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U.S. ENERGY INSECURITY
Why Fracking for Oil and
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About Food & Water Europe
Food & Water Europe is the European program
RI)RRG:DWHU:DWFKDQRQSURWFRQVXPHU
organization based in the United States that works to
HQVXUHWKHIRRGZDWHUDQGVKZHFRQVXPHLVVDIH
accessible and sustainable. So we can all enjoy and
trust in what we eat and drink, we help people take
charge of where their food comes from, keep clean,
DRUGDEOHSXEOLFWDSZDWHURZLQJIUHHO\WRRXU
homes, protect the environmental quality of oceans,
force government to do its job protecting citizens,
and educate about the importance of keeping shared
resources under public control.
Food & Water Europe
Rue dEdimbourg, 26
1050 Bruxelles
Belgium
www.foodandwatereurope.org
Copyright November 2012 by Food & Water Europe.
All rights reserved.
This report can be viewed or downloaded at
www.foodandwatereurope.org.
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Execuive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Inroducion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Terms o he Debae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Decline o Convenional Oil and Naural Gas Producion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Rise o Modern Drilling and Fracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shale Gas Euphoria: Americas False Sense o Energy Securiy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
U.S. natural gas abundance presumes that
the industry will drill and frack everywhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10U.S. natural gas abundance relies on highly uncertain resource estimates . . . 10
How quickly might U.S. natural gas be consumed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Tigh Oil Euphoria: Empy Promises o Oil Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fracking Euphoria: A Threa o Long-ermU.S. Energy Securiy and Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Conclusion and Recommendaions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Endnoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
U.S. ENERGY INSECURITYWhy Fracking for Oil and
Natural Gas Is a False Solution
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Promoers o modern drilling and racking celebrae he
indusrys newound abiliy o exrac oil and naural
gas rom shale and oher igh rock ormaions, calling i
an energy revoluion, a paradigm-shifer, a rebirh
and a game changer.1 One recen repor claims ha
Norh America migh soon become he new Middle
Eas, a ne exporer o oil and naural gas.2 In April
2012, ConocoPhillipss CEO a he ime called shale gas
a blessing.3
Bu or whom is i really a blessing? Loose alk abou
domesic oil and naural gas abundance in order o
jusiy and promoe widespread drilling and racking
gives Americans a alse sense o energy securiy.
Hinging U.S. energy policy on racking, and hus
beting Americas uure on he supposed abundance o
oil and naural gas, would simply perpeuae Americas
desrucive dependence on he oil and gas indusry. The
only securiy ha would be enjoyed is he securiy o
he indusrys prois.
In his repor, Food & Waer Wach exposes he
misconcepions, alsehoods and misleading saemens
behind he claims ha modern drilling and racking or
oil and naural gas can deliver U.S. energy securiy.
Briely, Food & Waer Wach inds ha:
The popular claim ha he Unied Saes has 100
years worh o naural gas presumes no only ha
no place would be o-limis o drilling and racking,
bu also ha highly uncerain esimaes o domesic
naural gas resources are accurae; Even assuming ha he indusrys dreams o unre-
sriced drilling and racking or naural gas come
rue and ha resource esimaes prove accurae,
plans o increase he rae o consumpion o U.S.
naural gas easily cu he claim o 50 years, well
wihin he lieime o college sudens oday;
Among hese plans are 19 proposals, as o Ocober
26, 2012, o sell U.S. naural gas on oreign markes
o maximize oil and gas prois. Combined, hese
proposals alone mean ha annual naural gas
expors could reach he equivalen o over 40 percen
o oal U.S. consumpion o naural gas in 2011; and
Even i he highly uncerain esimaes o igh oil
reserves prove accurae, and even i he oil and gas
indusry wins unresriced access o drill and rack
or oil, he esimaed reserves would amoun o a
supply o less han seven years.
The Unied Saes can ransiion o o ossil uels,
bu i will require remaking he U.S. energy sysem
around proven clean energy soluions: conservaion,
eiciency and renewables. Such a remaking would
underpin broad-based and susained economic growh,circumven he environmenal and public healh coss
o exracing and burning ossil uels and usher in an
era o rue U.S. energy securiy, independence and
resilience.
The hrea is ha he ossil uel indusry empowered
by is deep pockes, armed wih increasingly inensive
exracion mehods and bolsered by enrenched inra-
srucure and demand or is produc will succeed
in delaying he necessary ransormaion or decades,
jus o proec is botom line. Now is he ime or heUnied Saes o declare independence rom he oil and
gas indusry.
Executive Summary
PHOTO DHALUZA / COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG
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Introduction
Americans consume vas amouns o oil and naural
gas, and he Unied Saes aces energy insecuriy as
global demand or hese ossil uels increases. Despie
he hype, modern drilling and racking will no change
hese acs.
The only responsible way o ensure U.S. energy secu-
riy or uure generaions is o rapidly ransiion o
o ossil uels. Ye he American economy currenly
depends heavily on hese diry sources o energy, and
burns hem exremely ineicienly. (See box on page
4 and Figure 1 on page 5 or an overview o he U.S
energy sysem.) The Unied Saes can and will achieve
a ransiion o o ossil uels hrough conservaion and
hrough he deploymen o proven energy eiciency
and renewable energy echnologies. The quesion is
wheher his ransiion will ake place beore or afer
he ossil uel indusry lays wase o he waer we drink,he air we breahe, he communiies we love and he
climae on which we all depend.
O course, he rue soluions o Americas energy chal-
lenges conservaion, eiciency and renewables run
couner o he proi moives o he ossil uel indusry.
Wha is heir alse soluion? Develop increasingly inen-
sive mehods o exrac ossil uels, deny or dismiss he
ways in which exracing and burning hese uels is
negaively impacing public healh and he environmen
and coninue o rake in exraordinary prois.In he Unied Saes, high-volume hydraulic racuring,
or racking, combined wih horizonal drilling, is he
mos prominen and conroversial mehod in he oil and
gas indusrys arsenal. Afer drilling down o a argeed
rock ormaion, and hen drilling sideways hrough
he argeed layer o rock, operaors injec millions
o gallons o waer mixed wih sand and chemicals
underground, a exreme pressure, o racure he rock.4
The racures, which afer pressure is released are held
open by he injeced sand, provide pahways or oil andnaural gas o low ino he well; oherwise, he oil and
naural gas near he drilled well would remain ighly
held in he rock.5
The oil and gas indusry is engaged in a public relaions
campaign o promoe drilling and racking as good
or energy securiy and energy independence, good
or he economy and, in he case o naural gas, even
good or he environmen.6 The economic beneis o
drilling and racking are consisenly oversaed, usually
in he orm o rosy job projecions ha, among oherdeails, neglec he long-erm coss o local communi-
ies.7 And while naural gas does burn more cleanly
han oil and coal, he claims o environmenal benei
ignore harmul polluion boh during and in he wake
o drilling and racking.8 As or global climae change,
he growing scieniic consensus is ha naural gas is a
alse soluion.9
In his repor, Food & Waer Wach exposes he
misconcepions, alsehoods and misleading saemens
behind he claims ha drilling and racking or oil and
naural gas is he pah o American energy securiy andenergy independence.
Wihin he Unied Saes, oreign companies are
acquiring sakes in oil resources ha can now be
exraced wih racking,10 bu regardless o where he oil
is produced and who produces i, he price o oil is se
on he global marke.11 Such globalizaion means ha
widespread drilling and racking or oil in he Unied
Saes will do nohing or American consumers who are
paying he high price o oil. The only way ha Ameri-
cans can insulae hemselves agains high oil prices iso consume less oil. Bu doing so by using naural gas
creaes is own se o problems, and serves he oil and
gas indusrys botom line by prolonging Americas
desrucive dependence on ossil uels.
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Terms of the Debate
Wha do he erms energy securityand energy indepen-
dencemean, and how are he wo conceps relaed?
Energy security: The U.S. Congressional Budge
Oice deines U.S. energy securiy as he abiliy
o U.S. households and businesses o accommodae
disrupions o supply in energy markes.31 The CBO
goes on o explain, Households and businesses areenergy secure wih respec o a paricular source
o energy i a disrupion in he supply o ha source
would creae only limied addiional coss.32
Energy independence: Energy independence ypically
reers o U.S. independence rom oreign sources o oil,
or oil sel-suiciency, and he erm is commonly bu
misakenly equaed wih energy securiy.33
As long as large amouns o oil uel he American
economy, American consumers will be a he mercy o
growing global demand or oil and he high coss o
exracing he oil ha remains underground.34 This is
because he price o oil is se on a global marke, and
American consumers pay his price hrough gasolineand oher reined oil producs regardless o where
he oil was produced.35 Reduced oil consumpion, no
reduced oil impors, mus hereore be he ocus i he
Unied Saes is o achieve energy securiy with respect
to oil, in he sense deined by he CBO.
The U.S. Energy System
Energy SourcesPetroleum: The U.S. Energy Information Administra-tion estimates that in 2011, burning liquid fuels derivedfrom oil, such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel and fuel oils,accounted for over 28 percent of total U.S. energyconsumption.12 Gasoline alone accounted for about 16percent of total U.S. energy consumption, not countingethanol energy content.13 The energy content of allpetroleum liquid fuels, not just those combusted, wasabout 36 percent of total U.S. energy consumption in2011.14
Natural Gas, Coal and Nuclear: Natural gas, coal andnuclear, respectively, accounted for about 26 percent,21 percent and 8 percent of the estimated total of 2011U.S. energy consumption.15 Coal and nuclear sources ofenergy are used predominantly to generate electricity,whereas only about 31 percent of U.S. natural gasconsumption in 2011 went toward electricit y genera-tion.16
Renewables: Consumption of renewable energy,such as wind and solar power, grew the fastest amongall energy sources from 2010 to 2011. Renewables,including hydropower, made up 7 percent of total U.S.
energy consumption, primarily to generate electricity,although this counts only marketed electricity fromrenewables.17
Energy Uses and Losses
Electricity: An estimated 41 percent of the total U.S.energy consumption in 2011 was used to generate elec-tricity, but about two-thirds of this energy consumed forelectricity was wasted.18 Energy content of nuclear andfossil fuels is wasted during the generation of electricitythrough heat losses as turbines are driven, for example,by steam or other pressurized gas.19 On average, U.S.
electricity generation results in the loss of about 51percent of natural gas energy content and 64 percent
of coal energy content.20 In addition to energy wastedduring electricity generation, 7 percent of generated
electricity is lost along transmission lines and throughother distribution infrastructure.21 Unlike nuclear andfossil fuels, there are no environmental or public healthcosts associated with wasted wind, solar or other renew-able sources of energy.
Transportation: The transportation sector accountedfor an estimated 28 percent of total U.S. energyconsumption.22 Almost all of this consumption (aboutSHUFHQWZDVRIRLOLQWKHIRUPRIYDULRXVUHQHG
petroleum products.23 According to Lawrence LivermoreNational Laboratory, about 75 percent of all energyconsumed in the transportation sector is wasted.24
Residential, Commercial and Industrial: Electricityis consumed in large amounts by the residential,commercial and industrial sectors, but these sectorsalso directly consume varying amounts of natural gasand varying amounts of liquid fuels derived from oil. 25Electricity generation accounted for an estimated 70percent of residential energy consumption, 77 percentof commercial energy consumption and 34 percent ofindustrial energy consumption.26 In the industrial sector,direct use of liquid fuels and natural gas amounted toan estimated 26 and 27 percent, respectively, of energy
consumption.27
Meanwhile, in addition to natural gasconsumed indirectly in the form of electricity, direct useof natural gas amounted to 23 and 18 percent of totalenergy consumption within the residential and commer-cial sectors, respectively.28
Fossil Energys Consequences
Almost all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions come fromextracting and burning oil, natural gas and coal.29 TheUnited States is already experiencing the impact ofglobal climate change due to these emissions, includingepisodes of extremely hot weather, severe storm events
and changes in the timing of seasons.30
Continuingto burn fossil fuels will only worsen the future conse-quences and societal costs of global climate change.
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SOURCE: *RYHUQPHQW$FFRXQWDELOLW\2FH86&HQVXV%XUHDX
Total Consumptionby Source
petroleum liquids 36%
natural gas 26%
coal 21%
nuclear 8%
renewables 7%other 3%
Transportation Sector
Consumption by Sourcenatural
gas
3%liquid fuels 97%
Consumption By Sourcefor Electricity
liquid fuels 1%
natural gas 19%
coal 47%
nuclear 21%
renewables 11% other 1%
other 3%renewables 3%
coal 5%
natural gas 27%
liquid fuels 26%
electricity 34%
Industrial SectorConsumption by Source
renewables 1%naturalgas
18%
liquid fuels 4%
electricity 77%
Commercial SectorConsumption by Source
electricity 70%
liquid fuels 5%
naturalgas
23%
renewables 2%
Residential SectorConsumption by Source
Consumption by Sector(electricity included)
residential22%
commercial19%
industrial31%
transportation28%
Consumption by Sector(electricity separate and waste indicated)
transportation(unwasted) 7%
transportation(wasted) 21%
industrial21%
commercial 5%residential 7%
electricity(unwasted) 13%
electricity(wasted) 28%
Figure 1. 2011 U.S. Energy Consumption
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6 Food & Water Watch tXXXGPPEBOEXBUFSXBUDIPSH
Using naural gas o displace oil or ransporaion, or
o displace coal or elecriciy, is playing a zero-sum
energy securiy game. Building he inrasrucure
necessary o displace signiican quaniies o oil
consumed by he ransporaion secor requires enor-
mous invesmens.36 Likewise, increased use o naural
gas or elecriciy generaion also requires large, long-
erm invesmens in inrasrucure.37 Such invesmens
would guaranee U.S. dependence on naural gas or
decades.
However, given large uncerainies in esimaes o
naural gas reserves,38 serious environmenal and
public healh risks posed by drilling and racking39 and
noorious volailiy in naural gas prices,40 locking-in
decades o U.S. dependence on naural gas could prove
o be a colossal misake, resuling in a ne negaive
or U.S. energy securiy wih respec o naural gas.
And such invesmens are likely o preclude he long-
erm public invesmens needed o modernize he U.S.
energy sysem and ransiion o o ossil uels.41
The Decline of Conventional Oil
and Natural Gas Production
Modern drilling and racking is bes undersood in
he conex o he oil and gas indusrys sruggle o
compensae or declining producion rom already-
discovered oil ields, and in he conex o he indusrys
need o make up or lack o access o much o he
worlds supply, abou 80 percen o which is conrolledby oreign governmens.42 Many o hese governmens
are eiher unsable or unriendly o inernaional oil
corporaions.43
I has been over 40 years since he discovery o he las
o he 40 super-gian oil ields convenional oil ields
esimaed o have beween 5 and 50 billion barrels o
echnically recoverable resources o oil (see box a lef
or basic background on oil and gas). 53 For perspecive,
he Unied Saes consumed an esimaed 6.9 billion
barrels worh o peroleum producs and crude oil in 2011alone.54
According o one peer-reviewed analysis o global oil
producion published in 2012, More han wo hirds o
curren crude oil producion capaciy may need o be
replaced by 2030, simply o keep producion consan.55
This means ha here is a growing gap beween
increasing global demand or oil and wha can be
supplied by convenional, relaively low-cos mehods
o exracing oil.56 Energy analyss have described his
new realiy as he end o cheap oil.57
In he Unied Saes and in almos all European
members o he Organisaion or Economic Co-oper-
Oil and Natural Gas BasicsThe U.S. Energy Information Administration($GHQHVFUXGHRLODVDOLTXLGPL[WXUHRI
hydrocarbons molecules composed ofhydrogen and carbon atoms.44 Natural gas issimply a mixture of these hydrocarbons in thegas phase, consisting primarily of methane.Having just one carbon atom, methane is thesimplest of hydrocarbons, and it is known to bea potent greenhouse gas contributing to globalwarming.45
Additional household names of hydrocarbonsinclude ethane (two carbon atoms), propane(three carbon atoms) and butane (four carbonatoms). Together, these and heavier hydro-carbons (i.e., more than four carbon atomsper hydrocarbon molecule) form the so-callednatural gas liquids.46 Natural gas and naturalgas liquids are commonly associated with andproduced along with crude oil.
Discussion of oil consumption is complicatedby general use of the term oil to refer to bothcrude oil and natural gas liquids.47 The EIAsestimates of total oil production, for instance,include natural gas liquids and crude oil.48 As abroader term, petroleum encompasses crudeRLOQDWXUDOJDVOLTXLGVDQGWKHUHQHGSURGXFWV
of these liquids, ranging from gasoline anddiesel to jet fuel and asphalt.49
Crude oil, natural gas liquids and natural gas arepresent in underground source rocks as theburied and broken-down remnants of organ-isms that lived hundreds of millions of yearsago. Over millennia, since the formation ofthese fossil fuels, a large amount has migratedaway from source rock, seeping through sand-stone or other permeable bedrock either to theEarths surface or to a geological trap, where itcan collect over time to form an isolated reser-voir.50
Historically, oil and gas development has reliedRQQGLQJVXFKUHVHUYRLUV1RZLQVKDUS
contrast, modern drilling and fracking allowsthe industry to extract the oil and gas straightRXWRIVRXUFHURFNVE\SDVVLQJWKHQHHGWRQG
geological traps containing any oil and gas thatleft those source rocks.51
Of course, not all of the oil or natural gas held ina source rock can be extracted. Only a fractionof the in-place resources are considered techni-cally recoverable using current technology,and this is without taking into consideration thecosts of extracting the resources.52
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aion and Developmen (OECD), he sory is similar
wih respec o naural gas.59 Convenional naural gas
producion is on he decline (see Figure 2) a he same
ime ha global demand or naural gas is expeced ogrow.60
Reduced oil and gas consumpion hrough conserva-
ion, eiciency and renewables would make Ameri-
cans less vulnerable o he economic consequences
o he growing gap beween global demand and
convenional supply. Bu he oil and gas indusrys
prescripion is o ry o bridge declines in convenional
supply wih ever-more inensive mehods o exracing
oil and naural gas, mehods ha become proiable as
prices climb. They aim o keep peak oil producion a aplaeau or as long as possible.
The Rise of Modern
Drilling and Fracking
In he Bakken ormaion beneah pars o Norh
Dakoa and Monana, in he Uica and Marcellus shale
beneah Pennsylvania and surrounding saes and in
he Barnet and Eagle Ford plays in Texas, he oil and
naural gas is held ighly, suck in place and unable o
low. Numerous oher saes rom New York o Floridao Caliornia also lie above oil and naural gas source
rock.61
When operaors drill a new shale well, hey can only
really hope o exrac he naural gas ha jus happens
o be ingrained wihin he par o he source rock ha
hey drill ino, or ha is presen in any auls or nauralracures ha he new well passes hrough. In general,
any oil and naural gas in he shale or oher igh rock
ormaion ha surrounds a well will remain suck here,
unless and unil racking creaes a pahway or i o low
ou.
Over he pas decade, relaively high naural gas
prices spurred he indusry o develop new drilling and
racking echnologies, building on decades o publicly
unded research.62 These echnologies, now also being
applied o exrac oil, make drilling and racking sourcerock poenially proiable, depending on he prices o oil
and naural gas.
Source rocks such as shale end o be much more
expansive han hey are hick.63 Now, wih new drilling
echnologies, operaors are able o drill down several
miles o reach a argeed layer o shale, and hen drill
horizonally hrough i as ar as wo miles or more.64
(See Figure 3, page 8.) Drilling horizonally hrough
shale or oher igh rock ormaions exposes much more
o he relaively hin layer o source rock o he well,compared o simply racking a well ha is drilled veri-
cally hrough his hin layer. Once drilling is inished,
Growing Dependency on Fracking: As U.S. production of natural gas from conventional sources declines, the EIA
projects that production from shale and other tight rock formations that require fracking will increase.58
SOURCE: U.S. EIA
Figure 2.Past and Projected U.S. Natural Gas Production, 19902035TRILLIONCUBICFEET
30
25
20
15
10
5
HISTORY
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
2010 PROJECTIONS
Shale gas49%
Tight gas21%
1RQDVVRFLDWHGRVKRUH7%
Coalbed methane 7%Associated with oil7%
Non-associated onshore9%
Alaska 1%
Shale gas23%
Tight gas26%
1RQDVVRFLDWHGRVKRUH9%
Coalbed methane 9%
Associated with oil 10%
Non-associated onshore 21%
Alaska 2%
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operaors have he echnology o isolae and rack
muliple secions along he horizonal leg o a well. In
he Bakken ormaion, or example, operaors are now
capable o racking he horizonal porion o a well in up
o 40 dieren sages.65
Drilling and racking or shale gas naural gas
rapped in underground shale rock ormaions has
boomed since abou 2005, resuling in signiicangrowh in naural gas producion.67 While advances in
echnology have brough down coss, modern drilling
and racking or oil and naural gas is signiicanly
more cos-inensive han convenional oil and gas
developmen.68 As a consequence, shale gas develop-
men requires higher naural gas prices in order o
acually be proiable.69 Ye, or a variey o reasons
discussed below, he shale gas indusry became
deached rom his realiy.
By April 2012, increased naural gas producion,combined wih lower demand due o a sputering
economy and an abnormally warm 2012 winer, had
driven he wellhead price or naural gas down rom
a recen high o over $10 per housand cubic ee (mc)
in July 2008 o under $2 per mc.70 In 2010, Exxon-
Mobil bough ino he shale gas boom, becoming he
larges producer o naural gas in he counry wih is
purchase o XTO Energy, bu by June 2012 CEO Rex
Tillerson saed ha because o low naural gas prices,
We are all losing our shirs oday. Were making no
money [on naural gas]. Is all in he red.71 Tha is
because naural gas price levels were ar below hose
needed or he indusry o break even, given he cos o
drilling and racking new shale gas wells.
The naural gas price ha a speciic company needs
o break even depends on how producive is speciic
porolio o wells will be. Well produciviy variessigniicanly boh wihin a shale gas play and beween
plays,72 and drilling coss can also vary rom play o
play due o dierences in he respecive dephs o he
argeed ormaions or oher local acors, such as land
values.73 As a consequence, break-even prices likewise
vary wihin and beween plays.
Analysis o producion rom shale wells in he Barnet,
Fayeteville and Haynesville plays has suggesed ha
he average break-even price in each play is above
$8 per mc.74
This is more han our imes wha hewellhead price o naural gas was in April 2012.
Excluding he cos o securing leases and general and
adminisraive expenses, he esimaed break-even
price or hese plays was abou $6 per mc.75 Similarly,
he Inernaional Energy Agency esimaed he cos o
producing shale gas in 2010 a beween $4 and $9 per
mc.76 Now, his does no mean ha i prices are below
$4 per mc ha no shale gas wells will be proiable; a
highly producive well drilled ino a swee spo may
be, especially i i produces naural gas liquids. Bu
i is misleading o sugges, as some analyss do, habecause o hese swee spos, he break-even price or
producing shale gas is lower han $4 per mc.77
A number o acors conribued o he indusry
coninuing o drill and rack or naural gas despie
low naural gas prices.78 A primary reason is ha he
erms o many leases required operaors o acively
drill or else hese leases would expire.79 To generae
enough money o acually pay or he drilling and
racking, some companies lipped leases hey held or
enered ino join venures wih oreign companies,who were eiher ineresed in learning modern drilling
and racking mehods or ineresed in gaining access
o U.S. naural gas resources (see box on page 9).
In a revealing call wih invesors in Ocober 2008,
Chesapeake Energy CEO Aubrey McClendon said, I
can assure you ha buying leases or X and selling
hem or 5X or 10X is a lo more proiable han rying
o produce gas a $5 or $6 mc.80 The oil and gas
indusrys hirs or hydrocarbon reserves a proxy
or uure earning poenial in he ace o declines in
convenional oil and gas may explain he eagerness o
buy such leases.81
Figure 3.Coming to a watershed near you?Fracked horizontal wells tunnel beneath Lake Saka-kawea on the Upper Missouri River, turning the land-
scape of western North Dakota into a pincushion of oilwells.66 Each dashed square is one square mile.
SOURCE: North Dakota Depart ment of Minerals Management
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Drilling and racking or igh oil, primarily in he
Bakken ormaion in Norh Dakoa and Monana
and he Eagle Ford shale in Texas, and or naural gas
liquids in so-called we shale gas plays, has allowed
he indusry o capialize on high prices o oil, as well
as apparenly buy ime unil U.S. naural gas prices
rise.95 According o Baker Hughes, rom 2000 unil
he summer o 2009, a leas hree-quarers o all
drilling rigs operaing in he Unied Saes were drilling
naural gas wells, and he res were drilling or oil.96
Bu since mid-2009, drilling rigs have led naural gas
plays o drill insead or oil.97 By lae Augus 2012, jus
25 percen are lised as drilling or naural gas and 75
percen are drilling or oil.98
Naural gas producion remains high despie reduced
drilling in he dry shale gas plays, in par because
signiican amouns o naural gas are produced along
wih igh oil and naural gas liquids.99 Locking-in
uure increases in demand or U.S. naural gas hrough increased consumpion in he ransporaion
and elecriciy secors and hrough increased expors
o oreign markes appears o be par o he indus-
rys long-erm sraegy or ensuring ha naural gas
prices are high enough o make shale gas developmen
proiable.
Shale Gas Euphoria: AmericasFalse Sense of Energy Security
The oil and gas indusrys plans o expor shale gas,Americas supposed icke o energy securiy, reveal ha
he only hing he indusry seeks o secure is is botom
line. Bu he oil and gas indusrys push o increase U.S.
dependence on naural gas in he ransporaion and
elecriciy secors is perhaps even more insidious.
Afer as much naural gas as possible is exraced rom
he Unied Saes, he counrys dependence on naural
gas o uel ransporaion and generae elecriciy would
persis. Decades rom now his dependence could leave
he counry in need o naural gas impors. Americanconsumers would hen be exposed o global demand or
naural gas jus as hey currenly are or oil. The Unied
Saes would also be lef behind hose counries ha
chose o inves, insead, in clean energy soluions.100
I is rue ha modern drilling and racking have conrib-
ued o signiican increases in he EIAs esimae o
echnically recoverable naural gas resources in he pas
decade.101 A popular claim is ha, as a resul, he Unied
Saes has enough naural gas o las i 100 years.102
However, Food & Waer Wach ook a close look a hisclaim and ound ha i assumes ha he indusry ges
is wish o compleely unresriced access hroughou
Alaska, hroughou he lower 48 saes and all along
he U.S. coasline. The claim also sweeps under he rug
signiican uncerainies ha are inheren o esimaing
echnically recoverable shale gas resources.
Noneheless, even i he oil and gas indusry ges is
wish o unresriced access and even i preliminary
esimaes o shale gas reserves prove accurae, Food
& Waer Wach calculaes ha he indusrys plans o
increase demand or U.S. naural gas could easily cu in
hal he claim o a 100-year supply.
Jusiicaion or he claim o a 100-year supply comes
rom aking he EIAs January 2012 esimae o he oal
proved and unproved amouns o echnically recov-
erable naural gas resources abou 2,214 rillion cubic
ee (c) and dividing by he amoun o naural gas
consumed in he Unied Saes in 2010, which was abou
24.1 c.103 So, assuming ha Americans consume he
same amoun each year, he EIAs esimae o 2,214 c
o naural gas would las abou 92 years.
I is imporan o realize ha shale gas accouns or only
abou a quarer o he esimaed 2,214 c o naural
gas; speciically, he EIA esimae o 2,214 c includes
60 c o proved shale gas reserves104 and 482 c o
unproved shale gas reserves,105 or a oal o 542 c.
Under he assumpion ha annual U.S. consumpion
says consan a he 2010 rae, 542 c equaes o abou
22 years worh o shale gas.
These calculaions raise hree imporan quesions:
I shale gas makes up 22 years ou o he esimaed92 years o naural gas, where is he oher 70 years
o supposed naural gas supply?
Netherlands: Royal Dutch Shell82
United Kingdom: %383
%**URXS84
Norway: Statoil85
France: Total SA86
Spain: 5HSVRO
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How uncerain are unproved echnically recoverable
naural resources?
Even i all o he unproved echnically recoverable
resources o naural gas could be exraced, howlong would he naural gas acually las in ligh o
plans o expor i overseas and plans o use more o
i o uel ransporaion and generae elecriciy?
U.S. natural gas abundance presumes that
the industry will drill and frack everywhere
The oil and gas indusry dreams o unresriced drilling
access in Alaska and along he enire U.S. coasline,
no jus wihin he lower 48 saes.106 The claim o 100
years o naural gas is nohing bu a repackaging o hisdream.
Taking he EIAs esimae o 2,214 c o naural gas and
subracing is esimae o 542 c in shale gas yields
1,672 c o echnically recoverable naural gas ha is
no ied up in shale.107 According o he Naional Pero-
leum Council, here is abou 300 c in Alaska and abou
400 c rom he entireU.S. Ouer Coninenal Shel and
oher oshore areas in he lower 48 saes, including
he Grea Lakes.108 Presumably, his approximaely 700
c or abou 30 o he projeced 92 years is includedamong he 1,672 c o non-shale echnically recoverable
naural gas resources. Exracing all o i enails giving
he oil and gas indusry unresriced access o drill no
only hroughou Alaska bu also all along he Paciic,
Gul o Mexico and Alanic coass.
The Naional Peroleum Council acknowledges, The
echnical challenges o developing domesic gas
resources are compounded by urban growh, compeing
land use, and changing public values ha increasingly
consrain exising and new naural gas developmen.109The claim o abou 100 years o naural gas, however,
compleely ignores his realiy. I envisions an America
so dependen on he oil and gas indusry ha no place
is o-limis o drilling.
U.S. natural gas abundance relies
on highly uncertain resource estimates
According o a 2010 Congressional Research Service
repor, proved reserves are deined as: The quaniies
o hydrocarbons esimaed wih reasonable cerainyo be commercially recoverable rom known accumula-
ions under curren economic condiions, operaing
mehods, and governmen regulaions. Curren
economic condiions include prices and coss prevailing
a he ime o he esimae.110 By conras, unproved
reserves are [q]uaniies o hydrocarbon resources
ha are assessed based on geologic and engineering
inormaion similar o ha used in developing esimaes
o proved reserves, bu echnical, conracual, economic,
or regulaory uncerainy precludes such reserves rom
being classiied as proved.111
To arrive a an esimae o he echnically recoverable
resources in an emerging shale gas or igh oil play, he
EIA uses he oal area o he play and he expeced
densiy o wells wihin he play o calculae a oal
number o expeced wells.112 This oal number o wells
is adjused by addiional parameers o accoun or he
porion o he play ha is unesed (i.e., or which here
is no producion daa), and or he porion o he play
believed o have producion poenial.113 The oal reserve
esimae hen ollows rom aking he resuling hypo-heical number o expeced wells, and muliplying by
he esimaed ulimae recovery (EUR) o oil, or naural
gas, expeced over he lieime o each well, presumed o
be 30 years.114
EUR is he primary source o uncerainy in esimaes
o oil and naural gas echnically recoverable rom shale
and oher igh rock ormaions.115 This is in large par
because here is no long-erm producion daa since
shale gas and igh oil developmen are so new, and
each shale play is dieren o serve as a basis orpredicing how rapidly shale gas or igh oil producion
will decline over ime or a collecion o wells wihin a
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speciic play.116 Projecing wha gradual decline migh
look like 30 years ou, based on jus a ew iniial years
o seeply declining producion, is a highly uncerain
process.117
The EIA akes he laes daa on how much oil or naural
gas is produced rom a collecion o wells and hen
exrapolaes rom hese daa over ime, using a speciic
shape o decline given by a hyperbolic uncion.118 Theseep declines in producion o a ypical shale gas well
over he irs ew years means ha new wells mus be
drilled and racked each year jus o mainain produc-
ion his has been likened o a readmill.119
While calculaing EURs or convenional oil and gas
reserves is an esablished science,120 many o he
assumpions on which his science is based are violaed
in he conex o exracing oil and naural gas rom
shale and oher igh rock ormaions.121 The uncerainy
surrounding EUR calculaions lies a he roo o a June2011 invesigaion by he New York Times, which was ull
o revelaions, including, An inernal Energy Inorma-
ion Adminisraion documen says companies have
exaggeraed he appearance o shale gas well proi-
abiliy, are highlighing he perormance o only heir
bes wells and may be using overly opimisic models or
projecing he wells produciviy over he nex several
decades.122
As saed in he discussion o break-even prices, he
amoun o shale gas ha can be produced rom a wellvaries signiicanly wihin a shale gas play.123 As a
consequence, as swee spos in he play are ideniied,
operaors drill and rack he mos producive porions o
he play irs, leaving he less producive and hus less
proiable porions o he play or laer. Since wihin a
play, he cos o drilling and racking a well is essenially
he same, he less producive porions o plays may only
become proiable once naural gas prices rise. While
hese porions o he play hold shale gas ha is echni-
cally recoverable, he gas is no economically recover-
able.
This patern in well produciviies means ha jus o
susain a consan level o shale gas producion, he rae
o drilling and racking mus increase is an acceler-
aing readmill. And exracing all o he esimaed U.S.
shale gas resource presumes ha operaors can increase
he pace o drilling and racking indeiniely; hey mus
always be able o access and proiably ap new bu less
producive source rocks as naural gas prices rise. This
is wha widespread drilling and racking means: a uure
in which he Unied Saes is urned ino a pincushiono oil and gas wells. As hese wells age over decades, a
large racion o hem will ail o conain mehane and
oher hydrocarbon gases, in many cases puting a risk
underground sources o drinking waer.124
How quickly might
U.S. natural gas be consumed?
Even i he oil and gas indusry ges is wish o unre-
sriced access, and even i preliminary esimaes o
shale gas reserves prove accurae, drilling and rackingwill no deliver long-erm U.S. energy securiy. Food &
Waer Wach calculaes ha he EIAs baseline projec-
ion o uure domesic consumpion, curren proposals
o expor naural gas and plans o increase naural gas
demand in he ransporaion and elecriciy secors
would drasically reduce he period o ime ha esi-
maed reserves could las, urher undercuting he
indusrys claims abou U.S. energy securiy (see box).
Even assuming that the oil and gas industrywins unrestricted access to drill and frack and
assuming that estimates of unproven resourcesare accurate, increased demand for U.S. natural
gas could easily cut in half the claimof a 100-year supply.
Popular claim:
100 years
Holding consumption constant at 2010 level:
92 years
Using the EIAs projected growth
in rate consumption:
78 years
And supposing, from 2026 to 2045,
OLTXHHGQDWXUDOJDVH[SRUWVUHDFK
60 percent of currently
proposed capacity:
72 years
And supposing that, by 2025, natural gas
displaces the energy equivalent of 40
percent of 2011 demand for gasoline and
diesel:
58 years
And supposing that, by 2025, natural gas is
used to generate electricity equivalent to
50 percent of the electricity generated
by coal in 2011:50 years
100 years worth of natural gas?Not likely and no thanks
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12 Food & Water Watch tXXXGPPEBOEXBUFSXBUDIPSH
Firs, when he EIA esimaes ha here is 92 years
worh o echnically recoverable naural gas, i does no
acor in is own baseline projecion o increased naural
gas consumpion; recall ha he esimae assumes ha
naural gas consumpion would be he same each year
as i was in 2010. The EIA, however, currenly projecs
ha beween 2010 and 2035, U.S. naural gas consump-
ion will increase, on average, by 0.4 percen annu-
ally.125Incorporating this projection, and urtherassuming that consumption continues to grow
at this rate beyond 2035, Food & Water Watch
calculates that the estimated 2,214 tc o proved
and unproved technically recoverable natural gas
resources, i accurate, would last about 78 years.
Bu he 0.4 percen annual growh rae is or domesicconsumpion, and i is a baseline igure based on curren
laws and regulaions.126 For insance, i does no accoun
or he rapidly growing number o applicaions o he
U.S. Deparmen o Energy seeking auhorizaion o
expor liqueied naural gas (LNG) o oreign markes
(see able on page 13).
As opposed o oil, he supply chain or naural gas is
no ye globalized.127 Large regional price dierences
due in par o naural gas prices being linked o
oil prices in some markes explain he oil and gasindusrys recen ineres in exporing naural gas rom
he Unied Saes.128 In mid-July 2012, or example, The
Economistrepored, Whereas American gas currenly
coss abou $2.50 [per million Briish hermal unis
(mBu)], European oil-indexed pipeline gas goes or
around $12 [per] mBu, and in Asia LNG can ech
$16 [per] mBu or more.129 Noe ha 1 million Bu o
naural gas is approximaely equivalen o 1,000 cubic
ee o naural gas.130 According o The Economist,
Liqueying he gas, carrying i o is desinaion
and regasiying i can cos beween $4 and $7 [per]
mBu,131 so he indusry has an opporuniy o make
signiican prois exporing naural gas.
Such expors clearly belie he indusrys parioic
rheoric on U.S. energy securiy and energy indepen-
dence, revealing proi as he rue moive. In addiion
o oreign ineress having sakes in U.S. shale gas
plays,132 some have already signed conracs, or arepursuing conracs o impor U.S. naural gas.133 This
raises quesions abou wheher hese oreign ineress
will inluence how much naural gas ges expored
overseas. Meanwhile, American communiies would be
lef wih he poenially cosly legacy o environmenal
polluion in he wake o drilling and racking.134
As o Ocober 26, 2012, he U.S. Deparmen o Energy
had received applicaions o expor a combined oal
o 28.39 billion cubic ee o naural gas per day.135
I all applicaions were o be approved, his capaciywould amoun o abou 10 c per year, which is abou
40 percen o all U.S. naural gas consumpion in
2011.136
To demonsrae how such expors migh impac he
92 years o supply claim, Food & Waer Wach
conservaively assumes a scenario in which LNG
expors, rom 2016 o 2026, ramp up o 60 percen o
he expor capaciy proposed as o Ocober 26, 2012,
reaching abou 6 c. This o course neglecs any
addiional applicaions afer Ocober 26, 2012. Food& Waer Wach urher assumes ha LNG expors
say a 60 percen o currenly proposed capaciy or
20 years, rom 2026 hrough o 2045, ollowed by a
20-year period in which LNG expors decline seadily
down o zero o relec he likely convergence in
naural gas prices around he world.137
Food & Water Watch calculates that the estimated
2,214 tc in proved and unproved technically
recoverable natural gas resources, i accurate,
would last about 72 years under such an LNGexport scenario, along with the EIAs projection o
0.4 percent growth in annual U.S. consumption.
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Finally, plans o simulae increased U.S. demand or
naural gas in he ransporaion and elecriciy secors
would urher cu ino he claimed 100 years o naural
gas.138
To illusrae he eec ha such plans migh have, Food
& Waer Wach irs assumed a scenario in which, on
op o he EIAs projeced baseline consumpion, he use
o naural gas as a ransporaion uel increases gradu-
ally unil 2025, reaching 40 percen o curren demandor moor gasoline and disillae uels, and ha he use
o naural gas in ransporaion says a his level here-
afer. Food & Water calculates that the estimated
2,214 tc in proved and unproved technically
recoverable natural gas resources, i accurate,
would last about 58 years under such a scenario
o natural gas displacing oil or transportation
uels.139
As or using naural gas insead o coal o generae
elecriciy, Food & Waer Wach assumes ha naural
gas consumpion by he elecriciy secor increasesseadily over he baseline so ha, by 2025 and beyond,
50 percen o he amoun o elecriciy generaed using
Proposed LNG Export Capacity Amounts to Over
40 Percent of 2011 U.S. Natural Gas Consumption
Applications Received by the Department of Energy to Export
Domestically Produced LNG From the Lower 48 States(as of October 26, 2012)
CompanyInitial application
GDWHOHG
Proposed export capacity
(billion cubic feet per day)
Facility location
(if applicable)
6DELQH3DVV/LTXHIDFWLRQ//& August 11, 2010 2.2 &DPHURQ3DULVK/$
)UHHSRUW/1*([SDQVLRQ/3DQG)/1*/LTXHIDFWLRQ//&
December 17, 2010 1.4 Quintana Island, TX
Lake Charles Exports, LLC May 6, 2011 2.0 Lake Charles, LA
Carib Energy (USA) LLC June 6, 2011 0.04 third-party liquefaction
'RPLQLRQ&RYH3RLQW/1*/3 September 1, 2011 1.0 Calvert County, MD
-RUGDQ&RYH(QHUJ\3URMHFW/3 September 22, 2011 2.0 &RRV%D\25
Cameron LNG, LLC November 10, 2011 1.7 &DPHURQ3DULVK/$
)UHHSRUW/1*([SDQVLRQ/3DQG)/1*/LTXHIDFWLRQ//&
December 20, 2011 1.4 Quintana Island, TX
Gulf Coast LNG Export, LLC January 10, 2012 2.8 %URZQVYLOOH7;
Gulf LNG Liquefaction Company, LLC May 2, 2012 1.5 3DVFDJRXOD06
LNG Development Company, LLC May 3, 2012 1.25 Warrenton, OR
6%3RZHU6ROXWLRQVQF May 7, 2012 0.07 third-party liquefaction
Southern LNG Company, LLC May 15, 2012 0.5 Savannah, GA
Excelerate Liquefaction Solutions I, LLC May 25, 2012 1.38 Calhoun County, TX
*ROGHQ3DVV3URGXFWV//& August 17, 2012 2.6 6DELQH3DVV7;
Cheniere Marketing, LLC August 31, 2012 2.1 Corpus Christi, TX
0DLQ3DVV(QHUJ\+XE//& September 11, 2012 3.22 PLOHVRVKRUH/$
&()/1*//& September 21, 2012 1.07 3ODTXHPLQHV3DULVK/$
Waller LNG Services, LLC October 12, 2012 0.16 &DPHURQ3DULVK/$
Daily total (billion cubic feet per day) 28.39
Annual total (trillion cubic feet per year) 10.36
U.S. consumption of natural gas, 2011 (trillion cubic feet) 24.5
SOURCES:
([SRUWFDSDFLWLHV86'HSDUWPHQWRI(QHUJ\2FHRI)RVVLO(QHUJ\6XPPDU\RI/1*H[SRUWDSSOLFDWLRQV1RYHPEHU
2012 Applications: 2012 LNG Import/Export Authorization Applications. Available at http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/gasregulation/autho-
rizations/2012_Long_Term_Applications.html, accessed November 1, 2012.
2011 Applications: 2011 LNG Import/Export Authorization Applications. Available at http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/gasregulation/autho-
rizations/2011_Long_Term_Applications.html, accessed November 1, 2012.
2010 Applications: 2010 LNG Import/E xport Authorization Applications. Available at http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/gasregulation/
authorizations/2010_Long_Term_Applications.html, accessed November 1, 2012.
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14 Food & Water Watch tXXXGPPEBOEXBUFSXBUDIPSH
coal in 2011 is generaed insead using naural gas.
Adding this assumption to the above scenarios,
and accounting or diferences in eficiencies
between coal-ired and natural gas-ired elec-
tricity generation,140 such an increase in natural
gas consumption would mean that the estimated
2,214 tc in proved and unproved technically
recoverable natural gas resources, i accurate,
would last about 50 years.141
This sequence o simple calculaions demonsraes ha,
even i he oil and gas indusry is graned unresriced
access o exrac any and all naural gas i can ind, he
curren esimaed supply is ar rom he energy panacea
he indusry claims. I allowed o wrie is own policies,
he oil and gas indusry will simply exrac as much as
possible, as as as possible, or maximum proi, while
ighing o prolong Americas desrucive dependence
on ossil uels. Then, once U.S. naural gas is gone, he
global oil and gas indusry will likely be well posiionedo impor oreign sources o racked naural gas o eed
his dependence; Royal Duch Shell and ExxonMobil, in
paricular, are invesed in building a global naural gas
supply chain.142 Their sraegic plans or such a global
supply chain serve as an illusraion o how Big Oil sees
an opporuniy, no a hrea, in using naural gas in
addiion o oil o uel ransporaion.143
Tight Oil Euphoria: Empty
Promises of Oil IndependenceAmid he ervor over drilling and racking or igh
oil, Americans are hearing empy promises ha U.S.
energy independence is wihin reach.144 In a 2012
repor, Ciigroup, a global inancial insiuion, wen
so ar as o sugges ha Norh America could become
he new Middle Eas by he nex decade; a growing
hydrocarbon ne exporing cener.145 Bu consider
ha oreign companies are buying sakes in U.S. igh
oil plays, esablishing join venures wih U.S. compa-
nies and providing he capial necessary o drill andrack.146 These oreign companies sand o proi, o
course, as igh oil rom he wells in which hey have a
sake is sold on he global marke. So, when American
consumers buy he gasoline or diesel rom his igh
oil, are hey really consuming domesic oil, or are hey
consuming oreign oil?
Wih respec o energy securiy, i doesn mater.
The globalized marke or oil means ha reducing oil
consumpion is he only way American consumers can
inoculae hemselves agains he high oil prices ha will
resul rom increased global demand or oil, coupled
wih increased coss o exrac he oil ha remains
underground.147 Anoher consequence o he globalized
oil marke is ha, regardless o wheher he oil Ameri-
cans consume is produced domesically or produced
abroad,
so long as Americans consume a lo o i, he Unied
Saes is likely o spend billions o dollars, i no ens
o billions o dollars, on miliary operaions o secure
Middle Eas oil shipmens in an eor o ensure sable
global oil prices.148
Bu he realiy is ha igh oil rom drilling and racking
is jus a drop in he bucke o U.S. oil consumpion. The
Unied Saes consumed abou 18.8 million barrels o
oil per day in 2011,149 ye i produced only an esimaed
0.55 million barrels o igh oil per day.150 The EIA does
projec ha igh oil producion will increase, bu o
only abou 1.2 million barrels per day beween now and
2020, peaking a 1.33 million barrels per day in 2029
beore saring o decline.151 This peak would amoun o
only abou 7 percen o he 18.8 million barrels per day
consumed in he Unied Saes in 2011.
And hen here is he realiy on he ground o wha
i would ake o achieve such levels o producion.
An analysis o hundreds o wells producing igh oil
rom he Bakken ormaion illusraes ha producion
PHOTO DAVID R. TRIBBLE / COMMONS.WIKIMEDIA.ORG
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ollows he patern no jus o a readmill, bu o an
acceleraing readmill jus o susain a consan level
o producion, a larger number o new wells mus be
drilled and racked each year.152
As or reserves, he EIA esimaes ha here is 33.2
billion barrels o echnically recoverable igh oil, wih
all he caveas and uncerainies oulined above or
similar esimaes o shale gas.153 For perspecive, 33.2
billion barrels o igh oil wouldn las seven years i
consumed a a rae o 15 million barrels per day, well
below he curren rae o U.S. consumpion. In 2011, he
Unied Saes accouned or over 20 percen o global oil
consumpion, bu i conribued only abou 9 percen o
global oil producion and possessed less han 2 perceno he worlds proved oil reserves.154
Clearly, he promises are empy ha U.S. oil indepen-
dence is wihin reach, hanks o drilling and racking.
I is also clear ha widespread drilling and racking
or igh oil will do nex o nohing or American
consumers.155 In ac, while hese consumers pay
hisorically high prices a he pump, he indusry is
maximizing heir prois by exporing record amouns
o gasoline and diesel.156
Peer Orszag, ormer direcor o he Oice o Manage-men and Budge in he Obama adminisraion and
now currenly a Ciigroup, has pu orward a slighly
dieren argumen, suggesing ha he develop-
men o igh oil could push down global oil prices by
loosening concerns over declining world oil supplies.157
Leonardo Maugeri, an Ialian oil execuive currenly a
Harvards Kennedy School o Governmen as a research
ellow, has added, The U.S. shale/igh oil could be a
paradigm-shifer or he oil world, because i could aler
is eaures by allowing no only or he developmen
o he worlds sill virgin shale/igh oil ormaions, bu
also or recovering more oil rom convenional, esab-
lished oilields.158
Besowing such aih on he oil and gas indusry, and
on he global oil marke, is misguided, perhaps mos
imporanly because i ignores he hrea o global
climae change. Bu even i such speculaion abou he
poenial o igh oil proved correc, he resul would
ge he Unied Saes nowhere in is ques or energy
securiy. Faciliaed by low oil prices, high consumpion
would persis once he igh oil in he counry is gone,
and he Unied Saes would be righ back where i
sared: i would be dependen on oreign sources o
oil is jus ha he oreign oil being impored would
be igh oil, or oher oil produced by unconvenional
mehods. Meanwhile, he global oil and gas indusry
would coninue o proi rom Americas dependence
on i.
Fracking Euphoria:
A Threat to Long-term U.S. Energy
Security and IndependenceThe EIA esimaes ha exracing he echnically recov-
erable resources o shale gas and igh oil would require
drilling and racking over 630,000 new wells.159 Bu wha
happens afer ha?
Modern drilling and racking, ogeher wih deepwaer
drilling and ar sands oil, are jus he curren generaion
o he indusrys unconvenional exracion mehods.160
As oil and naural gas become increasingly valuable
on global markes, hese approaches will inensiy
and new, even more cosly exracion mehods will be
pushed by he indusry.161 Oil shale (as opposed o shale
oil), ulra-deep oshore oil, Arcic oil and mehane
hydraes are all in he oil and gas indusrys sighs.162
For he oil and gas indusry, drilling and racking simply
provide a bridge o he nex generaion o is alse solu-
ions o Americas energy challenges.
I is no oo lae or he Unied Saes o avoid going
down his sel-desrucive pah. Long-erm U.S. energy
securiy and independence can acually be achieved,
bu he counry needs o ac now o deploy exising
energy eiciency and renewable energy soluions and
inves in uure echnologies ha expand hese solu-
ions.163
These soluions will eliminae he hidden coss o
burning ossil uels, resuling in enormous environ-
menal and public healh beneis.164 Acing now will
also help o ensure ha he Unied Saes is a global
leader in supplying clean energy echnologies o he
res o he world.165 In addiion, building and main-
aining local, resilien energy sysems ha are charac-
erized by energy eiciency and ha rely on disribued
renewable power generaion insead o on cenral-
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16 Food & Water Watch tXXXGPPEBOEXBUFSXBUDIPSH
ized, waseul and polluing ossil uel power will
creae and susain local jobs.166 Such energy sysems
will also spare communiies he ineviable economic
drag ha uure oil and naural gas price increases will
cause as global demand grows and global supply is
consumed.167
Bu remaking how energy is produced and consumed in
he Unied Saes requires large invesmens in inra-
srucure and aggressive changes in policy.168 Currenly,
he ossil uel indusrys esablished inrasrucure is
pipelines, power plans and ransmission lines makes
i diicul i no impossible or clean, renewable energy
resources o compee.169 Over a rillion dollars in sunk
coss in such inrasrucure avors he saus quo o
dependence on he oil and gas indusry, serving as a
barrier o he remaking o he U.S. energy sysem.170
The oil and gas indusry has been suppored, direcly or
indirecly, by decades o ederal policies avorable o he
indusry.171 This includes billions o dollars in ax breaks
annually,172 low coss charged by he governmen when
he indusry leases public lands,173 ederal spending on
research and developmen beneicial o he indusry174
and limis on liabiliy ha allow he indusry o ois
operaional risk ono he ederal governmen.175 Such
giveaways o he oil and gas indusry dwar he oal
ederal incenives received by he renewable energy
secor.176
Oil and gas companies coninue o enjoy corporae
welare in he orm o permanen ax breaks; a he
same ime, uncerainy over wheher Congress will
renew clean energy ax incenives, or will le hemexpire, hrows a wrench in privae invesmens in clean
energy.177 This conras highlighs he exen o which
he ossil uel indusry has skewed American energy
policy o urher is botom line.178
On he one hand, he ossil uel indusry is unding
an array o groups pushing o allow renewable energy
producion ax credis o expire.179 On he oher hand,
he oil and gas indusrys generous campaign donaions
are proving o be a good invesmen, paricularly given
he oucome o he March 2012 voe in he U.S. Senaeon wheher or no o end ax subsidies o he oil and
gas indusry, which are esimaed o cos he American
public $24 billion in orgone revenues over he nex
decade.180
During he 20112012 elecion cycle alone, he oil and
gas secor gave abou $2.2 million in campaign conri-
buions o he 47 Senaors who voed o keep he ax
subsidies in place, compared o a oal o $674,160 o he
51 Senaors who voed in avor o ending he subsi-
dies (60 voes were required o end he ilibuser).
181
Including all campaign donaions rom 1989 o early
Sepember o 2012, he same 47 Senaors had raked in a
oal o abou $24.4 million rom he oil and gas secor,
while he 51 Senaors who voed in avor o ending he
subsidies had been given a oal o abou $6.1 million.182
Despie he enrenched advanages ha he ossil uel
indusry enjoys, wind energy can now oucompee
coal and has become compeiive wih naural gas on
a levelized cos basis or new power insallaions.183
However, he poenial expiraion o producion ax
credis, generally low elecriciy demand due o a
sruggling economy and he currenly low prices o
naural gas all combine o hreaen he domesic wind
indusry.184 In paricular, he looming end o produc-
ion ax credis is creaing a rush o inish insallaions
by he end o 2012, which could be disrupive o he
indusry in 2013.185
The ossil uel indusry urher beneis, and he clean
energy indusry suers, rom he overall ailure o he
marke, vis--vis energy prices, o accoun or he rue
socieal coss o he indusrys polluion, paricularly
he curren and uure coss o global climae change.186
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U.S. Energy Insecurityt8IZ'SBDLJOHGPS0JMBOE/BUVSBM(BT*TB'BMTF4PMVUJPO 17
Conclusion and Recommendations
Drilling and racking simply serve he myh a very
proiable myh or he oil and gas indusry, and a very
desrucive one or he American public ha he
Unied Saes can drill is way o energy securiy and
energy independence.
The popular claim o a 100-year supply o naural gas
is based on he oil and gas indusrys dream o unre-sriced access o drill and rack, and i presumes ha
highly uncerain resource esimaes prove accurae.
Furher, he claim o a cenurys worh o naural gas
ignores plans o expor large amouns o i overseas
and plans or more domesic use o naural gas o uel
ransporaion and generae elecriciy. Even i he oil
and gas indusrys dreams come rue and even i he
uncerain resource esimaes prove accurae, increasing
producion o eed global demand or expors and mee
planned increases in domesic consumpion could easilycu he 100-year-supply claim in hal.
As or oil, drilling and racking or igh oil in he Unied
Saes is jus a drop in he bucke o global oil produc-
ion, and since oil is priced on a global marke, drilling
and racking will do nex o nohing or American
consumers.
The Unied Saes can ransiion o o ossil uels, and
in he process achieve long-erm energy securiy, inde-
pendence and resilience, by remaking he U.S. energy
sysem. To his end, Food & Waer Wach urges saeand local governmens and he ederal governmen o:
Enac aggressive energy conservaion policies,
including large public ransporaion invesmens
and widespread deploymen o energy eiciency
soluions, o reduce energy demand;
Esablish ambiious programs or deploying and
incenivizing exising renewable energy echnolo-
gies o increase clean energy supply;
Modernize he U.S. elecrical grid so ha i caers
o disribued renewable power generaion;
Make sweeping invesmens in research and devel-
opmen o overcome echnological barriers o he
nex generaion o clean energy soluions; and
Terminae all public unding, including ax expen-
diures, ha no only pads he prois o he ossil
uel indusry bu also urher enrenches Americas
dependence on ossil uels.
The ime is now or Americans o end heir desrucive
dependence on he ossil uel indusry.
Endnotes1 Morse, Edward L. et al. Citigroup. Energy 2020: North America, the
QHZ0LGGOH(DVW"&LWL*36*OREDO3HUVSHFWLYHV6ROXWLRQV0DUFKDW0DXJHUL/HRQDUGR2LO7KHQH[WUHYROXWLRQ+DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\-RKQ).HQQHG\6FKRRORI*RYHUQPHQW-XQHDWDQG%URFKXUH@6KDOHJDVDSSO\LQJWHFKQRORJ\WRVROYH$PHULFDVHQHUJ\FKDOOHQJHV0DUFKDWUnited States House of Representatives. Committee on Energy and&RPPHUFH>0LQRULW\6WDUHSRUW@&KHPLFDOVXVHGLQK\GUDXOLFIUDF-turing. April 2011 at 9.
(3$DW
9RWH(QHUJ\>$PHULFDQ3HWUROHXPQVWLWXWH@6DPSOHDGYHUWLVHPHQWVavailable at http://vote4energy.org/campaign-ads/, accessed Sep-WHPEHU(QHUJ\7RPRUURZ>$PHULFDQ3HWUROHXPQVWLWXWH@Sample advertisements available at http://energytomorrow.org/adver-WLVHPHQWVDFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU$PHULFDV1DWXUDO*DV$OOL -ance. Sample advertisements available at http://www.anga.us/media-URRPDGYHUWLVLQJ$PHULFDV1DWXUDO*DV$OOLDQFH:K\1DWXUDO*DV"
Available at http://www.anga.us/why-natural-gas, accessed September12, 2012.
)RRG:DWHU:DWFK)DOVHSURPLVHVDQGKLGGHQFRVWV7KHLOOXVLRQRIHFRQRPLFEHQHWVIURPIUDFNLQJ0DUFK
7/30/2019 U.S. Energy Insecurity: Why Fracking for Oil and Natural Gas Is a False Solution
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18 Food & Water Watch tXXXGPPEBOEXBUFSXBUDIPSH
0F.HQ]LH/LVD0HWDO+XPDQKHDOWKULVNDVVHVVPHQWRIDLUHPLVVLRQVfrom development of unconventional natural gas resources. Science ofthe Total EnvironmentYRO0D\DWWR&ROERUQ7KHRHWal. Natural gas operations from a public health perspective. Humanand Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, vol. 17, iss. 5.6HSWHPEHUDWWR%DPEHUJHU0LFKHOOHDQG5REHUWE. Oswald. Impacts of gas drilling on human and animal health. NewSolutionsYROLVV-DQXDU\DWWR0\HUV7RP3RWHQWLDOcontaminant pathways from hydraulically fractured shale to aqui-fers. Ground Water$SULO2VERUQ6WHSKHQ*HWDO0HWKDQHcontamination of drinking water accompanying gas-well drilling andhydraulic fracturing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.
LVV0D\DW(QWUHNLQ6DOO\HWDO5DSLGH[SDQVLRQof natural gas development poses a threat to sur face waters. Frontiersin EcologyYROLVV2FWREHUDW)RRG:DWHU:DWFK:DVWHWKHVRIWDQGGLUW\XQGHUEHOO\RIIUDFNLQJ$SULO/XVWJDU-ten, Abrahm. The trillion-gallon loophole: Lax rules for drillers thatinject pollutants into the earth. ProPublica. September 20, 2012.
9 Howarth, Robert W. et al. Venting and leaking of methane from shalegas development: response to Cathles et al. Climatic Change, vol. 113.)HEUXDU\DW0\KUYROG1DWKDQDQG.HQ&DOGHLUD*UHHQ -house gases, climate change and the transition from coal to low-carbonelectricity. Environmental Research Let tersYROLVV)HEUXDU\DWWR3WURQ*DEULHOOHHWDO+\GURFDUERQHPLVVLRQVFKDUDFWHUL]DWLRQLQWKH&RORUDGR)URQW5DQJH$SLORWVWXG\Journal of Geophysical Re-search, AtmospheresYRO)HEUXDU\:LJOH\7RP0/&RDOWRJDVWKHLQXHQFHRIPHWKDQHOHDNDJH Climatic Change, vol. 108,LVV2FWREHUDWWR+RZDUWK5REHUW:HWDO0HWKDQHand the greenhouse-gas footprint of natural gas from shale forma-
tions. Climatic ChangeYROLVV-XQHDW7\QGDOO&HQWUHfor Climate Change Research. University of Manchester. Shale gas: aprovisional assessment of climate change and environmental impacts.
Januar y 2011 at 6.
:DUOLFN'RQ%LJRYHUVHDVLQYHVWRUVVXSSO\PRPHQWXPIRU1RUWKAmerican shale growth. Oil & Gas Financial Journal. July 5, 2012.
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)RRG:DWHU:DWFKFDOFXODWLRQEDVHGRQ86(QHUJ\QIRUPDWLRQAdministration (EIA). Glossary. Available at ht tp://www.eia.gov/tools/JORVVDU\DFFHVVHG6HSWHPEHU($$QQXDOHQHUJ\RXWORRN2012 (AEO). June 25, 2012 at Table 2. Available at http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/data.cfm, accessed September 12, 2012. This estimate isconservative in that aviation fuels other than kerosene-type jet fuel arenot included.
)RRG:DWHU:DWFKFDOFXODWLRQEDVHGRQ($$(2DW7DEOH
Available at http://ww w.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/data.cfm, accessedSeptember 12, 2012. Energy content from ethanol is not included in thisestimate.
)RRG:DWHU:DWFKFDOFXODWLRQEDVHGRQ($*ORVVDU\$YDLO-able at http://www.eia.gov/tools/glossary/, accessed September 12,($$(2DW7DEOH$YDLODEOHDWKWWSZZZHLDJRYIRUH -casts/aeo/data.cfm, accessed September 12, 2012.
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16 EIA. Annual energy outlook 2012 with projections to 2035. (DOE/EIA-0383(2012)). June 2012 at 134 to 135.
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)RRG:DWHU:DWFKFDOFXODWLRQEDVHGRQ($$(2DW7DEOHAvailable at http://ww w.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/data.cfm, accessedSeptember 12, 2012.
+RQRULR/LYLRHWDO(85(/(&75&DQG9*%3RZHU7HFK(FLHQF\LQHOHFWULFLW\JHQHUDWLRQ-XO\DWDQG($)UHTXHQWO\$VNHGQuestions: How much electricity is lost in transmission and distributionin the United States? Available at ht tp://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=105&t=3, accessed September 12, 2012.
.ODDVVHQ(ULN(FRI\V1HWKHUODQGV>5HSRUWFRPPLVVLRQHGE\0LW-VXELVKL5HVHDUFKQVWLWXWH@QWHUQDWLRQDOFRPSDULVRQRIIRVVLOSRZHUHFLHQF\DQG&2LQWHQVLW\$XJXVWDW
+RQRULRHWDODW($)UHTXHQWO\$VNHG4XHVWLRQV+RZPXFKelectricity is lost (2012).
)RRG:DWHU:DWFKFDOFXODWLRQEDVHGRQ($$(2DW7DEOHAvailable at http://ww w.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/data.cfm, accessedSeptember 12, 2012.
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25 EIA. AEO (2012) at Table 2. Available at http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/data.cfm, accessed September 12, 2012.
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27 Ibid.28 Ibid.
(3$QYHQWRU\RI86JUHHQKRXVHJDVHPLVVLRQVDQGVLQNV2010. April 15, 2012 at 2-3 to 2-4 and 3-1 to 3-4.
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(6/&7KH1HZ$PHULFDQ2LO%RRPPSOLFDWLRQVIRU(QHUJ\6HFXULW\2012 at 17.
*RUGRQ'HERUDK&DUQHJLH(QGRZPHQWIRUQWHUQDWLRQDO3HDFH8Q-GHUVWDQGLQJXQFRQYHQWLRQDORLO0D\DW(6/&DW
1HUXUNDUDW(6/&DWDQG
36 Nerurkar (2012) at 20.
&)QWHUQDWLRQDO>6XEPLWWHGWRWKH1*$$)RXQGDWLRQQF@1DWXUDOgas pipeline and storage infrastructure projections through 2030.
October 20, 2009 at 3. ($$(2DW8UELQDDQ%HKLQGYHQHHUGRXEWRQIXWXUHRI
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75 Ibid. ($(76$3DW&DQDGD1DWLRQDO(QHUJ\%RDUG(QHUJ\FRQYHU-
sion tables. Available at http://ww w.neb.gc.ca/clf-nsi/rnrgynfmtn/sttstc/st tstc-eng.html, accessed September 14, 2012.
3KLOLSV0DWWKHZVQDWXUDOJDVWRRFKHDSWRGULOO"Bloomberg Business-week$SULO($$(2DW
78 Nelder, Chris. The questionable economics of shale gas. SmartPlanet.December 14, 2011.
79 Ibid.
80 Documents: Leaked industry emails and reports. The New York Times.Drilling Down Document Viewer at 58.
1HOGHU'HFHPEHU0F.LEEHQ%LOO:K\WKHHQHUJ\LQGXVWU\LVso invested in climate change denial. The Guardian)HEUXDU\
)O\QQ$OH[LV6KHOODGYDQFHVRLOULFKVKDOHGULYHZLWKGHDOThe WallStreet Journal6HSWHPEHU1LFKROVRQ&KULV96KHOOEX\V86
shale gas assets for $4.7 billion. May 28, 2010. %3>3UHVVUHOHDVH@%3WRVHOO7H[DVPLGVWUHDPJDVDVVHWV$XJXVW2012.
*RXJK3DXO-%**URXSFXWVULJVLQMarcellus Shale. Pittsburgh BusinessTimes. July 30, 2012.
85 Crooks, Ed. Statoil looks to tap into US shale boom. Financial Times.June 20, 2012.
&URRNV(GHWDO&KLQDDQG)UDQFHFKDVH86VKDOHDVVHWVFinancialTimes-DQXDU\'H]HPEHU5\DQDQG-DPHV7$UHGG\&KLQDfoothold in U.S. energy. The Wall Street Journal. March 6, 2012.
87 Dezember, Ryan. SandRidge inks $1 billion drilling pact with Repsol.The Wall Street Journal. December 22, 2011.
&DUUL]R2LO*DVQF>3UHVVUHOHDVH@&DUUL]R2LO*DVQFDQQRXQFHV$95 million joint venture agreement with GAIL (INDIA) LIMITED.6HSWHPEHU'XWWD6DQMD\DQGQGUDQL%DJFKLQGLDQFVHHNVwaiver from US to import fuel, acquire assets. The Times of India. June
19, 2012.89 Crooks et al. (2012).
90 Dezember and Areddy (2012).91 Stynes, Tess. Devon sells shale stake to Sumitomo for $1.4 bln. Market-
watch. August 2, 2012.
92 Ibid.93 Ibid.
.HU3HWHU0RUHSDLQIRU%+3ZLWKVHFRQG86ORVVThe Sydney MorningHerald$XJXVW+XPH1HLO%+3WDNHVEQZULWHGRZQRQshale gas. Financial Times. August 3, 2012.
($7KLVZHHNLQSHWUROHXP0DUFK1HUXUNDUDW)RZOHU7RPDQG%HQ/HIHEYUH)RU(QHUJ\3URGXFHUV1DWXUDO*DV0D\1RW%HWKH2QO\6RXUFHRID*OXW The Wall Street Journal-XQH86$JDVXLGPDUNHWV>(FRQRPLVWQWHOOLJHQFH8QLW@ The Economist.
July 20, 2012. ($0DUFK%DNHU+XJKHV1RUWK$PHULFD5RWDU\5LJ&RXQW
(Jan 2000 Current). September 14, 2012.
97 Ibid.98 Ibid. +XJKHV'DYLG3RVW&DUERQQVWLWXWH:LWKJDVVRFKHDSDQGZHOOGULOO-
ing down, why is gas production high? January 19, 2012.0DGULG-RUJHHWDO&HQWHUIRU$PHULFDQ3URJUHVV$PHULFDVIXWXUH
under drill, baby, drill. May 2012 at 10.101 EIA AEO (2012) at 56 to 59.
7KHQGHSHQGHQW3HWUROHXP$VVRFLDWLRQRI$PHULFD>%URFKXUH@*DPHFKDQJLQJXSGDWHRQQDWXUDOJDV1DWLRQDO3HWUROHXP&RXQFLO3UXGHQW'HYHORSPHQW5HDOL]LQJWKH3RWHQWLDORI1RUWK$PHULFDV$EXQGDQW1DWXUDO*DVDQG2LO5HVRXUFHVDW2EDPD%DUDFN6WDWHRIWKH8QLRQ$GGUHVV-DQXDU\6FKZDUW]6KHOO\.&DQWKHQDWXUDOJDVVHFWRUVDYHWKH86HFRQRP\&1%&-XQH/H9LQH6WHYH)LYHZD\VDQHZDJHRIFKHDSHQHUJ\FRXOGVKLIWWKHpower balance on the planet. Quartz6HSWHPEHU2.HHIH%ULDQ([[RQVELJEHWRQVKDOHJDVCNN Money. April16, 2012.
*UXHQVSHFKW+RZDUG($>3UHVHQWDWLRQGHOLYHUHGDW3DXO+1LW]H6FKRRORI$GYDQFHGQWHUQDWLRQDO6WXGLHV-RKQ+RSNLQV8QLYHUVLW\@Annual Energy Outlook 2012: Early Release Reference Case. JanuaryDWVOLGH($)UHTXHQWO\$VNHG4XHVWLRQV+RZPXFKQDWX -ral gas does the United States have and how long will it last? Availableat http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=58&t=8, accessed August21, 2012.
($)UHTXHQWO\$VNHG4XHVWLRQV+RZPXFKQDWXUDOJDV(Note: the 2,214 Tcf estimate incorporates 60 Tcf in proved shale gas,not the most recent estimate of about 97 Tcf in proved shale gas. See:EIA. Crude oil, natural gas and natural gas liquids proved reserves,2010. August 2012 at 11.).
($$(2DW*UXHQVSHFKWDWVOLGH
:RRG0DF.HQ]LH$PHULFDQ3HWUROHXPQVWLWXWH866XSSO\)RUHFDVWDQG3RWHQWLDO-REVDQG(FRQRPLFPSDFWV6HSWHPEHU2011 at 12 to 13.
107 Gruenspecht (2012) at slide 10.1DWLRQDO3HWUROHXP&RXQFLO)DFLQJWKH+DUG7UXWKV$ERXW(QHUJ\
2007 at 134.109 Ibid. at 133.
:KLWQH\*HQHHWDO&5686)RVVLO)XHOV5HVRXUFHV7HUPLQRORJ\Reporting, and Summary. November 30, 2010 at 20.
111 Ibid.112 EIA AEO (2012) at 56.
113 Ibid.114 Ibid. at 56 and 68.
115 Ibid. at 59.116 Ibid. at 56 to 57.
117 Ibid. at 56 to 58.118 Ibid. at 57.
119 Nelder, Chris. Every thing you know about shale gas is wrong. Smart-Planet)HEUXDU\
&ODUN$DURQ->0DVWHUVWKHVLV8QLYHUVLW\RI7H[DVDW$XVWLQ@'HFOLQHcurve analysis in unconventional resource plays using logistic growthmodels. 2011 at 1 to 11 and 31.
121 Ibid. at 31 to 34.122 Urbina (2011).
123 EIA AEO (2012) at 57.0\HUV%UXDWR&ODXGLRHWDO)URPPXGWRFHPHQWEXLOGLQJ
gas wells. 2LOHOG5HYLHZ. Autumn 2003 at 65.125 EIA AEO (2012) at Table 13. Available at http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/
aeo/data.cfm, accessed September 12, 2012.126 EIA AEO (2012) at 18.
($(HFWRILQFUHDVHGQDWXUDOJDVH[SRUWVRQGRPHVWLFHQHUJ\PDU-NHWV-DQXDU\DWWR($>3UHVVUHOHDVH@($UHSRUWVHHVEULJKWfuture for natural gas over next 5 years. June 5, 2012.
128 Ratner, Michael et al. U.S. natural gas exports: New oppor tunities, un-FHUWDLQRXWFRPHV&561RYHPEHUDW0H\HU*UHJRU\/1*US weighs the cost of gas exports to economy. Financial Times. July 17,$OLTXLGPDUNHWThe Economist. July 14, 2012.
129 A liquid market (2012).
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130 EIA AEO (2012) at Table 76. Available at http://ww w.eia.gov/ forecas ts/aeo/data.cfm, accessed September 12, 2012.
131 A liquid market (2012).132 Warlick (2012).
'XWWDDQG%DJFKL$OGUHG6WHSKHQ&&*&MRLQWO\LQYHVWPLO-lion in U.S. Chenieres LNG plant: source. Reuters$XJXVW&KR0HH\RXQJ6RXWK.RUHDV.12&H\HV86VKDOHJDVFRPSDQLHVDVVHWVexecutive. Reuters. May 14, 2012.
134 Christopherson, Susan and Ned Rightor. How shale gas extractionDHFWVGULOOLQJORFDOLWLHV/HVVRQVIRUUHJLRQDODQGFLW\SROLF\PDNHUVInternational Journal of Town and City Management, vol. 2, iss. 4. March-0D\DWDQG5XPEDFK$QGUHZ>3UHSDUHGIRUWKH
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