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August 2007
Wind energy: A Compendium
Prepared for
Asian Development Bank
w w w . t e r i i n . o r g The Energy and Resources Institute
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2Wind energy: Trends and status
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Specifications Anemometers
Measurement range 0 m/s to 50 m/s
Starting threshold < 1 m/s
Operating temperature range -40C to 60C
Operating humidity range 0% to 100%
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3Wind energy: Trends and status
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Specifications Wind vane
Measurement range 0 to 360
Starting threshold < 0.1 m/s
Operating temperature range -40C to 60C
Operating humidity range 0% to 100%
System error < 5%
Recording resolution
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4Wind energy: Trends and status
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Wind resource map of East China
Figure 4 Wind Resource map of East China
Source: http://swera.unep.net/
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6Wind energy: Trends and status
Wind resource map of Sri Lanka
Figure 5 Wind Resource Map of Sri Lanka
Source: http://swera.unep.netI
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7Wind energy: Trends and status
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8Wind energy: Trends and status
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11Wind energy: Trends and status
Current status(4;;2
%
Table 3 Total installed capacity in various countries
Installed capacity(MW)
Rank Country 2005 2006
1 Germany 18,415 20,6222 Spain 10,028 11,615
3 United States 9,149 11,603
4 India 4,430 6,270
5 Denmark (incl. Faroe) 3,136 3,140
6 China 1,260 2,604
7 Italy 1,718 2,123
8 United Kingdom 1,332 1,963
9 Portugal 1,022 1,716
10 France 757 1,567
11 Netherlands 1,219 1,560
12 Canada 683 1,459
13 Japan 1,061 1,39414 Austria 819 965
15 Australia 708 817
16 Greece 573 746
17 Ireland 496 745
18 Sweden 510 572
19 Norway 267 314
20 Brazil 29 237
21 Egypt 145 230
22 Belgium 167 193
23 Taiwan 104 188
24 South Korea 98 173
25 New Zealand 169 17126 Poland 83 153
27 Morocco 64 124
28 Mexico 3 88
29 Finland 82 86
30 Ukraine 77 86
31 Costa Rica 71 74
32 Hungary 18 61
33 Lithuania 6 55
34 Turkey 20 51
35 Czech Republic 28 50
36 Iran 23 48
Rest of Europe 129 163Rest of Americas 109 109
Rest of Asia 38 38
Rest of Africa & MiddleEast
31 31
Rest of Oceania 12 12
World total 59,091 74,223
)+,
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12Wind energy: Trends and status
Asian installed Wind power capacity
0
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13Wind energy: Trends and status
Figure 142":(
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Table 4 Technical details of wind turbines
ModelREpower
5M
Vestas
V120
Multibrid
M5000
Enercon
E-112
Siemens
3.6 MW
GE Energy
3.6s
Rated
capacity5.0 MW 4.5 MW 5.0 MW 4.5 MW 3.6 MW 3.6 MW
Rotor
diameter126 m 120 m 116 m 114 m 107 m 104 m
Swept area 12.469 m2 11.310 m2 10.568 m2 10.207 m2 8.992 m2 8.495 m2
Gearbox 3-step 3-step 1-step - 3-step 3-step
Generatorasynchronous generator
(doubly fed)
asynchronous generator
(doubly fed)
permanent-
magnet
synchronous
generator
synchronous
generator
asynchronou
s generator
asynchronous generator
(doubly fed)
Weight
Rotor blade 17.8 t 12.3 t 16.5 t 21 t 16 t N.A.
Rotor with
hub120 t 65 t 110 t N.A. 90 t 85 t
Nacelle 290 t 145 t 200 t N.A. 120 t 210 t
Nacelle +
Rotor410 t 210 t 310 t 500 t 210 t 295 t
Tower 750 t 220 t 1.138 t 2.500 t 250 t 250 t
Hub height 120 m 90 m 102 m 124 m 80 m 76.5 m
In operation
since2004 2007 2004 2002 2004 2004
Specific
power401 W/m2 398 W/m2 473 W/m2 441 W/m2 400 W/m2 424 W/m2
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14Wind energy: Trends and status
Research and development
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Part Title Status Publication Date
1 Design requirements (Ed. 3.0) Available 2005-082 Design requirements for small wind turbines (Ed. 2.0) Available 2003-06
3 Design requirements for offshore wind turbinesWork in
Progress-
4 Design and specifications of gearboxesWork in
Progress-
11 Acoustic noise measurement techniques (Ed. 2.0) Available 2002-12
12 Wind turbine power performance testing Available 2005-12
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15Wind energy: Trends and status
Part Title Status Publication Date
13 Measurement of mechanical loads Available 2001-06
14 Declaration of apparent sound power level and tonality values Available 2005-03
21Measurement and assessment of power quality characteristics of
grid connected wind turbinesAvailable 2001-12
22 Certification of wind turbines Rules and ProceduresWork in
Progress-
23 Full-scale structural testing of rotor blades Available 2001-04
24 Lightning protection Available 2002-07
25 Communications for monitoring and control of wind power plants Work inProgress
-
Source: http://www.iec.ch
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Constant-Speed Wind Turbines Variable-Speed Wind Turbines Direct-Drive Wind Turbines Advanced Wind Turbines
Feature and Advantages
Technology
Characterization
Tubular rolled steel tower. Off-
the-shelf gearbox and induction
generator. Digital controls and
SCADA system
Tubular rolled steel tower. Double
high speed gearbox shaft. Off-the-
shelf induction generator. Digital
controls and SCADA system.
Tubular rolled steel tower. No
gearbox, reduced cost. Low-
speed direct-drive generator.
Improved controls and
SCADA.
Tubular steel or composite
tower. No conventional
gearbox. Advanced low-
speed generator drive.
Advanced controls and
SCADA.
Efficiency Limited by fixed generator
speed.
Slightly greater due to variable
generator speed
Slightly greater due to variable
generator speed
Slightly greater due to
variable generator speed
Re s Remote sites w/ PNL Class 4 or
greater wind speed near
transmission lines
Remote sites w/PNL Class 4 or
greater wind speed near
transmission lines
Remote sites w/PNL Class 4 or
greater wind speed near
transmission lines
Remote sites w/PNL Class
3 or greater wind speed
near transmission lines
Challenges and Disadvantages
Cost Design for fluctuating torque
load increases cost
Full-span pitch control and power
electronics increase cost
Weight and cost of low-speed
generator offset by absence of
gearbox
Optimize design to minimize
cost
Operation Fatigue failure of parts due tofluctuating wind and torque
loads
Complexity of full-span pitch controlsincreases maintenance cost
Durability of low-speed turbineunder fluctuating loads
Optimize design to minimizeO&M cost and maximize
reliability
Technology
Needs
Design for extreme loads to
handle wind gusts
Solid-state power electronics Low-speed generator design,
new control system
Optimization for reliability
and low cost
Costs
Equipment $680/kW $700/kW $650-$750/kW < $600/kW
Relative O & M $16kW/yr $23/kW/yr $15k-$16k/kW/yr $15k/kW/yr
Busbar 3.5-5.5kWh 3.5-5.5/kWh 3.0-5.0/kWh 2-4/kWh
Development Timeframe
Research 1970-1985 1985-1993 1992-1995 1994-2002
Development
Timeframe
1980-present 1991-1995 1994-1999 1995-2004
Demonstration 1980s 1992 1994-1999 2001-2006
Commercialization ~ 1980 1993-present 1996-present 2007Markets
Key Issues Structural and load-bearing
component reliability. Cost of
energy. Moderate cost reduces
prospects in competitive market.
Complex control system, power
electronics, component reliability.
Moderate cost reduces prospects in
competitive market.
Complex control system,
power electronics, cost and
reliability of new generator.
Lower cost improves prospects
in competitive market.
Reliability, cost of energy,
Low cost likely to result in
significant market.
Impact on Established and mature: Established: Enhanced performance Maturing: reduced cost would Emerging: low cost would
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16Wind energy: Trends and status
Constant-Speed Wind Turbines Variable-Speed Wind Turbines Direct-Drive Wind Turbines Advanced Wind Turbines
Technology
Outlook
dominant market share in U.S. leading to growing market share
worldwide.
improve worldwide market. result in large worldwide
market.
Source: Renewable energy technology assessment guide 2004
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Table 7 Global Wind Energy Outlook
Global wind energy outlook for 2030 Global wind energy outlook for 2050
Global scenario Reference Moderate Advance Reference Moderate Advance
Cumulative wind power capacity (GW) 364 1129 2107 577 1557 3010
Electricity Output (TWh) 892 2769 5179 1517 4092 7911
Percentage of world electricity (High
energy efficiency)
5 15.6 29.1 6.6 17.7 34.3
Annual Installed capacity(GW) 24.8 58.3 129.2 34.3 71 168.6
Annual Investment (Euro bn) 21.2 45 84.8 28.8 54.2 112
Jobs (million) 0.48 1.14 1.44 0.65 1.39 2.8
Annual CO2 Saving
(million tonnes)
535 1661 3100 910 2455 4747
Source : Global Wind Outlook 2006
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Reference
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Advanced
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Reference
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Advanced
Reference
Moderate
Advanced
Reference
Moderate
Advanced
2005 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Years
MW
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17Wind energy: Trends and status
Major players(&;,(,!(
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Table 8 Market share in 2006
Supplier Country MW Share (%)
Vestas Denmark 4239 28.2
Gamesa Spain 2346 15.6
GE Energy USA 2326 15.5
Enercon Germany 2316 15.4
Suzlon India 1157 7.7
Siemens Germany 1103 7.3
Nordex Germany 505 3.4
Repower Germany 480 3.2
Acciona Spain 426 2.8
Goldwind China 416 2.8: Sun & Wind 2/2007
Small wind turbines
Source : http://www.smallwindenergy.ca
Figure 16 Small wind turbine
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18Wind energy: Trends and status
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19Wind energy: Trends and status
Typical power curve for small wind turbines
Source : www.omafra.gov.on.ca
Figure 17 Typical power curve for small wind turbines
Applications0,(A
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Table 9 Applications of small wind turbines
Small Wind Turbine Category
Battery Charging & Light
Seasonal Loads
Residential & Heavy Seasonal
Loads
Commercial, Institutional, Farms,
and Remote Communities
Typical power rating up to 1000 W 1-30 kW 30-300 kW
Typical grid connectivity Mostly off-grid, some on-grid Mostly On-grid*, Some Off-grid On-grid*, Isolated-grid, or Off-grid
Typical applications Mobile uses (sailboats,
recreational vehicles, etc.)
Seasonal applications
(small cottages, hunting
lodges, etc.)
Rural & 'urban perimeter'residential homes (small
loads)
Specialty power s (radar
and telecomm devices,
measurement instruments,
Cathodic protection,
remote weather stations, etc.)
Commercial parks & camps
Electric fencing
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large lot sizes (usually >1 acre)
On-grid rural houses with
large lot sizes (usually >1 acre)
where DC appliances are driven
by wind turbine/batteries or wheresome electricity is stored on the
grid through Net Metering
Larger cottages or hunting
lodges with significant share of
electricity from wind
On-grid or isolated-grid
large farms
Off-grid small farms where
small wind complements a diesel
generator set and/or solar
photovoltaic On- or off-grid commercial
or institutional buildings
Isolated-grid communities
where wind is complemented by
diesel generators and/or other s
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20Wind energy: Trends and status
Costs(';((,(
Table 10 Cost Comparison of small wind turbine
Small wind turbine category
Typical power rating 300 to 1,000 W Above 1 kW to 30 kW Above 30 kW to 300 kW
Average capital cost of turbine $2352/kW $2520/kW $1848/kW
Average total installed cost $4200-$5376/kW $5040/kW $2772/kW
Average annual operations & maintenance $33.6-109.2/yr $966/yr $2772/yr
Typical installation by User Professional Professional
Typical lifetime** 10-15 yrs 20 yrs 25 yrs with major
component replacement
typically after 15 yrs
Source: http://www.smallwindenergy.ca ; $= US dollar as in 2004
Major barriersE;0(>:>
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Table 11 Result of survey carried out by AWEA to analyse potential barriers for
small scale wind turbine growth.
Source : AWEA small wind turbine global market study 2007
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21Wind energy: Trends and status
Regional status
Installed and proposed wind power capacity in Australia0(%0
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State
Proposed wind generating
capacity (MW)
New South Wales 1,193
Victoria 2,010
Queensland 176
South Australia 1,986
Western Australia 243
Tasmania 555
Australia 6,163Source: www.wikipedia.com
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13.07%
24.41%
58.78%
1.76%
1.62%0.36%
Japan China India Taiwan South Korea Rest of Asia
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22Wind energy: Trends and status
Case studies
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23Wind energy: Trends and status
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24Wind energy: Trends and status
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25Wind energy: Trends and status
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26Wind energy: Trends and status
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27Wind energy: Trends and status
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Table 13 Small wind turbine manufacturersCompany Country
Electrovent Canada
Cyclone China
Windmission Denmark
Oy Windside Production Finland
Vaigunth EnerTek (P) India
Fortis Netherlands
African Wind Power South Africa
J.Bornay Aerogeneradores Spain
Marlec Engineering Co. UK
Proven Engineering Products Ltd (Proven Energy) UK
Aeromax US
Southwest Windpower US
Thermodyne Systems US
Bergey Wind Power Co. US
Unitron Energy India
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28Wind energy: Trends and status
References' F(:C+%:
Bibliography
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