Women & Politics and Gender in the Middle East
Religious Women’s Attires
Niqab—Saudi Arabia, Yemen, elsewhere
Chador—Iran & some other Shi`a communities Burqa--Afghanistan
Hijab--Rest of MENA
Interpretations of the Veil• Restrictive device so men can control (dominant Orientalist notion)
• Indicative of class, age, ethnicity, or region (Yemen reading)
• Veil as a tool of control by the state to advertise power of their belief systems (Tunisia restrictions, Kuwait (10/09) requires it… being challenged)
• Expression of opposition to reduce the leverage of the occupier (ex: Algeria)
• Protection from harassment and interference by others. Statement not to be objectified. No object for consumerism.
• Statement of identity, especially where Muslims are minority
• Social empowerment – control over oneself. Choice.
Huda Sha’arawi
Patriarchy• a system that privileges males and elders and justifies this
privilege in kinship terms. This gives males legal and economic power over family members.
• Extension of male dominance over women in society in general.
• Represents a gender and age hierarchy based on the household as a productive unit, has been seriously challenged in recent decades by social transformations
• Androcentrism – an ontology in which ‘the masculine’ is at the center and ‘the feminine’ is peripheral.
– Males are the focus of one’s world view and understanding of culture and history, while women are understood in relation to males.
• Patrilineality, Patrilocality, Endogamy
Patriarchal system• Public:
– Public office– Court testimony– Dress codes– Segregated work spaces– Legal limitations on movement
• Private (mostly personal status): – Child custody– Divorce/marriage laws– Inheritance– Freedom of movement & employment– Honor killings
Factors that Erode Patriarchy
• Wage labor opportunities outside household
• Breakup of extended family (patrilocality)
• Increasing age of marriage
• Inter-marriage (vs. endogamy)
• Rise in education levels
• Rural to urban migration
• Quotas in legislatures
Women in Islam• Adam & Eve created together (Eve not sole receiver of blame)
• Female infanticide prohibited by Islam
• Limits marriage to four women by men – if treated equally
• Women negotiate contract of marriage (legal contract vs. sacrament)
• Marriage gift goes to wife, not family (mahr)
• Women’s right to refuse prospective husband
• Women have right to own and inherit property
• Women can not lead prayer
• Women’s restrictions on divorce (justified to Qadi)
• Women worth half of a witness in court
How are women involved in political processes in MENA?
Symbols of national honor Often mothers creating power in numbers
Fighters supporting national liberation & revolutionary movements
Women’s branches of political parties Members of political parties & Groups Women’s organizations created in state institutions Participation in independent organizations (charitable
societies and NGOs)
Islamic and Secular Feminisms
• Secular Feminism: – Authentic as indigenous, but often seen as imposed– Some conflict w/ Islamic feminism
• Claim of Superiority – “culture of misery” in discourse rejects Agency
– Passive, docile, victim
• Ex: N.O.W. during Gulf War• “Excessive covering” vs. Material Exploitation
– Is one more repulsive or unforgivable than the other?
• Key Question: what are the best approaches to bring about policies of equal rights for women in Islamic states and other Muslim communities?•The Activist’s Paradox (apologetic/complacent vs. Arab-bashing ‘self-hatred’)
Islamic and Secular Feminisms (cont.)
• Islamic Feminism:– Movement aimed at equal rights and legal protection of
women rooted in Islamic discourse• Emphasize teachings of equality in Qu’ran, Hadith
– Engagement with Islam is necessary in societies where many laws on personal status are based on religion (shari’a)
– Mostly educated, professional women & therefore cannot be easily dismissed as irrelevant by secular feminists
– Increasing visibility in mass media (previously domain of secular, middle-class women)
• Key Question: what are the best approaches to bring about policies of equal rights for women in Islamic states and other Muslim communities?
Readings Discussion on Sexuality
• Asad AbuKhalil• Characteristics of Present-day sexism•Persistence of Male dominance•Women missing from public space•Tolerance of homosexuality
• Bruce Dunne “sexuality in political culture”
• Dialmy – Contradictions and contraception
• Suad Joseph – the nation-state and Gender• Pre-colonial and post-colonial• Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
The MENA region