Welfare Effects of Air Pollution
Monday, February 11, 2008ENV 4101/5105
Godish Chapter 6
For extra reference: EPA http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/
Introduction Criteria Air Pollutants:
Review: NAAQS from CAA Primary standards Secondary standards
Hazardous Air Pollutants: Hg, dioxins, etc Regulated under 1990 CAA Amendments
Some other important welfare aspects Bioaerosols, Fluorides May not have specific regulations
What are welfare effects?
Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone Cause: ______________________ Source: ______________________ “Good O3” vs. “Bad O3” Primary component of photochemical smog Sunlight and hot weather
Summertime pollutantMostly local impact
Los Angeles, Wikipeida, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_(CA)
Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone
Unpleasant appearance in urban cities photochemical smog
Deterioration of synthetic rubber, textiles, paints
Gates Corporationhttp://www.gates.com/brochure.cfm?brochure=2833&location_id=3369
US EPA in How Stuff Works Website, http://science.howstuffworks.com/ozone-pollution.htm
Criteria Air Pollutants: Ozone
Leaf damage Chlorophyll damage: “flecks” Discoloration
Reducing crop yields and forest growth
US damage to crops est. as 1 billion dollars annually (1985)
25% reduction: +$1.7 billion 40% reduction: +$2.5 billion Loss of forest in US and Europe
Tobacco leaf which has sustained ozone damage http://www.lambtonwildlife.com/nature_notes_98/tobac.fld/tobacp.htm
Ozone damage on white pine (Photograph courtesy of A. Heagle) NC State, http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/pp/notes/Ornamental/odin19/od19.htm
Ponderosa Pine (left: undamaged; right: damaged)Image from Miller et al (1996) USFS PSW-GTR-155http://www.cbesurvey.org/aplv/panek/research.htm
Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx
Cause: Source: Regional impacts
Acid precursor (covered later)
Ozone precursor Absorbs blue-green
Plant damage Necrosis at 2-10 ppm Growth retardation at 0.5 ppm
Ecosystem Eutrophication Nitrophilous
Brown haze over Fort Collins, Photo by M. Oseckyhttp://ccc.atmos.colostate.edu/~hail/cool/polution/pages/ftc_12-19-2003.htm
Criteria Air Pollutants: SOx
Cause: Source: Regional impacts Acid precursor (covered later)
Damage to plants Chlorosis:
Necrosis:
Plasmolysis:
Damage to animals Similar to health effects in humans
Paper: converted to H2SO4, brittling paper
Leather: initiates cracking
Lettuce with discoloration due to chlorosisUC IPM, photo by Jack Kelly Clark
http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/L/D-CC-LIYV-FS.006.html
http://www.dias.kvl.dk/Plantvirology/esymptoms/symp-color.html
Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx
Acid precipitation Non-localized pollution Normal precip: pH ~ 5 to
5.6 Acid precip: pH ~ 3 to 4.5
HNO3 and H2SO4 Form acids in atmosphere
Wet deposition Dry deposition
60%- sulfur based; 35%- nitrogen based
Corrosion and deterioration of structures
Original limestone sculpture in Krakow, Poland, severely damaged after years of exposure to acid rain
Replicate made to replace original
Photo: Sebastian Wypych; http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/Nr_6_Feb__2__6_acid_rain/C__Formation_of_acids_5i8.h
tml
Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx
Decrease water/soil pH Episodic acidification
Water Body acidification Release of aluminum Reduce fish populations
Lakes becoming fishless Affect biodiversity
Little Echo Pond, Franklin, NY pH = 4.2
Harmful to Trees Dissolves nutrients and minerals
from soil Necrosis Growth abnormalities
US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/effects/surface_water.html
Effects of acid rain on forest in Jizera Mountains of Czech Republic; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain
Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx
Let’s tie together different areas of env. eng…
What are the components of the carbonate system?
Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) Bicarbonate (HCO3
-) Carbonate (CO3
2-) CO2 (aq) + H2O H2CO3
HCO3- + H+ CO3
2- + H+
How is acid buffered? Alkalinity
How is it defined? Alk (eq/m3) = [HCO3
-] + 2[CO3
-2] + [OH-] What water bodies/soils
have natural buffering? What type does not?
Natural buffering: limestone (CaCO3)
Minimal natural buffering: granite (frequently silica/quartz based)
Notes to be posted following lecture
Criteria Air Pollutants: NOx and SOx
200+ now-fishless lakes in Adirondacks
Little Echo Pond, Franklin, NY pH = 4.2
Thousands of lakes in Canada (Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick) now-fishless
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/194acidraineffects.html
Criteria Air Pollutants: Particulate Matter Review from 1/24 lecture Very small solids/liquids that remain suspended Anthropogenic causes: materials handling, combustion
processes, gas conversion reactions Main sources: industrial processes, coal and oil burning,
vehicles
Pollutant Primary Stds.Averaging Times
Secondary Stds.
Particulate Matter (PM10)
Revoked(2) Annual(2) (Arith. Mean)
150 µg/m3 24-hour(3)
Particulate Matter (PM2.5)
15.0 µg/m3 Annual(4) (Arith. Mean)
Same as Primary
35 µg/m3 24-hour(5)
Criteria Air Pollutants: Particulate Matter
Visibility Reduction PM2.5 haze (review from 1/28
lecture) Eastern parks’ avg. visual range
reduced from 90 to 15-25 mi. Western parks’ avg. visual range
reduced from 140 to 35-90 mi. http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/
Permits/ARIS/index.cfm for more national parks air quality info
Wildfires Weather Patterns
Serve as condensation nuclei Effect on fog and precipitation Great Smokey Mountains National
Park,US EPA, http://www.epa.gov/visibility/
Criteria Air Pollutants: Particulate Matter
PM derivatives of SO2 and NOx (sulfates and nitrates) Intensifier Refer to SOx and NOx section
Environmental Damage Lake/stream acidification Nutrient depletion in soils Plant damage Ecosystem diversity upset
Aesthetics Damage Stain and damage stone
structures
New York City building façade after century of dirt (PM) accumulation http://www.nycjpg.com/2003/pages/0802.html
Criteria Air Pollutants: Carbon Monoxide
Review… Cause: incomplete combustion Source: transportation sector, energy production, residential
heating units, some industrial processes Ambient concerns addressed by NAAQS OSHA (50 ppm avg over 8-hour period) CO contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone (refer to
ozone section) photochemical smog Otherwise, largely inert to plants and materials
PollutantPrimary
Stds.Averaging
TimesSecondary
Stds.
Carbon Monoxide
9 ppm 8-hour(1) None
(10 mg/m3)
35 ppm 1-hour(1) None
(40 mg/m3)
Criteria Air Pollutants: Lead (Pb)
Health effects in animals Domestic and wild Similar to humans
What would these include?
Slow vegetation growth Crop damage
http://www.eaglevalleyraptorcenter.org/rehabilitation.asp
http://www.unbc.ca/nlui/wildlife_diseases_bc/lead_poisoning.htm
Other Heavy Metals
Source: metal smelters Copper, zinc,
nickel Severe
vegetation destruction Including crops
Rock left barren by Nickel smelter emissions in the Sudbury area; Natural Resrouces Canadahttp://ess.nrcan.gc.ca/2002_2006/sdki/mine/geospatial_e.php
Area of forest where vegetation cover has colonized as a result of reduced emissions; Natural Resrouces Canadahttp://ess.nrcan.gc.ca/2002_2006/sdki/mine/geospatial_e.php
HAPs: Mercury Elemental Hg inhaled as a
vapor, absorbed by lungs Cause: vaporized mercury Sources: coal combustion,
accidental spill, mining Deposition in lakes, streams,
estuaries Biologically turned into
methylmercury Accumulation in fatty tissue Effects:
Progresses up food chain
http://www.friendsforourriverfront.org/2005/02/information-for-press-and-media.html
Some Florida Fish Advisories:Lake Alto (Alachua Co.): Children & Women of Childbearing Age should NOT eat Large Mouth Bass, Bowfin, or GarLake Disston (Flagler Co.): No one should eat Large Mouth Bass, Bowfin, or GarFrom coastal waters: No one should eat: Shark larger than 43 in.; King mackerel larger than 31 in.http://www.doh.state.fl.us/floridafishadvice/Fish_consumption_guide.pdf
HAPs: Dioxins
Generic term for several chemicals that are highly persistent in the environment
chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs)
chlorinated dibenzofurans (CDFs) certain polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) Cause: burning chlorine-based
compounds with hydrocarbons Sources: waste incinerator
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran
3,3',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobiphenyl
HAPs: Dioxins Airborne dioxins
deposit in environment Slowly decompose Taken up by animals
(domestic or wild) Accumulate in fat 95% of human dioxin
exposure through dietary intake of animal fats
Fish Consumption Advisory for Dioxins in Florida:
Do NOT Eat Checker Puffer Fish or Striped Mojarra from Wagner Creek in Miami-Dade County
http://www.doh.state.fl.us/floridafishadvice/Fish_consumption_guide.pdf
http://www.southfloridasportfishing.com/species2.cfm?c=v&n=91&ct=5&l=S
Fluoride Source: metal and stone processing,
fertilizer manufacturing Livestock damage
Used to cause most domestic animal damage of all air pollutants
Still a concern in developing countries
Intake from contaminated forage Fluorosis Chronic: dental and skeletal changes
Plant damage Uptake of gaseous HF through leaves Uptake of soluble particulates
through leaves/roots Accumulate in leaf margins and tips
Tip necrosis Glass etching
Fluorine damage in Dracina leaf; http://www.plantpath.wisc.edu/PDDCEducation/MasterGardener/General/Slide57.htm
Other Aerosols: Bioaerosols
Aerosols with organic origin
Non-viable: pollen, dander, insect excreta, sea salt
Viable: microorganisms Cause: aerosolization of
organic material Sources:
Human: sneezing, coughing, agriculture
Non-human: wind, waves, WWTP
Welfare Effects: crop, livestock damage, GEM, tourism
Mechanical aeration in oxidation ditch at UF WWTP
Other Aerosols: Bioaerosols
Crop Damage Fungi Irish Potato Famine
Fungi phytophthora infestans 500,000-1,000,000 people killed
between 1849-1846 2,000,000 refugees to England, US,
etc Livestock Damage
Close quarters Bovine Respiratory Disease
1999 Deaths: ~60% 1991 BRD deaths: $624 million
Genetically Engineered Crops Cross-pollination w/ non-GE crops Reduction of genetic diversity
allows for susceptibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Potato_Famine_%281845%E2%80%931849%29
Other Aerosols: Bioaerosols
Red tide Dinoflagellate produces toxin Broken in waves Toxin released Irritating
Woods Hole Oceanological Institutionhttp://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=9257
Tourism
Image courtesy of P. Schmidt, Charlotte (FL) Sun
Odors
Largely nuisance Common sources:
WWTP, pulp and paper mills, feedlots/livestock, rendering plants
Amines, sulfur gasses (H2S, mercaptans), phenol, NH3, aldehydes, fatty acidsPhoto by Kurt Hegre, the Fresno Bee, 2000
Ecosystem Destruction
Effects rarely isolated
Everything connected
Forest destruction Habitat
Animal death or bioaccumulation Food chain USGS South Florida Information Access
http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/fs/166-96/fig1.html
Economic Losses In light of the many welfare effects, in what ways could
these have an economic impact? Crop damage Livestock damage Property value
Odors, visibility, vegetation damage Structural and metal damage
Increased maintenance Cultural importance
Tourism National parks Cultural monuments
Losses due to illnesses (welfare effects from health effects)
No work Medical visit
And likely many more! Note: slide posted following lecture
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
San Joaquin Valley… Nation’s “Salad Bowl” Major transportation sector Western border: Coastal Range Eastern border: southern Sierra
Nevadas Yosemite, Kings Canyon,
Seqouia National Parks Winds enter through Bay Area Hot summers A few large cities: Bakersfield,
Fresno, Stockton, Modesto, Visalia
All cities <500,000 population Population growth: +20% from
’90 to ’00 Daily VMT: +25% from ’90 to
‘00
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
American Lung Association 2006 State of the Air Best and Worst Cities
http://lungaction.org/reports/sota06_cities.html
25 Most Ozone-Polluted Cities
2006 Rank1 Metropolitan Areas
11 Bakersfield,CA Bakersfield,CA
2 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside,CA
33 Visalia-Porterville,CA Visalia-Porterville,CA
44 Fresno-Madera,CA Fresno-Madera,CA
55 Merced,CA Merced,CA
6 Houston-Baytown-Huntsville,TX
7 Sacramento-Arden-Arcade-Truckee,CA-NV
8 Dallas-Fort Worth, TX
9 New York-Newark-Bridgeport, NY-NJ-CT-PA
10 Philadelphia-Camden-Vineland, PA-NJ-DE-MD
Metropolitan Areas Most Polluted by Year-Round Particle Pollution (Annual PM2.5)
2006 Rank1 Metropolitan Areas
1 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Rivereside, CA
22 Bakersfield, CA Bakersfield, CA
3 Pittsburgh-New Castle, PA
44 Visalia-Porterville, CA Visalia-Porterville, CA
55 Fresno-Madera, CA Fresno-Madera, CA
6 Detroit-Warren-Flint, MI
77 Hanford-Corcoran, CA Hanford-Corcoran, CA
8 Cleveland-Akron-Elyria, OH
9 Birmingham-Hoover-Cullman, AL
9 Atlanta-Sandy Springs-Gainesville, GA-AL
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
Some of the nation’s most polluted air Non-attainment for state or federal ozone and PM2.5
35-40 days exceeding federal ozone >100 days over CA ozone ~5 days exceeding federal PM2.5
90-100 days exceeding CA PM2.5
Largely rural ~3.5 million in entire valley (250 miles long by ~75 miles
wide) Compared to Miami-Dade/Broward/Palm Beach Counties:
5.4 million in area 110 miles long by 5-20 miles wide Why the San Joaquin Valley?
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
Group Activity… What are the likely sources
of pollutants in this valley? Why is it so bad in this
area? What are the likely health
effects of these pollutants? What are the likely welfare
effects of these pollutants?
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
What are the likely sources of pollutants in this valley?
Agriculture Fields - PM Burning – PM, NOx (O3), SOx, Airborne pesticide – PM, VOC
Transportation sector – PM, NOx (O3), SOx Interstate 5 and Highway 99 Increased commutes from Bay Area
Energy production/petroleum Note: slide posted following lecture
Far Top: www.thealpacastore.com/grapevinecam/
Top and Right: Photos by Tom Myershttp://www.tommyersphotography.com/detail.asp?PhotoID=2361http://www.tommyersphotography.com/detail.asp?PhotoID=2245http://www.tommyersphotography.com/detail.asp?PhotoID=2365&CtgryID=33&Child=
Oil Rigs near Bakersfield; http://www.ems.psu.edu/~elsworth/courses/cause2000/SemesterReports/NWmacrofinal/ff_petroleum.htm
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
Why is it so bad in this area? Geography
Winds Mountains
Bay Area and Sacramento sources
27% in north SJ Valley 7% in South SJ Valley
Hot, stagnant summers Normal high >95oF in
July/Aug Ozone formation
Note: slide posted following lecture
USDA 1972 at http://www.cbesurvey.org/aplv/panek/ozone.htm
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
What are the likely health effects of these pollutants?
San Joaquin County: 23.1% of children had lifetime asthma prevalence
Fresno County: highest childhood asthma rate in state
No. 1 reason for missing school 2006 Summer: 23 Spare the Air
Days Health Advisories common in
Valley 2002: 11+ 1998: 14
Note: slide posted following lecture
Courtesy NASA
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
What are the likely welfare effects of these pollutants?
Decreased visibility National parks
Sequoia one of worst polluted parks Decline of CA pines from O3 Pesticides Water acidification/eutrophication
Crop and livestock damage CARB estimates 10-20% crop
reduction for grapes, cotton, tomatoes, oranges, alfalfa
CARB estimates by reducing avg O3 to 0.025 ppm from current avg. of ~0.05 ppm, increase in up to 70% of yield for some crops with $1.5 billion in direct benefits
Note: Slide posted following lectureVisibility Impairment at El Capitan in Yosemite with Half Dome
in the background; http://epa.gov/air/visibility/parks/yosemite.html
Case Study: San Joaquin Valley
What are the likely welfare effects of these pollutants?
Medical care Missed work Less enjoyable lifestyle Note: slide posted
following lecture
Review of Lecture Welfare Effects
Criteria pollutants Purpose of primary standards Wide range of welfare effects
Crop/vegetation damage Livestock damage Building and material damage
HAPs Other aerosols Trickle effect of welfare effects
Ecosystem destruction Economic associations
Connections: Air is pervasive Effects are felt throughout world