedStateshasrecognizedtwoformsofbirthright
citizenship, namely a state‐based and a national form of citizenship. Prior to the
enactmentofthe14thAmendmentin1868,thechildrenofcitizens,orinsomecases
thechildrenofpersonsentitledtocitizenship,bornintheindividualstatesacquired
a formof statecitizenship thatwasequivalent toanationalcitizenship. Although
each state enacteddifferent citizenship laws,with somenotable exceptions states
generally extended citizenship rights to White males born in their state. Before
Congressenactedthe14thAmendmenttheSupremeCourtgenerallyrecognizedthis
formofstate‐basedcitizenshipasaformofUnitedStatescitizenship.
Following the Civil War Congress enacted the 14th Amendment to extend
citizenshiprightstoliberatedslaves.Thisamendmentessentiallyservedtocreatea
national citizenship based on the principles established in the Civil Rights Act of
1866 [14 Stat. 27 (1866)]. The first sentence of Section 1 established that all
“persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction
thereof,arecitizensofthestatewhereintheyreside.”Thisnewamendmentsought
toreplacethestate‐basedformofcitizenshipandcreatedanationalcitizenshipthat
wasbasedontheprincipleofbirthrightintheUnitedStates.The14thAmendment
extendedtotheindividualstates,territories,anddistrictsthatcomprisedtheUnited
States.In1898,theSupremeCourtruledinUnitedStatesv.WongKimArk(169U.S.
649)thatanypersonbornintheUnitedStates,regardlessofthecitizenshiporlegal
statusof theirparents,was entitled tobirthright citizenship rightsunder the14th
Amendment.Today,anypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtothisformof
birthrightorjussolicitizenship.
Congress has also created a series of “statutory” or legislative citizenships
that have been applicable to particular groups of people residing in the United
States. Theseformsofcitizenshiphavebeendesignedtogovernparticulargroups
ofpeopleinstrategicanddiscriminatoryways.Statutoryformsofcitizenshiphave
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beenusedtoextendorwithholddifferenttypesofconstitutionalrightstogroupsof
people livingunder thesovereigntyof theUnitedStates. Mostnotably theUnited
StatesgovernmenthasusedthistypeofcitizenshiptogovernNativeAmericansand
the U.S. citizens residing in unincorporated or outlying territories such as Guam,
American Samoa, the NorthernMariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, andmost
wouldarguePuertoRico.TheSupremeCourthashistoricallyaffirmedthepowerof
Congresstocreatethesetypesofstatutorycitizenship.
Today theUnitedStates recognizes four typesof citizenship. Congress can
createlawsthatauthorizethenaturalizationofindividualimmigrantsorgroupsof
people. Congress can also enact legislation that recognizes the jus sanguinis or
derivativeparentalrightofachildtoacquireU.S.citizenshipifbornoutsideofthe
UnitedStates.AnypersonbornintheUnitedStatesisentitledtotherighttoacquire
citizenshipatbirth.AndCongresscancreatespecialstatutoryformsofcitizenship
togovernparticularpopulationsindiscriminatoryways.
UnitedStatesCitizenshipandPuertoRico
TheUnitedStateshasextendedatleastthreetypesofcitizenshipstoPuerto
Ricans living in the island since 1898. The Federal government has recognized a
United Statesnationality (afterApril 11, 1899); aPuertoRican citizenship (1900‐
present);aparentalorderivativeformofjussanguiniscitizenship(1917‐1950);and
a birthright or jus soli citizenship (1941‐present). These forms of citizenship,
however, have been contingent or dependent on the unincorporated territorial
statusofPuertoRico,aconstitutionalstatusthathasnotchangedsincetheSupreme
CourtinventedthisnewconstitutionalstatusintheInsularCasesof1901.
GeneralNelsonA.MilestookcontroloftheislandofPuertoRicoonJuly25,
1898amidsttheSpanish‐AmericanWar.AtthetimePuertoRicowasconsideredto
be a Spanish province or colonia de Ultramar. The residents of the island were
recognizedasSpanishcitizensandsubjectsoftheSpanishcrown.Duringtheearly
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occupationanduntiltheratificationofthe1898TreatyofPeaceonApril11,1899
[30Stat.1754(1899)],theUnitedStatesgovernmenttreatedinhabitantsofPuerto
RicoasSpanishsubjectsandforeignnationalsundermilitaryoccupation.
TheTreatyofParisof1898cededGuam, theLadrones Islands,PuertoRico
and the Philippines to the United States. The Treaty of Paris recognized two
possiblenationalitiesinPuertoRico,namelythatoftheSpanishnationals,whowere
born in theSpanishpeninsula,and thePuertoRicannationals,or thosewhowere
bornon the island. Spanishnationalsweregiven theopportunity toeither retain
their Spanish nationality or adopt the newly created Puerto Rican nationality.
ArticleIXoftheTreatyofParisfurtherstipulatedthat:
IncasetheyremainintheterritorytheymaypreservetheirallegiancetotheCrownofSpainbymaking,beforeacourtofrecord,withinayear fromthedate of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, a declaration of theirdecision to preserve such allegiance; in default of which declaration theyshallbeheldtohaverenounceditandtohaveadoptedthenationalityoftheterritoryinwhichtheymayreside.
Unlikeprevioustreatiesofterritorialacquisitionthateithernaturalizedorpromised
tonaturalizetheinhabitantsoftheacquiredterritories,theTreatyofPariscreateda
new form of nationality that was neither Spanish nor Anglo‐American. Puerto
RicansceasedtobeSpanishsubjectsbutdidnotbecomeUnitedStatescitizens.
ThisarticlefurtherempoweredCongresstodeterminethecivilandpolitical
rightsof island’sresidents. TheFederalgovernmentsubsequentlyarguedthatthe
latterprovisionofArticleIXgaveCongressanalmostabsoluteorplenaryauthority
totreatPuertoRicoandtheotherformerSpanishcoloniesdifferentlythanallother
territories acquired prior to the Spanish‐American War of 1898. The Federal
governmentarguedthattheTreatyofParisgaveCongressapowertogovernPuerto
Rico differently than other territories that was not limited by the Constitution, a
powertogovernthatwasbasedonArticleIXofthetreaty.
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Following the Spanish‐American War and the cessation of hostilities, the
Presidentappointedasuccessionofmilitarygovernorstoruletheislanduntil1900
whenCongress enacted a civilian governmentunder the termsof theForakerAct
[31 Stat. 77 (1900)]. Themilitary governorswere taskedwith preparing Puerto
RicotoeitherbecomeaterritoryoftheUnitedStatesortobecomeanindependent
nation. Duringthisperiod,betweentheratificationoftheTreatyofParisonApril
11,1899andApril30,1900whentheForakerActtookeffect,PuertoRicanswere
treatedasU.S.nationals.
Unlike prior organic or territorial acts that treated acquired territories as
future states‐in‐the‐making, the Foraker Act treated Puerto Rico as an occupied
territorythatwasnotaforeigncountryorapartoftheUnitedStates.TheForaker
Act contained a provision that extended a special tax on commercial goods or
productsthatwereimportedfromtheislandintotheUnitedStates. Althoughthis
provisionhadbeendesignedasa temporarymeasure togenerate revenue for the
governance of the island, it became a central point of contention because it
neglectedtotreatPuertoRicoasanintegralpartoftheUnitedStatesforcommercial
purposes.TheForakerActtariffstreatedPuertoRicoasaforeignportinadomestic
sense.
CongressalsorefusedtoextendU.S.citizenshiptoPuertoRicoandcreateda
legislativeorstatutoryformofcitizenshipspecificallydesignedfortheresidentsof
theisland. Theinventionofthisnewcitizenship,acitizenshipthatdidnotexistin
the Constitution, represented a complete departure from prior precedents.
Historically the United States had either naturalized the inhabitants of organized
territoriesorpromisedtodosoeventually. EvenwhentheUnitedStatesacquired
otherSpanish(e.g.EastandWestFlorida)andlaterMexican(e.g.Texas,California,
NewMexico, Arizona, Colorado, andNevada) territories, Congress naturalized the
inhabitantsofthecolonizedterritories.Section7oftheForakerActestablishedthat
allSpanishsubjectsandtheirchildrenbornafterApril11,1899wouldnowbecome
the“PeopleofPuertoRico.”ThePuertoRicancitizenshipwasformallyadoptedon
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May1,1900andasAntonioFernóshasnoted,ithasneverbeenabolished.Infact,
the United States Code continues to list Section 7 of the Foraker Act as a Puerto
Ricancitizenship[48U.S.C733(a)].PersonsbornafterApril11,1899anduntilthe
enactmentoftheJonesActin1917becamePuertoRicancitizens.
ThePuertoRicancitizenshipcreatedanadditionalproblemfortheresidents
of the island. Underexisting immigration lawsapersonseeking tobecomeaU.S.
citizen had to renounce his allegiance to his nationality or citizenship in order to
acquire a U.S. citizenship. Because Puerto Ricans could not renounce a foreign
citizenshipornationalitytheybecameincapableofacquiringaU.S.citizenship.Yet,
foreigners residing in Puerto Rico could apply for U.S. citizenship and begin the
processofnaturalizationwhileresidingintheisland.
TheSupremeCourtaddressedtheconstitutionalityoftheForakerActtariffs
in 1901with a series of opinions known as the Insular Cases. The Insular Cases
establishedtheconstitutionalstatusofPuertoRicothathasdefinedtherelationship
betweentheUnitedStatesandtheislandformorethanacentury.Centraltothese
cases was the constitutional status of the island for the purposes of collecting
federal taxes on products imported fromPuertoRico into theUnited States. The
original purpose of the temporary taxwas to generate revenues to subsidize the
expenses relating to the occupation of the island. Puerto Ricans argued that the
imposition of taxes on commercial goods violated a well‐established principle of
uniform commercial trade among the states and territories that comprised the
United States. The reigning interpretation established that no state or territory
couldlevyatariffoncommercialproductsthatweretransportedfromotherstates
orterritorieswithintheUnitedStates.PuertoRicansarguedthattheimpositionof
tariffs and taxes on products shipped from the island was discriminatory. In a
complicated, and contradictory, series of opinions the Supreme Court established
that Puerto Rico had become a territory of the United States during themilitary
occupationand thus the tariffs collectedduring thisperiodwereunconstitutional.
However, the Supreme Court argued inDownes v. Bidwell [182 U.S. 244 (1901)],
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Congress had changed the legal status of Puerto Rico with the Foraker Act.
According to a majority of the judges Puerto Rico became an unincorporated
territory, or a territorial possession thatwas not ready to be placed on a path to
statehood.
Unlike territories that were placed on a path to become states
unincorporated territories occupied a status somewhere in between a foreign
countryandaterritory,theycouldbetreatedasforeignplacesinadomesticsense.
Until Congress enacted legislation to incorporate Puerto Rico, something that
Congress has not done inmore than a century, the island could be subject to the
discriminatory application of the law. This means that although some basic or
“fundamental” constitutional extended to the island, Congress could select which
constitutional provisions to extend andwhich to withhold. For example, neither
CongressnortheSupremeCourthaseverextendedthe14thAmendmenttoPuerto
Rico.TheoriginallogicadoptedbytheSupremeCourtandthemajorityofmembers
oftheCongress“established”thatPuertoRicanswereaninferiorraceandthusnot
capable of assuming the responsibilities that came with an Anglo‐American
constitutional systemof government. PuertoRicans, the justices concurred,were
unpreparedexercise the responsibilitiesof territorial self‐government. TheCourt
adoptedthedoctrineof“separateandunequal”togovernPuertoRico.
Insummary,theInsularCasesestablishedthatPuertoRicocouldbetreated
as an unincorporated territory because the population of the island was racially
inferior and unfit to share in the rights and responsibilities of the United States.
More importantly, majority opinion written by Justice Henry Billings Brown, the
same judge who wrote the infamous decision Plessy v. Ferguson [153 U.S. 537
(1896)], also argued that theUnitedStateswasonly comprisedof states and that
territories,incorporatedorotherwise,werelocatedoutsideoftheUnitedStatesfor
constitutionalpurposes.AlthoughitistruethatJudgeBrownstoodaloneinmaking
thisinterpretation,theU.S.governmentsubsequentlyacceptedthisargument.One
of thekey implicationsof this latterargument is thatpersonsborn inPuertoRico
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are not necessarily born in the United States for the purposes of the 14th
Amendmentbecausetheyareborninaterritorythatisforeigninadomesticsense.
In 1904 the Supreme Court addressed the question of the constitutional
status of the Puerto Rican citizenship inGonzales v.Williams [192U.S. 1 (1904)].
ThiscasearosefromanhabeascorpusappealbyIsabellaGonzales,an“unmarried”
PuertoRicanwomanwhohadbeendetainedinthePortofNewYorkin1902bythe
ImmigrationCommissionerwhileattemptingtoentertheUnitedStatesasan“alien
immigrant”who,accordingtoimmigrationofficials,“waslikelytobecomeapublic
charge.”TheCourt,however,concludedthatthePuertoRicancitizenshipcreatedby
theForakerActwas tantamountor equal to aU.S.nationality (not tobe confused
withaUnitedStatescitizenship)andthereforePuertoRicansshouldnotbetreated
asaliens.
Two years later, in 1906, Congress established an exception for Puerto
Ricans in the new immigration law that created the Bureau of Immigration and
Naturalization[34Stat.596(1906)].Section30ofthenewimmigrationlawstated
includedamodificationthatextendedtoallpersonsowingallegiancetotheU.S.who
werenotcitizensatthetime:
The applicant shall not be required to renounce allegiance to an foreignsovereignty;heshallmakehisdeclarationofintentiontobecomeacitizenofthe United States at least two years prior to his admission; and residencewithinthejurisdictionoftheUnitedStates,owingsuchpermanenceallegiance,shallberegardedasresidencewithintheUnitedStateswithinthemeaningofthefiveyear’sclauseoftheexistinglaw.
Theproblemwiththisexception,ReeceBothwellnoted,wasthatresidencewithin
the jurisdictionof theUnitedStatesdidnot includePuertoRico. AlthoughPuerto
Ricans were no longer required to renounce a nationality in order to apply to
becomecitizensoftheUnitedStates,theywerestillrequiredtoresideinastateor
territory in order to complete the naturalization process. Bothwell further
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documents that this provision did not apply to foreigners residing in PuertoRico
whocouldobtainU.S.citizenshipwhileresidingintheisland.
Formorethanadecadeaftertheenactmentofthelatterimmigrationlaw,the
FederalgovernmentclassifiedallpersonsbornintheislandasPuertoRicancitizens
or U.S. nationals. Despite repeated efforts by some congressional leaders to
collectivelynaturalizetheinhabitantsoftheislandthemajorityof legislatorswere
opposedtoextendingcitizenshiptoPuertoRicansbecauseoftheir“inferior”racial
heritage.
Nearly twodecades after theUnited States acquiredPuertoRico, Congress
enactedasecondorganicorterritorialactgenerallyknownastheJonesActof1917
[39 Stat. 951 (1917)]. Section 5 of this organic act collectively naturalized all
persons born in Puerto Rico and extended a derivative form of parental or jus
sanguiniscitizenshiptotheresidentsoftheisland.TheJonesActalsoincludedtwo
additional exceptions. PuertoRicans and “aliens” alike could chose to hold on to
their citizenship. According tomost estimates just under 300 residents chose to
retain their PuertoRican citizenship. In addition, the Jones Actprovided that the
native‐bornchildrenofalienparentswhowerepermanentlyresidinginPuertoRico
could declare their intention to become citizens within one year of reaching a
majority of age. Formany reasons, thousands of Puerto Ricans failed to declare
their intention to become citizens and became undocumented residents of the
island.
SoonafterboththeUnitedStatesDistrictCourtfortheislandandthePuerto
RicanSupremeCourtaddressedthequestionofwhethertheextensionofcitizenship
toPuertoRicansunderthetermsoftheJonesActhadincorporatedthePuertoRican
territory.InthefirstinstancetheDistrictCourtarguedthatacitizenchargedwith
committing a homicide after the passage of the JonesAct could not be brought to
trialwithoutagrand jury indictmentasrequiredby theFifthAmendment. In the
latter case, the defendant had committed amurder prior to the enactment of the
organicact,buthisprosecutionbeganafterenactmentoftheJonesAct.Inthiscase,
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thePuertoRicanSupremeCourtheldthatanindictmentwasnotrequiredafterthe
passageoftheJonesAct.InPeopleofPortoRicov.TapiatheUnitedStatesSupreme
CourtreversedtheU.S.DistrictCourtandinPeoplev.Muratti[245U.S.639(1918)]
the Court affirmed the Puerto Rican Supreme Court without providing any
substantivecomments.TheSupremeCourt’srulingrejectedtheideathatextending
citizenshiptoPuertoRicanshadbothextendedthebillofrightstothePuertoRico
andhadchangedtheisland’sterritorialstatus.
FouryearslatertheSupremeCourtagainaddressedthequestionofwhether
thenaturalizationofPuertoRicanshadchangedtheterritorialstatusofPuertoRico
inBalzacv.PeopleofPortoRico[258U.S.298(1922)].OnApril16and23of1918,
JesúsM.Balzac,theeditorofalocalPuertoRicannewspaperElBaluarte,published
twoarticles impugningtheviolencecommittedbythe local territorialgovernment
onPuertoRicans.Mr.Balzacwaschargedwithseveralcountsofcriminallibeland
waspromptlyprosecuted.Duringhistrials,Mr.Balzacclaimedthathispublications
werefaircommentsagainstapublicofficialandtheseshouldbeprotectedunderthe
freespeechprovisionstheFirstAmendment. Mr.Balzacalsoarguedthatsincehe
wasfacingfeloniouscharges,heshouldbeentitledtoacitizen’srighttotrialbyjury.
TheSupremeCourt rejected theargument thatMr.Balzacwasentitled toeithera
SixofSeventhAmendmentrighttotrialbyjury.
In this important ruling, Chief Justice William H. Taft argued that the
extensionofcitizenshiptoPuertoRicodidnotmeanthatCongresshadincorporated
the island as a territory. It followed that the United States did not have to treat
Puerto Rico as a part of the United States for constitutional purposes. The Chief
Justiceofferedseveral importantexplanations thatcontinue to informthepresent
debatesovertheconstitutionalstatusofPuertoRicoandpersonsbornintheisland.
Onthequestionof theterritorialstatus, theChief justicearguedthat the JonesAct
did not contain a provision that expressly and unequivocally incorporated the
PuertoRicanterritory.Intheabsenceofacongressionalactexpresslyincorporating
the Puerto Rican territory, citizens residing in the island were only entitled to
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fundamental rights or constitutional rights extended to the island by acts of
Congress.TheSupremeCourtreasonedthatthestatusoftheisland(locality)would
determinewhatrightswereapplicabletoPuertoRicoandtheU.S.citizensresiding
in the island. Inaddition, theCourtnoted thatPuertoRicanswerealsoculturally
unable to understand the responsibilities of the jury system because they were
predominantly educated in a Spanish legal system. Congress has never passed
legislationtoincorporatePuertoRicoandU.S.citizensresidingintheislandarenot
constitutionallyentitledtoaSixorSeventhAmendmentrighttotrialbyjury.
Even though the Jones Act collectively naturalized Puerto Ricans, the
citizenship that this act extended to the island required that the native‐born
childrenof“alien”parentsdeclaretheirintentiontobecomecitizenswithinoneyear
ofreachingtheageofmajority.Fornumerousreasons,thousandsofPuertoRicans
neglectedtoregisterwithintheallottedperiodoftimeandbecameundocumented.
In an effort to fix thisproblemCongress amendment Section5of the JonesActat
leastthreetimes,in1927(Section5a)[64Stat.319], in1934(Section5b)[48Stat.
1245], and in1938 (Section5c) [52Stat. 377 (1938)]. In eachof these instances
Congress attempted to correct this problem by creating opportunities for Puerto
Ricans thatcoulddemonstrate theirnative‐birth tobecomenaturalizedcitizensof
theUnitedStates.
Bythelate1930sthenumberofundocumentedPuertoRicanswasestimated
tohavereachedupwardsof6,000.Finallyin1940Congressenactednewcorrective
legislation that sought to resolve the continuing growth of this undocumented
populationinPuertoRicowiththeenactmentoftheNationalityActof1940[54Stat.
1137 (1940)]. This legislation included specific provisions that retroactively
naturalized all persons born in Puerto Rico after April 11, 1899 and extended
birthrightorjussolicitizenshiptoallpersonsbornintheislandafter1941.Forthe
purposes of this act, Puerto Rico was distinguished from other outlying or
unincorporated territories and became a geographical part of the United States
(Section101d).Inaddition,Section202extendedbirthrightorjussolicitizenshipto
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allpersonsbornintheislandwithoutanyrestrictions. Thislawwassubsequently
codifiedin1952[8U.S.C.§1402,66Stat.236(1952)]andremainsthemainsource
ofU.S.citizenshipforallpersonsborninPuertoRico.
Persons born in Puerto Rico after 1941 are presently entitled to acquire a
form of birthright or jus soli citizenship. The question however is whether the
extension of birthright citizenshipwithout explicitly changing the unincorporated
territorial statusof the islandguarantees thatpersonsborn inPuertoRicocanbe
entitledtoaconstitutional(14thAmendment)formofbirthrightcitizenship,aform
of jus soli citizenship that extends to the children of citizens or undocumented
migrantsalikethatarebornintheUnitedStates.Mostpolicymakersandacademics
suggestthatCongressmerelyextendedastatutoryor legislative formofbirthright
citizenship to the island because Congress has never explicitly recognized the
extensionofthe14thAmendmenttoPuertoRico.Alternatively,othersarguethatin
ordertoextendjussolicitizenshiptotheislandtheFederalgovernmenthadtotreat
PuertoRicoasanincorporatedterritoryoftheUnitedStates.Thislatterargument
suggests that Congress can selectively incorporate Puerto Ricans for citizenship
purposeswithouthavingtochangetheisland’spoliticalstatus.Sufficeittosaythat
thisisanopenquestionthathasbeenlingeringformorethanhalfacentury.
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RecommendedCitationsOnCitizenship:ÁlvarezGonzález,JoséJulián.“TheEmpireStrikesOut:CongressionalRuminationson
the Citizenship Status of Puerto Ricans,” 27Harvard Journal on Legislation309(1990).
Bea,KeithandR.SamGarrett.PoliticalStatusofPuertoRico:Options forCongress.
RL32933.CRSReportforCongress(May29,2008).Bothwell, Reece B. LA CIUDADANÍA EN PUERTO RICO. Rio Piedras: Editorial
Universitaria,1980.Burnett,ChristinaD.“‘TheysayIamnotanAmerican…’:TheNoncitizenNationaland
the Law of American Empire” 48Virginia Journal of International Law 659(2008).
Cabranes, José A. Citizenship and the American Empire, Notes on the Legislative
History of the United States Citizenship of Puerto Rico. New Haven: YaleUniversityPress,1979.
Fernós, Antonio. LA CIUDADANÍA NACIONAL DE LOS PUERTORRIQUEÑOS. San
Juan:EdicionesSitum,1996.García Martínez, Alfonso L. “LA CIUDADANÍA PUERTORRIQUEÑA CONCEPTO DEL
HABITANTENATURAL”39RevistadelColegiodeAbogadosdePuertoRico241(1978).
MykyungLee,Margaret.U.S.CitizenshipofPersonsBornintheUnitedStatestoAlien
Parents.RL33079.CRSReportforCongress(September13,2005).Pérez,LisaM.“CitizenshipDenied:TheInsularCasesandtheFourteenthAmendment”
98VirginiaLawReview1029(2008).Roman,Ediberto.CitizenshipandItsExclusions:Classical,Constitutional,andCritical
RacePerspectives.NewYorkUniversityPress,2010.Smith, RogersM.Civic Ideals, Conflicting Visions of Citizenship inU.S. History.New
Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1997.
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OntheConstitutionalStatusofPuertoRico:Álvarez González, José Julián. DERECHO CONSTITUCIONAL DE PUERTO RICO Y
RELACIONES CONSTITUCIONALES CON LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS, CASOS YMATERIALES.Bogotá:EditorialTemis,S.A.2009.
Bothwell, Reece B. TRASFONDO CONSTITUCIONAL DE PUERTO RICO, PRIMERA
PARTE:1887‐1914.RioPiedras:EditorialUniversitaria,1971.Duffy Burnett, Christina andBurkeMarshall. Foreign in aDomestic Sense: Puerto
Rico American Expansion and the Constitution. Durham: Duke UniversityPress,2001.
Rivera Ramos, Efrén.American Colonialism in Puerto Rico, The Judicial and Social
Legacy.Princeton:MarkusWienerPublishers,2007.Román, Ediberto.The Other American Colonies: A Constitutional And International
LawExaminationOfUnited States’NineteenthAndTwentiethCentury IslandConquests.CarolinaAcademicPress,2006.
Sparrow,BartholomewH.TheInsularCasesandtheEmergenceofAmericanEmpire.
Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2006.Trías Monge, José. Puerto Rico, The Trials of the Oldest Colony in theWorld.New
Haven:YaleUniversityPress,1997.U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice.U.S.InsularAreas:ApplicabilityofRelevantProvisions
oftheU.S.Constitution,GAO/HRD91‐18.Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1991.
U.S. General Accounting Office. U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the Constitution,
GAO/OGC‐98‐5.Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1997.
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AppendixA:StatusofPersonsBorninPuertoRicoSince1898
Legislation/Action Dates TypeofCitizenshipMilitaryOccupation July25,1898‐April11,1899 SpanishNationals
RatificationofTreatyofParis
April11,1899‐Present U.S.Nationals
ForakerActof1900 May1,1900‐Present PuertoRicanCitizenship
JonesActof1917 March2,1917‐1950 ParentalorJusSanguinisCitizenship
NationalityActof1940 January13,1941‐June27,1952
BirthrightorJusSoliCitizenship
8U.S.C.§1402(1952) June27,1952‐Present CodifiedBirthrightCitizenshipofNAof1940