WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD
Kate Harwood
Bachelor of Science (Hons)
This thesis is presented in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy/Master of Psychology (Clinical) of The University of Western Australia,
School of Psychology, 2004.
ABSTRACT
The transition to parenthood places a number of emotional, physical, and
cognitive demands on individuals. It is also a role that many individuals choose, enjoy,
and derive benefit from. This research examined how women’s parenting expectations
influence their adjustment to parenthood. Taylor & Brown (1988, 1994) suggest that
unrealistically optimistic expectations are associated with positive psychological
adjustment. However, research examining adjustment during the transition to
parenthood has demonstrated that unrealistic expectations pertaining to some aspects of
parenthood can have a negative effect on adjustment (Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble,
1992). The primary aims of this thesis were to examine the relationship between
optimistic expectations and adjustment, taking into account a broader range of
expectations than previous work, and to examine how adjustment is influenced if
expectations are overly optimistic relative to experiences.
In Study 1, a measure of parenting expectations was developed. The measure
assesses four categories of expectations: infant expectations, self expectations, partner
expectations, and social expectations. Initial testing with pregnant women (n = 87)
indicated that the measure had sound reliability and validity. Study 2 used this measure
to examine the relationship between expectations and adjustment in first-time mothers
(n = 71) who were assessed pre and post delivery. Optimistic prenatal expectations
were associated with positive relationship adjustment, high parenting efficacy, and high
perceived social support. On average, positive prenatal expectations were matched or
exceeded by maternal reports of experiences four months after births of their infants.
However, experiences that were negative relative to expectations were associated with
lower postnatal mood and poorer postnatal relationship adjustment. These relationships
were moderated by parenting self-efficacy beliefs. The results from Study 2 suggest
that, while for many women parenthood is a positive experience, for some, it is not as
III
positive as expected and this has a negative effect on their adjustment. While optimism
may be associated with positive adjustment during pregnancy, it may be hazardous if it
is unrealistic in comparison to experiences.
Studies 3 and 4 examined factors that may influence the formulation of
optimistic expectations. Expectations may be particularly likely to become
unrealistically optimistic when an individual is faced with an imminent challenge.
Study 3 examined the expectations of a group of non-pregnant women (n = 85) who
wanted to have children in the future but were not facing the imminent challenges of
childbirth and parenthood. These women also had positive expectations of parenthood,
although they were significantly less positive than pregnant women. Study 4 examined
how parenthood is presented in the media as a means of gaining insight into the
information used by expectant parents and the cultural context within which parenting
expectations are formulated. A content analysis of parenting magazines revealed that
images of parenting are overwhelmingly positive.
The findings of this thesis further existing knowledge of factors that influence
the transition to parenthood. The findings elucidate the consequences of optimistic
expectations and disconfirmed expectations on adjustment to parenthood, and have
implications more broadly for understanding of how expectations of future life events
influence adjustment. The current research also informed of the broader cultural
context that may influence women’s parenting expectations.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………III
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………X
CHAPTER 1
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD ………………………………………1
CHAPTER 2
THE EFFECT OF EXPECTATIONS ON ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD 12
Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………………………13
Negative Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………15
Depressive Realism ………………………………………………………………16
Positive Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………18
The Psychological Consequences of Disconfirmed Expectations ………………22
Coping with Disconfirmed Expectations ………………………………………25
Self-Efficacy Beliefs ………………………………………………………………27
Summary ………………………………………………………………………30
Expectations of Parenthood ………………………………………………………31
Parenting Self-Efficacy Beliefs ………………………………………………40
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………45
CHAPTER 3
STUDY 1: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASURE OF PARENTING
EXPECTATIONS ………………………………………………………………49
Method ………………………………………………………………………55
Participants ………………………………………………………………………55
Measures ………………………………………………………………………56
Parenting Expectations Measure ………………………………………56
MAMA (Kumar, Robson, & Smith, 1984) ………………………………58
Procedure ………………………………………………………………………58
Results ………………………………………………………………………59
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………68
V
CHAPTER 4
STUDY 2: FIRST TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PARENTHOOD:
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN OPTIMISTIC EXPECTATIONS ARE NOT MATCHED
BY LATER EXPERIENCES? …………………………………………………71
Method …………………………………………………………………………74
Participants …………………………………………………………………………74
Procedure …………………………………………………………………………75
Measures …………………………………………………………………………76
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987) …76
Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman,
1978, as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989) …………………………………76
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976) …………………………………77
Social Provisions Scale (Russell & Cutrona, 1984) …………………………77
Parenting Expectations Measure …………………………………………77
Results …………………………………………………………………………78
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures …………………………78
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations …80
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on
Adjustment to Parenthood …………………………………………………………81
Postnatal relationship adjustment …………………………………………84
Postnatal mood …………………………………………………………86
Discussion …………………………………………………………………………88
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures …………………………88
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations …90
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on
Adjustment …………………………………………………………………………92
Implications …………………………………………………………………………96
CHAPTER 5
STUDY 3: YOUNG WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS …………………99
Goals of the Present Study ………………………………………………………..104
Method ………………………………………………………………………..106
Participants ………………………………………………………………………..106
Procedure ………………………………………………………………………..107
Materials ………………………………………………………………………..108
Results ………………………………………………………………………..110
VI
Comparison Between the Pregnant Women and the University Women ………..110
Effects of Age, Relationship Status, and Education on Plans for Children and
Expectations in the University Women ………………………………………...110
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………...113
CHAPTER 6
STUDY 4: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF IMAGES IN PARENTING
MAGAZINES ………………………………………………………………………...119
Women’s Media Use and Perceptions of Media Pertaining to Pregnancy and
Parenting ………………………………………………………………………...124
Method ………………………………………………………………………...124
Participants ………………………………………………………………...124
Procedure ………………………………………………………………...124
Results ………………………………………………………………………………...125
Content Analysis ………………………………………………………………...126
Method ………………………………………………………………………...126
Sample ………………………………………………………………………...126
Procedure ………………………………………………………………...128
Image type and accompanying content/advertisement ………...128
Individuals present in photograph ………………………………...128
Affect ………………………………………………………………...129
Ethnicity ………………………………………………………...129
Appearance ………………………………………………………...129
Behaviour ………………………………………………………...129
Reliability ………………………………………………………………...129
Results ………………………………………………………………………………...130
Image Characteristics ………………………………………………………...130
Parent and Infant Affect ………………………………………………...130
Division of Caregiving Responsibility Between Parents and Others ………...130
Physical Appearance of Key Figures ………………………………………...132
Clothing and grooming ………………………………………...132
Ethnicity ………………………………………………………...133
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………...134
CHAPTER 7
GENERAL DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………...141
VII
The Relationship Between Expectations and Adjustment to Parenthood ………...141
Optimistic Parenting Expectations in a Broader Context ………………………...147
General Conclusions ………………………………………………………………...150
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………...157
APPENDIX A ………………………………………………………………………...178
APPENDIX B ………………………………………………………………………...188
APPENDIX C …………………………………………………………………….…..205
APPENDIX D ………………………………………………………………………...227
APPENDIX E ………………………………………………………………………...249
APPENDIX F ………………………………………………………………………...259
VIII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Means for participants’ responses on the expectation items and
correlation coefficients between scores for each item the total scores for
the questionnaire ………………………………………………….61
Table 4.1 Means and t-test results for differences between expectations and
adjustment measures at prenatal and postnatal test phases …….……79
Table 4.2 Results from the multiple regressions analysing the relationship between
prenatal adjustment measures and parenting expectations …………80
Table 4.3 Bivariate correlations between independent and dependent variables used
in hierarchical regression categories …………………………………83
Table 4.4 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which
discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences
predicted postnatal relationship adjustment, the dependent variable …85
Table 4.5 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which
discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences
predicted postnatal mood, the dependent variable …………………87
Table 5.1 Demographic variables for pregnant women and university women ..109
Table 5.2 Means, standard deviations, and results of the between subjects
comparisons for the expectations scores in the pregnant sample (n = 71)
and the university sample (n = 79) ………………………………...111
Table 5.3 Means and standard deviations for university participants’ ages and their
estimates of the number of years until they would have children ..112
Table 6.1 Means and standard deviations for women’s impression of media
pertaining to pregnancy and parenting ………………………..127
Table 6.2 Parent behaviour categories used in the content analysis ………..130
Table 6.3 Percentages for emotions displayed by mothers, fathers, and infants in
magazine images ………………………………………………..132
Table 6.4 Percentages for parent behaviours in the magazine images ………..133
Table 6.5 Percentages for clothing and grooming variables for mothers and
fathers …….…………………………………………………………..134
Table A1 Items used in the development of the parenting expectations measure and
the sources of those items ………………………………………...181
IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the women who participated in this research and gave their
time during a very busy period in their lives. I am also appreciative of the staff at
Bentley Hospital, Joondalup Health Campus, and Osborne Park Hospital, and Dr Louise
Farrell, who assisted with the recruitment of participants for this research.
A big thank you to my supervisors, Kevin Durkin and Neil McLean, for all of
their encouragement, support, good advice, and helpful ideas over the years.
Thanks to Dana and Mark who have been encouraging, supportive, and
entertaining office mates and friends. Sharing an office with you is one of the things
that I will miss the most about my PhD. I’d also like to thank my other friends who
have been sources of inspiration, advice, motivation, and support – in particular,
Allyson, Justine, Lisa, Liz, and Seonaid.
Thanks to my parents for their unconditional love and for always supporting me
in the pursuit of my dreams. Finally, thanks to Bruce for putting up with me while I’ve
been writing my PhD and for his love and support.
X
WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD
Kate Harwood
Bachelor of Science (Hons)
This thesis is presented in partial fulfillment of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy/Master of Psychology (Clinical) of The University of Western Australia,
School of Psychology, 2004.
ABSTRACT
The transition to parenthood places a number of emotional, physical, and
cognitive demands on individuals. It is also a role that many individuals choose, enjoy,
and derive benefit from. This research examined how women’s parenting expectations
influence their adjustment to parenthood. Taylor & Brown (1988, 1994) suggest that
unrealistically optimistic expectations are associated with positive psychological
adjustment. However, research examining adjustment during the transition to
parenthood has demonstrated that unrealistic expectations pertaining to some aspects of
parenthood can have a negative effect on adjustment (Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble,
1992). The primary aims of this thesis were to examine the relationship between
optimistic expectations and adjustment, taking into account a broader range of
expectations than previous work, and to examine how adjustment is influenced if
expectations are overly optimistic relative to experiences.
In Study 1, a measure of parenting expectations was developed. The measure
assesses four categories of expectations: infant expectations, self expectations, partner
expectations, and social expectations. Initial testing with pregnant women (n = 87)
indicated that the measure had sound reliability and validity. Study 2 used this measure
to examine the relationship between expectations and adjustment in first-time mothers
(n = 71) who were assessed pre and post delivery. Optimistic prenatal expectations
were associated with positive relationship adjustment, high parenting efficacy, and high
perceived social support. On average, positive prenatal expectations were matched or
exceeded by maternal reports of experiences four months after births of their infants.
However, experiences that were negative relative to expectations were associated with
lower postnatal mood and poorer postnatal relationship adjustment. These relationships
were moderated by parenting self-efficacy beliefs. The results from Study 2 suggest
that, while for many women parenthood is a positive experience, for some, it is not as
III
positive as expected and this has a negative effect on their adjustment. While optimism
may be associated with positive adjustment during pregnancy, it may be hazardous if it
is unrealistic in comparison to experiences.
Studies 3 and 4 examined factors that may influence the formulation of
optimistic expectations. Expectations may be particularly likely to become
unrealistically optimistic when an individual is faced with an imminent challenge.
Study 3 examined the expectations of a group of non-pregnant women (n = 85) who
wanted to have children in the future but were not facing the imminent challenges of
childbirth and parenthood. These women also had positive expectations of parenthood,
although they were significantly less positive than pregnant women. Study 4 examined
how parenthood is presented in the media as a means of gaining insight into the
information used by expectant parents and the cultural context within which parenting
expectations are formulated. A content analysis of parenting magazines revealed that
images of parenting are overwhelmingly positive.
The findings of this thesis further existing knowledge of factors that influence
the transition to parenthood. The findings elucidate the consequences of optimistic
expectations and disconfirmed expectations on adjustment to parenthood, and have
implications more broadly for understanding of how expectations of future life events
influence adjustment. The current research also informed of the broader cultural
context that may influence women’s parenting expectations.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………III
LIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………X
CHAPTER 1
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD ………………………………………1
CHAPTER 2
THE EFFECT OF EXPECTATIONS ON ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD 12
Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………………………13
Negative Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………15
Depressive Realism ………………………………………………………………16
Positive Expectations and Psychological Adjustment ………………………18
The Psychological Consequences of Disconfirmed Expectations ………………22
Coping with Disconfirmed Expectations ………………………………………25
Self-Efficacy Beliefs ………………………………………………………………27
Summary ………………………………………………………………………30
Expectations of Parenthood ………………………………………………………31
Parenting Self-Efficacy Beliefs ………………………………………………40
Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………45
CHAPTER 3
STUDY 1: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASURE OF PARENTING
EXPECTATIONS ………………………………………………………………49
Method ………………………………………………………………………55
Participants ………………………………………………………………………55
Measures ………………………………………………………………………56
Parenting Expectations Measure ………………………………………56
MAMA (Kumar, Robson, & Smith, 1984) ………………………………58
Procedure ………………………………………………………………………58
Results ………………………………………………………………………59
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………68
V
CHAPTER 4
STUDY 2: FIRST TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PARENTHOOD:
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN OPTIMISTIC EXPECTATIONS ARE NOT MATCHED
BY LATER EXPERIENCES? …………………………………………………71
Method …………………………………………………………………………74
Participants …………………………………………………………………………74
Procedure …………………………………………………………………………75
Measures …………………………………………………………………………76
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987) …76
Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman,
1978, as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989) …………………………………76
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976) …………………………………77
Social Provisions Scale (Russell & Cutrona, 1984) …………………………77
Parenting Expectations Measure …………………………………………77
Results …………………………………………………………………………78
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures …………………………78
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations …80
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on
Adjustment to Parenthood …………………………………………………………81
Postnatal relationship adjustment …………………………………………84
Postnatal mood …………………………………………………………86
Discussion …………………………………………………………………………88
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures …………………………88
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations …90
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on
Adjustment …………………………………………………………………………92
Implications …………………………………………………………………………96
CHAPTER 5
STUDY 3: YOUNG WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS …………………99
Goals of the Present Study ………………………………………………………..104
Method ………………………………………………………………………..106
Participants ………………………………………………………………………..106
Procedure ………………………………………………………………………..107
Materials ………………………………………………………………………..108
Results ………………………………………………………………………..110
VI
Comparison Between the Pregnant Women and the University Women ………..110
Effects of Age, Relationship Status, and Education on Plans for Children and
Expectations in the University Women ………………………………………...110
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………...113
CHAPTER 6
STUDY 4: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF IMAGES IN PARENTING
MAGAZINES ………………………………………………………………………...119
Women’s Media Use and Perceptions of Media Pertaining to Pregnancy and
Parenting ………………………………………………………………………...124
Method ………………………………………………………………………...124
Participants ………………………………………………………………...124
Procedure ………………………………………………………………...124
Results ………………………………………………………………………………...125
Content Analysis ………………………………………………………………...126
Method ………………………………………………………………………...126
Sample ………………………………………………………………………...126
Procedure ………………………………………………………………...128
Image type and accompanying content/advertisement ………...128
Individuals present in photograph ………………………………...128
Affect ………………………………………………………………...129
Ethnicity ………………………………………………………...129
Appearance ………………………………………………………...129
Behaviour ………………………………………………………...129
Reliability ………………………………………………………………...129
Results ………………………………………………………………………………...130
Image Characteristics ………………………………………………………...130
Parent and Infant Affect ………………………………………………...130
Division of Caregiving Responsibility Between Parents and Others ………...130
Physical Appearance of Key Figures ………………………………………...132
Clothing and grooming ………………………………………...132
Ethnicity ………………………………………………………...133
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………...134
CHAPTER 7
GENERAL DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………...141
VII
The Relationship Between Expectations and Adjustment to Parenthood ………...141
Optimistic Parenting Expectations in a Broader Context ………………………...147
General Conclusions ………………………………………………………………...150
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………...157
APPENDIX A ………………………………………………………………………...178
APPENDIX B ………………………………………………………………………...188
APPENDIX C …………………………………………………………………….…..205
APPENDIX D ………………………………………………………………………...227
APPENDIX E ………………………………………………………………………...249
APPENDIX F ………………………………………………………………………...259
VIII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Means for participants’ responses on the expectation items and
correlation coefficients between scores for each item the total scores for
the questionnaire ………………………………………………….61
Table 4.1 Means and t-test results for differences between expectations and
adjustment measures at prenatal and postnatal test phases …….……79
Table 4.2 Results from the multiple regressions analysing the relationship between
prenatal adjustment measures and parenting expectations …………80
Table 4.3 Bivariate correlations between independent and dependent variables used
in hierarchical regression categories …………………………………83
Table 4.4 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which
discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences
predicted postnatal relationship adjustment, the dependent variable …85
Table 4.5 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which
discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences
predicted postnatal mood, the dependent variable …………………87
Table 5.1 Demographic variables for pregnant women and university women ..109
Table 5.2 Means, standard deviations, and results of the between subjects
comparisons for the expectations scores in the pregnant sample (n = 71)
and the university sample (n = 79) ………………………………...111
Table 5.3 Means and standard deviations for university participants’ ages and their
estimates of the number of years until they would have children ..112
Table 6.1 Means and standard deviations for women’s impression of media
pertaining to pregnancy and parenting ………………………..127
Table 6.2 Parent behaviour categories used in the content analysis ………..130
Table 6.3 Percentages for emotions displayed by mothers, fathers, and infants in
magazine images ………………………………………………..132
Table 6.4 Percentages for parent behaviours in the magazine images ………..133
Table 6.5 Percentages for clothing and grooming variables for mothers and
fathers …….…………………………………………………………..134
Table A1 Items used in the development of the parenting expectations measure and
the sources of those items ………………………………………...181
IX
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the women who participated in this research and gave their
time during a very busy period in their lives. I am also appreciative of the staff at
Bentley Hospital, Joondalup Health Campus, and Osborne Park Hospital, and Dr Louise
Farrell, who assisted with the recruitment of participants for this research.
A big thank you to my supervisors, Kevin Durkin and Neil McLean, for all of
their encouragement, support, good advice, and helpful ideas over the years.
Thanks to Dana and Mark who have been encouraging, supportive, and
entertaining office mates and friends. Sharing an office with you is one of the things
that I will miss the most about my PhD. I’d also like to thank my other friends who
have been sources of inspiration, advice, motivation, and support – in particular,
Allyson, Justine, Lisa, Liz, and Seonaid.
Thanks to my parents for their unconditional love and for always supporting me
in the pursuit of my dreams. Finally, thanks to Bruce for putting up with me while I’ve
been writing my PhD and for his love and support.
X
CHAPTER 1
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD
Becoming a parent represents one of the most important developmental
transitions of adulthood and the way in which individuals make this transition has
implications for themselves and their children. It is a transition that will influence all
individuals at some point - either because they are parents, will become parents, or have
been parented. Becoming a parent is often a much anticipated event. It can change
individuals’ lives dramatically and brings a range of challenges and rewards.
This thesis focuses on women’s expectations of this transition and the ways in
which these expectations influence their adjustment to parenthood. One of the central
questions of this thesis is: is it more adaptive to be optimistic in the face of uncertain
circumstances or is it better to anticipate some difficulties? This question is explored
with reference to the transition to parenthood, focussing on the period from the late
stages of pregnancy to the early months of parenthood.
The study of life transitions enables understanding of the psychological factors
that influence the particular transition. Moreover, the study of life transitions allows
exploration of psychological phenomena in naturalistic rather than experimental settings
(Ruble & Seidman, 1996). Thus, exploration of expectations during the transition to
parenthood should contribute to our understanding of how expectations about life events
influence psychological adjustment generally, as well as factors associated with
psychological adjustment during the transition to an important life role – parenthood.
This chapter will briefly review the literature pertaining to the main findings on how the
transition to parenthood influences psychological adjustment. It will then outline the
contents of this thesis, including the aims of each of the studies to be reported.
One of the ironies of the transition to parenthood is that at a time when new
parents are the least experienced in their role; their child is at its most demanding.
1
Human infants are completely dependent on their caregivers for survival and require
constant care. This means that new parents are faced with “unrelenting parenting
demands” (Lovejoy, Graczyk, O’Hare, & Neuman, 2000; p. 567) and must develop a
range of new skills in order to cater to these demands. Furthermore, because infancy is
a time of rapid growth and development, parents must continually adapt their skills in
order to provide care that is appropriate for their child’s developmental stage. Adding
to the challenge, new parents often obtain these skills in a context of sleep deprivation.
Most infants’ sleep patterns diverge from those of their parents, meaning that parents’
own sleep is disrupted so that they can attend to the needs of their infants (Michelsson,
Rinne, & Paajanen, 1990). For women, this sleep deprivation occurs after the
physically demanding circumstances of pregnancy and delivery, which can have their
own effects on physical and psychological well-being. While pregnancy is not an
illness, it is associated with a range of physical changes and complications that can
range from discomfort for the expectant woman to life-threatening (Dunkel-Schetter &
Lobel, 1998). A significant proportion of women experience depression or symptoms
of depression during pregnancy (Da Costa, Larouche, Dritsa, & Brender, 2000; Green,
1998; Morse, Buist, & Durkin, 2000). Delivery can have its own complications and it is
common for health complaints, such as extreme tiredness and backache, to persist for
months following childbirth (Thompson, Roberts, Currie, & Ellwood, 2002).
As parents learn to care for and build a relationship with the new individual in
their household, they must adapt to their new social role and learn how to balance it
with their existing relationships (Bost, Cox, Buchinal, & Payne, 2002). This means
incorporating their child into the existing family structure and routine (Monk et al.,
1996). Parenthood also affects individuals’ occupational functioning. Women often
experience a role change as they move from full-time employment to bearing most of
the responsibility for the childcare and household labour after the baby is born
2
(Cappuccini & Cochrane, 2000). Men frequently have the added responsibility of
becoming the sole financial providers for their new families (Cappuccini & Cochrane,
2000).
Clearly, the transition to parenthood places a number of demands on individuals.
Yet for all these demands, parenthood is a chosen role for many individuals. The
reasons people value children vary across cultures (Hoffman, 1987). Common cross-
cultural motivations for having children are to give and receive love and to experience
the enjoyment of children and these motivations are particularly prevalent in
industrialised nations, like the United Kingdom and the United States of America
(Hoffman, 1987; Langdridge, Connolly, & Sheeran, 2000). New parents frequently
report that they enjoy looking after their infants (Green & Kafetsios, 1997). There are
often a number of social gains associated with parenthood. New parents feel a strong
attachment to their infant and they often report feeling closer to their own parents
(Cowan & Cowan, 1992). New mothers attribute significant gains in self-esteem to the
arrival of their child and report feeling a sense of meaning, hope, and optimism about
the future (Wells, Hobfoll, & Lavin, 1999). Other research has found that parents report
that having children made them more mature and responsible and brought feelings of
self-fulfillment and completeness (Fawcett, 1988).
However, for a significant proportion of new parents the changes and demands
associated with parenthood result in adverse consequences. Two commonly observed
adverse outcomes associated with this transition are a decline in marital satisfaction and
mood disturbances.
There have been repeated findings of modest declines in marital satisfaction
after the birth of the first child (Belsky, Lang, & Rovine, 1985; Belsky, Spanier, &
Rovine, 1983; Shapiro, Gottman, & Carrère, 2000; Wallace & Gotlib, 1990). Yet, this
decline is not universal and there is considerable variation in the way the transition to
3
parenthood influences the marital relationship (Shapiro et al., 2000). The demands
placed on couples who become parents and the nature of their relationship before
parenting, which affects their ability to adapt to these demands, are thought to be the
main factors that influence their relationship quality during the transition to parenthood.
Becoming a parent changes the nature of the time that couples spend together. For
example, they are less likely to spend time together as a couple without the presence of
others (Monk et al., 1996). There is large increase in domestic labour - most of which is
borne by the female partner (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, Hofferth, & Lamb,
2000; Parke, 2002). This can result in resentment from both partners. When men
contribute less to household labour than women expect, there is often a decline in
relationship satisfaction (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Kalmuss, Davidson, & Cushman,
1992; Ruble, Fleming, Hackel, & Stangor, 1988). At the same time, the more time
women devote to caring for the new infant, the more dissatisfied their partners are with
the marital relationship (Levy-Shiff, 1994).
The decline in relationship satisfaction can be mitigated by greater paternal
involvement in infant care giving (Levy-Shiff, 1994). Women who perceive that their
partners contribute fairly to household labour have greater marital satisfaction during
the transition to parenthood (Terry, McHugh, & Noller, 1991). In addition, the quality
of the new parents’ relationship before the arrival of the baby will influence the quality
of their relationship once they are parents. Shapiro et al. (2000) found that the fondness,
admiration, and cognitive consideration that individuals have for their spouses as
newlyweds are associated with stability or improvement in relationship satisfaction
across the transition to parenthood. Better problem solving communication is also
associated with smaller declines in marital satisfaction (Cox, Paley, Burchinal, & Payne,
1999).
Mood disturbances are the other most noted adverse outcome associated with the
4
transition to parenthood. Three psychiatric disorders occur specifically within or around
the puerperium. Postpartum blues are characterised by symptoms such as crying,
confusion, mood lability, anxiety, and depressed mood (O’Hara, Schlechte, Lewis, &
Wright, 1991). These symptoms are relatively mild, transient, and occur most
commonly in the week following the birth. At the more severe end of the spectrum of
postnatal mood disturbances is postpartum psychosis. While postpartum blues are
relatively common, postpartum psychosis is rare (O’Hara, 1997). Postpartum psychosis
is characterised by delusions, hallucinations, gross impairment in functioning, and
usually requires psychiatric inpatient treatment (Brockington et al., 1981). The third
disorder is postnatal depression: a depressive episode that begins or extends into the
postpartum period. It is characterised by dysphoric mood along with symptoms such as
disturbed sleep (not including disturbances due to the infant), change in appetite,
psychomotor disturbance, excessive fatigue, excessive guilt, and suicide ideation
(American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Prevalence rates of postpartum depression
range between 8 and 15% of childbearing women (O’Hara, 1997; O’Hara & Swain,
1996). Several factors are associated with the development of postnatal depression.
These include a previous history of depression, depression during pregnancy, marital
discord, single parenthood, a significant life-event in the 12 months preceding the birth,
poor social support, and personality factors (Deater-Deckard, Pickering, Dunn, &
Golding, 1998; Gotlib, Whiffen, Wallace, & Mount, 1991; Morse et al., 2000; O’Hara
& Swain, 1996).
In addition to causing significant distress, the difficulties faced by new parents
can influence the quality of their care giving. The extent to which parents are able to
remain flexible and maintain positive relations with their partner, a sense of personal
autonomy, and self-esteem influences the level of effective and responsive parenting
that they are able to provide to their infants (Heinicke, 1995). The ability of parents to
5
master infant care-giving skills and respond effectively to their children’s needs affects
their child’s immediate and long-term well being. Parents’ marital conflicts have been
found to influence the quality of their care giving, and this in turn influences their
infant’s development (Cowan & Cowan, 1992). Depression in mothers of infants is
associated with deficits in parenting behaviour, including higher levels of hostile or
coercive behaviour, lower levels of engagement, and lower levels of positive social
interactions (Lovejoy et al., 2000; Murray & Cooper, 1996). Maternal depression
during infancy is associated with increases in behavioural problems, psychopathology,
and delayed cognitive development during childhood (Cogill, Caplan, Alexandra,
Robson, & Kumar, 1986; Cummings & Davies, 1994; Field, Lang, Martinex, Yando, &
Bendell, 1996; Gelfand & Teti, 1990; Murray & Cooper, 1996). This association
between poorer developmental outcomes and maternal depression may be due to the
nature of the attachment formed between these infants and their mothers. Infants of
mothers with depression are more likely to display insecure attachment than infants of
mothers who are not depressed (Martins & Gaffan, 2000; Murray, 1992). Although
insecure attachment does not invariably lead to poorer developmental outcomes, it has
been associated with poorer social, cognitive, and emotional outcomes in childhood and
beyond (Carlson, 1998; Kochanska, 2001; Lyons-Ruth, 1996; Waters, Merrick,
Treboux, Crowell, & Albersheim, 2000).
Thus, the way in which individuals make the transition to parenthood has
implications for parents and their children. Because of the lasting consequences of
problems during the transition to parenthood, poor adaptation to this transition has
garnered a great deal of attention from researchers and within the broader community.
A review of the literature reveals many more articles on the adverse effects of
parenthood than on the positive effects. Similarly, extreme examples of individuals
suffering from psychiatric illness in the postpartum period, such as the Texan mother
6
who drowned her five children in the bath while experiencing postpartum psychosis
(Roche, 2002, March 18), attract worldwide media attention. The fact that some
individuals experience such misery following what is regarded, at a broader cultural
level, as one of life’s happiest events captures the attention and concern of many.
However, some authors (Green, 1998; Lee, 1997) have noted that the focus on postnatal
mood disorders, combined with more widespread cultural values that motherhood
brings ultimate fulfillment to women, may produce a false dichotomy whereby mothers
are viewed as experiencing absolute contentment or psychiatric illness. Green and Lee
both argue that early parenthood as a time where it is normal to experience range of
negative emotions in the process of adjusting to their new role. Given that early
parenting brings a range of positive and negative changes, it is plausible that even the
most well adjusted mother may experience negative emotions while experiencing
overall contentment with her new role.
The range of emotions and experiences faced by new parents, along with the
importance of the role, and the challenges it presents to individuals makes it a
particularly interesting situation in which to examine expectations. Despite the
difficulties that new parents can face, the transition to parenthood within Western and
other cultures is usually regarded as a positive life event. Developments in reproductive
technology and increases in women’s workforce participation and education levels in
Western nations have given women greater control over their fertility and there have
been corresponding declines in fertility rates (Weston & Parker, 2002). Yet, most
women continue to choose to become parents (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS],
2003). Many individuals choose to become parents because they believe children will
have a positive influence on their lives (Langdridge et al., 2000). For these reasons, it is
likely that many parents-to-be will have optimistic expectations of parenthood. Given
that early parenthood can be challenging, it seems likely that at least some new parents
7
will have their expectations disconfirmed in a negative direction: that is, their
experiences will be less positive than their expectations. Of course, this may not be the
pattern for all parents and others may find that parenthood exceeds their already
optimistic expectations.
Another factor that makes expectations about parenthood interesting is the
uncertainty faced by expectant parents. It is a truism but nonetheless important that new
parents have not parented before. Many have had limited experience caring for infants.
Even if individuals do have experience caring for infants or children, they will not know
the characteristics of their own child before its birth. Infancy is a time of dynamic and
individual change – that is, infants develop rapidly in biological, psychological, and
social spheres, and each infant develops at his or her own pace (Bornstein, 2002).
Therefore, watching or practising with another person’s infant will not necessarily
prepare a parent to care for her or his own child. New parents must be able to adapt any
existing knowledge and skills they have to their individual child and to continually
adapt their skills to cater for their child’s developmental stage. Therefore, while many
parents may formulate expectations of how their lives will be influenced by the arrival
of their baby, their lives may change in unanticipated ways due to the needs of their
own child and their ability to cater to these needs. For example, an expectant couple
may anticipate that it will be possible to resume a weekly social engagement a few
months after their infant’s birth but find that their expectation is disconfirmed because
their infant has a particularly fussy temperament, making it difficult to leave him or her
with babysitters.
Thus, the transition to parenthood brings together two factors that suggest that
expectations about the future may bear importantly on adjustment during this transition.
First, parenting is an important and highly valued role that people appear to believe will
have a positive influence on their life and are likely to have optimistic expectations
8
about. Second, there is a broad range of possible outcomes and expectant parents face a
relatively large number of unknown and possibly challenging circumstances. This
means that there is a relatively high degree of uncertainty over whether individuals’
expectations will be matched by their parenting experiences. It is important to
understand how expectations influence adjustment in the face of unknown and
challenging circumstances and how disconfirmation of these expectations influences
adjustment. In these situations, is optimism adaptive or is there a risk that failure to
expect some negative experiences may lead to a more problematic adjustment if
difficulties do occur? Further, is there individual variation in the way people are
affected by disconfirmed expectations?
Chapter 2 reviews the literature on the relationship between expectations and
psychological adjustment, both during the transition to parenthood and more broadly.
There are several perspectives on how the nature of individuals’ expectations influences
adjustment. It may be beneficial to be optimistic in the face of unknown circumstances
(Peterson & Seligman, 1984; Scheier & Carver, 1985; Taylor & Brown, 1988, 1994).
However, expectations that are unrealistically optimistic when compared to later
experiences may lead to adverse outcomes (Aronson, 1968; Festinger, 1959; Heider,
1958; Swann, 1990). This chapter also discusses how self-efficacy beliefs influence
psychological adjustment, particularly during life transitions, and proposes that self-
efficacy beliefs may influence the relationship between expectancy disconfirmation and
psychological adjustment.
The present research focussed on these issues with reference to women’s
transition to parenthood. This research focused on the very early stages of parenthood
and consequently women were selected as participants because it is generally women,
rather than men, whose lives are most profoundly affected in these stages. Despite the
modern day ideal of fathers as co-parent (Cabrera et al., 2000), in practice, mothers
9
undertake responsibility for most of the one-to-one care of infants (Parke, 2002). The
first two studies examined childbearing women’s expectations about parenthood. A
search of the literature failed to unearth reliable measures that examined a broad range
of parenting expectations. Therefore, in Study 1, described in Chapter 3, a measure of
parenting expectations was developed. This measure was designed to tap a broader
range of expectations than has been looked at previously and assesses both positive and
negative expectations of parenthood. Study 2, described in Chapter 4, is a longitudinal
study that examined women’s expectations of parenthood during pregnancy and their
experiences of parenthood four months after the birth of their infants. The first phase of
this study examined the nature of women’s parenting expectations and how these
expectations relate to adjustment during pregnancy. The second phase explored how
these expectations compared to postnatal reports of experiences, the effect of
discrepancies between expectations and experiences on adjustment, and whether self-
efficacy beliefs moderated this relationship.
Studies 3 and 4 focussed on the broader cultural context of parenting. Study 1
and Study 2 revealed that generally women held optimistic expectations about
parenthood. Yet, at the time this research was carried out there was growing concern
about women’s reproductive choices in Australia and other industrialised countries –
specifically, that women were not having enough children or were not having children
at all (ABS, 2001; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2003). The source of this
concern was whether there would be enough workers in the future to support an aging
population (Caldwell, Caldwell, & McDonald, 2002). This led to questions of how
parenthood was viewed more broadly within society. Was it just pregnant women, who
had already made to the choice to become a mother, who were optimistic about
parenthood? Would women for whom parenthood was not imminent have similar
expectations? These questions are addressed in Chapter 5. A review of the literature
10
revealed that there was relatively little research on young women’s expectations or
attitudes towards childbearing. Therefore, the parenting expectations measure was used
to assess the parenting expectations of women who were not pregnant and did not have
children.
Another way to examine how early parenthood is viewed more broadly within
society is to examine the mass media. The media often reflect, and some argue
contribute to, the cultural values of a society (Rubin, 1994; Segrin & Nabi, 2002).
Study 4 examined the way early parenthood is presented in parenting magazines. This
focus was selected for two reasons. First, the women in Study 2 indicated that they used
these magazines. Second, the magazines are a medium devoted to parenting and focus
mainly on early parenthood. Chapter 6 describes a content analysis of photographic
images in these magazines. The aim of this content analysis was to determine how the
transition to parenthood is presented in the mainstream media. This study provided two
types of information. First, it provided information on how early parenthood is viewed
within current Australian culture. Second, it provided understanding of the nature of the
information that is available to first time parents.
Chapter 7 draws together the conclusions from the four studies carried out in this
project. Studies 1 and 2 further the existing knowledge of factors that influence
adjustment to parenthood. The findings elucidate the consequences of expectations and
disconfirmed expectations on adjustment to parenthood. They also illustrate how the
nature of expectations about future life events influence adjustment more broadly.
Studies 3 and 4 further existing knowledge on how the transition to parenthood is
viewed more broadly within current Australian culture. The findings from these studies
also provide information on the broader cultural values that may influence women’s
expectations about parenthood.
11
CHAPTER 2
THE EFFECT OF EXPECTATIONS ON ADJUSTMENT TO PARENTHOOD
As outlined in Chapter 1, one of the central aims of this thesis was to examine
how first-time mothers’ prenatal expectations of parenthood influence their adjustment
to this role. This review focuses on work that has examined the relationship between
the nature of individual’s expectations about future life events and their psychological
adjustment. Because the transition to parenthood is generally regarded as a positive life
event about which individuals often have optimistic expectations (Green & Kafetsios,
1997), this review will pay particular attention to expectations of this nature.
The way in which optimistic expectations influence psychological adjustment
appears to be a contentious issue. Optimism is generally associated with positive
psychological adjustment (Peterson & Seligman, 1984; Scheier & Carver, 1985;
Seligman, 1991). There is an argument within the health psychology literature that
expecting to experience positive outcomes and avoid negative outcomes may be
beneficial for psychological adjustment, even if these expectations are unrealistically
optimistic (Taylor & Brown, 1988, 1994). For example, holding the expectation that
life will be enjoyable and fulfilling when the infant arrives may help a pregnant woman
cope with any discomfort she experiences. In comparison, holding the expectation that
the discomfort of pregnancy will be followed by caring for a crying infant while feeling
exhausted and not quite knowing what to do may not have as positive effect on her
psychological adjustment. However, one of the hazards of overly optimistic
expectations is they may be disconfirmed and the individual is then faced with a
situation that is more difficult than he or she anticipated. Contrasting with the view that
unrealistically optimistic expectations are beneficial for psychological adjustment is the
view that realistic expectations, that is expectations that are matched by later
experience, are beneficial. Several prominent theories in psychology hold that
12
individuals like consistency and expectancy disconfirmation is a difficult situation with
which to cope (Aronson, 1968; Festinger, 1959; Heider, 1958; Swann, 1990). In the
context of new parenting, it may be that finding out that the role is more difficult, or less
satisfying than expected, would present another problem during an already challenging
time.
Given that the literature examining the relationship between expectations and
psychological adjustment during the transition to parenthood is relatively limited in
scope, the first section of this review will focus on research investigating the
relationship between expectations and adjustment in other areas of functioning.
Particular attention will be paid to topics relevant to the transition to parenthood
including the psychological consequences of positive and negative expectations,
disconfirmed expectations, and self-efficacy expectations. The second section of the
review will focus on the literature that has examined expectations during the transition
to parenthood, that is, the period extending from pregnancy through the first year of the
infant’s life.
Expectations and Psychological Adjustment
Expectations are beliefs about the future state of affairs or hypotheses about the
future. Individuals have expectations about nearly every aspect of their life and their
expectations influence the way they think, feel, and behave (Olsen, Roese, & Zanna,
1996). Many expectations are relatively simple and pertain to the consequences of
frequent behaviours. These simple expectations are shaped by recurrent interactions
with the environment and therefore rarely disconfirmed. Thus, the experience of
expectancy confirmation is more common than the experience of expectancy
disconfirmation (Miller & Turnbull, 1986; Olsen et al., 1996). For example, if we have
sufficient experience with computers we expect words to appear on our monitor as we
press down on the keyboard.
13
In the example provided above and in situations requiring more complex
responses, expectations guide behaviour. As such, individuals generally behave in ways
that are consistent with their expectations. Consequently, individuals who expect to do
well on complex mathematical problems persist longer than those who expect to do
poorly (Battle, 1965; Carver, Blaney, & Scheier, 1979). In this way, expectations can
become self-fulfilling. Those who persist because they believe that they will solve a
problem increase the likelihood that they will be successful. Those who give up quickly
because they expect to fail increase the likelihood that their expectations will be
confirmed. These principles are consistent with Bandura’s (1977, 1997) self-efficacy
theory, which also argues that expectations have a powerful effect on behaviour. This
theory will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Of course, expecting a certain outcome does not guarantee that it will occur.
Yet, even if outcomes do not match expectations, individuals often process information
so that their evaluations of their experiences are consistent with their initial expectations
(Klaaren, Hodges, & Wilson, 1994; Mitchell, Thompson, Peterson, & Cronk, 1997).
Memory processes are frequently biased in favour of information that confirms
expectations so that information that is inconsistent with expectations is either
discounted or it is reappraised so that it is concordant with the original expectation
(Klaaren et al., 1992). Accordant with this position, individuals asked to give their
recollections of a recent holiday provided responses that matched their pre-holiday
expectations, yet both their expectations and their recollections were more positive than
their reports of their experiences recorded while they were on the holiday (Mitchell et
al., 1997).
Expectations about future events influence individuals’ moods both in the period
leading up to the event as well as during the event. Accordingly, individuals who
expect to find a cartoon amusing laugh and smile more than individuals who hold no
14
expectations about the humour of the cartoon (Wilson & Klaaren, 1992; Wilson, Lisle,
Kraft, & Wetzel, 1989). It seems obvious that the expectations an individual holds
about future events will influence his or her current mood. If an individual expects to
lose a job that he or she enjoys and is financially reliant on, he or she is likely to feel
somewhat depressed and anxious. If another individual expects to experience an
enjoyable holiday in a few days, he or she is likely to feel happy and excited.
Consistent with this view, research on mood disorders, reviewed below, has found that
expectations about future life events play a central role in emotional adjustment.
Negative Expectations and Psychological Adjustment
Psychological theories that attempt to explain mood disorders implicate
expectations in the development and maintenance of depression. According to Beck’s
(1976) influential cognitive theory of depression, negative expectations about the future
have an adverse effect on mood. This theory holds that depressed individuals have
maladaptive cognitive schemas, which contain negative attitudes about themselves, their
world, and their future. These schemas lead individuals to process information in a
manner consistent with their negative worldview. Beck’s theory predicts that depressed
individuals tend to expect failure, rejection, and dissatisfaction.
Similarly, Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989) propose that hopelessness can
be a cause of depression. Abramson et al. argue that the attributions individuals make
about negative life events influence the expectations they have about the future and
these expectations affect their mood. Abramson et al. proposed that individuals who
attribute the occurrence of negative life events to internal, stable, and global causes will
formulate hopelessness expectations. Hopelessness is defined as the expectation that
highly desired outcomes are unlikely to occur, highly aversive outcomes are likely to
occur, and there is little that the individual involved can do to change the likelihood of
these outcomes. These pessimistic expectations lead to feelings of depression. Thus, in
15
this model, expectations mediate between negative attributional style and depression.
Carver and Scheier (1981; Scheier & Carver, 1988) also contend that expectations about
the future mediate between attributions and emotional outcomes.
While support for a mediational role of expectations has been mixed, studies
have consistently found a link between negative expectations about the future and
depression. Peterson and Vaidya (2001) assessed the relationship between attributional
style, general and specific expectations for desirable and aversive events, and depressive
symptoms in undergraduate students and found that expectations mediated between
attributional style and depression. In similar research, Hull and Mendolia (1991) found
evidence for a direct link between expectations and depression in a sample of
undergraduate students. The more negative the participants’ expectations were, the
more likely they were to be depressed. In addition, the results indicated that
expectations mediated between attributional style and depression. Tripp, Catano, and
Sullivan (1997) replicated these results. Other research has found evidence for a
moderating role of expectations: A relationship between attributions and depression
only existed when hopelessness expectations were present. When there were hopeful
expectations, no relationship existed between attributional style and depression
(DeVellis & Blalock, 1992; Riskind, Rholes, Brannon, & Burdick, 1987).
This research provides converging evidence that holding generalised negative
expectations about the future is associated with depressed mood. The premise
underlying most of these theories is that depressed or dysphoric individuals hold
unrealistically negative expectations about the future. However, some authors suggest
that the expectations of the depressed are realistic, not distorted (Alloy, Albright,
Abramson, & Dykman, 1990).
Depressive Realism
The depressive realism hypothesis states that the expectations of depressed
16
individuals are accurate and it is the psychologically well adjusted that have inaccurate
expectations about the future. In the original study conducted by Alloy and Abramson
(1979), participants made contingency judgements where they estimated the extent to
which they could control the illumination of a green light by pressing a button.
Depressed1 participants tended to make accurate contingency judgements. Non-
depressed participants over-estimated their level of control when the outcome was non-
contingent but desirable and under-estimated their level of control when the outcome
was contingent but undesirable. This finding has been replicated in experiments using
similar paradigms (Alloy, Abramson, & Viscusi, 1981; Alloy & Abramson, 1982;
Vazquez, 1987; Mikulincer, Gerber, & Weisenberg, 1990; Lennox, Bedell, Abramson,
& Raps, 1990). However, attempts to replicate the depressive realism effect in studies
examining individuals’ expectations about future life events have proven more difficult.
Alloy and Ahrens (1987) assessed depressed and non-depressed college
students’ expectations about future life events. Compared to their non-depressed peers,
depressed students expectations were more pessimistic and less optimistic. When the
students were asked to compare themselves to individuals with attributes similar to
themselves, non-depressed students appeared to be overly optimistic. Non-depressed
students stated that they were more likely than similar others to experience success and
less likely than similar others to experience failure. Because it is logically impossible
for most people to be more successful than those similar to themselves, this was
interpreted as a positive bias. In contrast, depressed students did not display any
negative or positive bias suggesting that they may have more balanced or realistic
expectations. However, attempts to replicate these findings have found evidence for
1 This section uses the group names described by the authors of each study. In the studies described in this section, participants were divided into depressed or non-depressed groups based on their scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck & Steer, 1993). Scores on this measure represent the severity of depression symptoms but this does not necessarily mean that the depressed participants would have met the diagnostic criteria for clinical depression.
17
both a negative bias in depressed individuals (Pietromonaco & Markus, 1985) and a
positive bias in depressed individuals (Pyszczynski, Holt, & Greenberg, 1987). One
criticism of these studies is that they failed to provide an external criterion of accuracy,
meaning it is difficult to determine objectively which group had more realistic
expectations (Ackerman & DeRubreis, 1991; Colvin & Block, 1994).
Studies that have provided an external criterion to test the accuracy of
expectations have produced findings that are inconsistent with the depressive realism
hypothesis. Dunning and Story (1991) asked college students to make predictions about
the academic and social events that would occur over the course of a university
semester. When the students’ expectations were compared with the actual occurrence
of events, depressed students’ expectations about future life events were less accurate
than the expectations of their non-depressed peers. Similar studies examining
expectations about future life events have also had difficulty replicating findings
consistent with the depressive realism hypothesis (Kapçi & Cramer, 1998; Shrauger,
Mariano, & Walter, 1998) but this is not to say individuals without depression have
accurate expectations about future life events. As will be discussed in the next section,
they frequently hold overly positive expectations about a number of aspects of life.
Positive Expectations and Psychological Adjustment
Taylor and Brown (1988, 1994) argue that mentally healthy individuals tend to
have distorted rather than accurate beliefs about themselves and their world. The
authors contend that mentally healthy individuals hold positive illusions about
themselves and their world – that is, they perceive themselves in an overly positive
manner, have exaggerated perceptions of control, and, most relevant to this thesis, hold
unrealistically optimistic expectations about the future. Taylor and Brown argue that
individuals are unrealistically optimistic when they expect that they are more likely than
others to experience desired outcomes and less likely than others to experience
18
undesirable outcomes. Evidence from a number of domains supports the view that,
generally, individuals have overly positive expectations about the future and these
expectations may be beneficial for their psychological adjustment.
Weinstein (1980) asked North American university students to rate the
likelihood that they would experience a range of positive and negative events. The
participants believed that they were more likely than their peers to experience positive
events, such as obtaining a desirable job after graduation, owning their own home, or
travelling to Europe. Similarly, they believed they were less likely than their peers to
experience negative events, such as having a drinking problem, dropping out of
university, or being fired from a job. Providing information about the attributes and
actions of their peers reduced but did not eliminate participants’ relative optimism about
their ability to avoid negative events.
Optimism about future life events is not confined to young university students,
Fowers, Lyons, Montel, and Shaked (2001) found that married and single North
Americans had optimistic expectations about their intimate relationships. Married
participants believed that the likelihood that they would divorce was low, with a mean
estimated likelihood of 10%. Fifty-five percent of the single participants believed that
the likelihood that they would experience divorce sometime in their lifetime was 0%
and only 12% thought they had a greater than 50% chance of divorcing in their lifetime.
When these expectations are compared to the estimated population divorce rates for the
United States of America, which have been found to range between 43% and 64%
(Schoen & Weinick, 1993; Martin & Bumpass, 1989), the expectations of both the
married and the single participants appear unrealistically optimistic. In a similar study,
Carnelly and Janoff-Bulman (1992) found that university students held unrealistically
optimistic expectations (compared to U.S. national divorce rates and averages for
relationship longevity) about the likelihood that they would have successful romantic
19
relationships, a successful marriage in the future, and would avoid experiencing divorce.
This pattern of overly optimistic expectations about future life events raises the
question of whether these expectations are beneficial or detrimental for psychological
adjustment. The people with overly optimistic expectations about avoiding divorce may
be setting themselves up for disappointment. Alternatively, their optimism may have a
positive influence on their current functioning. For example, the expectation that a
marriage has a high likelihood of lasting may result in individuals feeling more content
in their relationship and motivate them to engage in positive interactions with their
spouse. Consistent with this possibility, Murray and Holmes (1997) investigated
optimism in relation to dating and married individuals’ expectations about their current
relationships. Unrealistic optimism about relationships - expecting to avoid difficulties
that the average relationship would encounter - was associated with greater relationship
longevity.
In academic settings, students who are unrealistically optimistic about their
academic performance achieve higher grades than students who are realistic or
unrealistically negative about their academic performance suggesting that unrealistic
optimism may have a positive effect on performance (Wright, 2000). Students who
held overly optimistic expectations about the length of time it would take them to
complete an assignment completed it in a significantly shorter time than those that held
overly pessimistic expectations about completion time (Buehler, Griffen, & Ross,
1994). Positive expectations about the ability to perform a task seem to be associated
with successful completion or greater success in performing that task whereas negative
expectations appear to be associated with impeded performance.
Research from the health psychology literature suggests that people can be
remarkably optimistic even in dire circumstances and that their optimistic expectations
benefit their physical and mental health. Leedham, Meyerowitz, Muirhead, and Frist
20
(1995) found that patients waiting for heart transplants had very positive expectations
about the outcomes of their operations despite their serious health status. These
optimistic expectations were associated with self-reports of positive mood, good
adjustment to the illness, and better quality of life, even when the patient’s recovery
from the transplant was not as successful as they had expected. Likewise, Taylor et al.
(1992) conducted a study of gay men at risk for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS). Men who were aware that they had tested positive for the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) held positive expectations about being able to avoid
developing AIDS despite medical advice at the time that this was unlikely. Those with
these unrealistically optimistic expectations displayed better psychological adjustment
and more active coping strategies than less optimistic men.
In a range of domains, including academic pursuits, romantic relationships, and
coping with life-threatening illnesses, expectations that appear to be overly optimistic
compared to average outcomes are associated with positive psychological adjustment.
It is possible that these optimistic expectations are matched by later experiences. The
optimistic individuals in Fowers et al.’s (2001) study on relationship expectations may
enjoy long and happy marriages that do not end in divorce. Not all of the participants in
the Buehler et al. (1994) study were unrealistic in their estimation of when they would
complete their tasks. Some met their optimistic deadlines. Similarly, some of the heart
transplant patients’ optimistic expectations about their health outcomes were matched
by later experiences, as indicated by assessments conducted by a health professional six
months after the operation, which found that most were in relatively good health
(Leedham et al., 1995).
However, in each of the studies above there were many individuals whose
expectations were not or will not be met. Many married couples divorce, students’
actual completion time is often longer than they expect, and individuals undergoing
21
heart transplant surgery experience unexpected complications (Buehler et al., 1994;
Leedham et al, 1995; Martin & Bumpass, 1989; Schoen & Weinick, 1993; Wright,
2000). While there is evidence that positive expectations can be beneficial for
psychological adjustment, there is always the possibility that these expectations will not
be matched by later experiences. Implicit in the notion that most individuals are overly
optimistic is the notion that it is relatively likely that their expectations will be
disconfirmed at some point. This leads to the question of how the disconfirmation of
expectations influences psychological well-being.
The Psychological Consequences of Disconfirmation of Expectations
Some authors argue that expectancy disconfirmation is an intrinsically
unpleasant event. According to consistency theories, individuals like their world to be
predictable (Aronson, 1968; Festinger, 1957; Heider, 1958; Swann, 1990). The
disconfirmation of expectations represents a failure to accurately predict future events
and, according to consistency theories, should be aversive, regardless of whether the
outcome of the event is negative or positive. In a test of consistency theory, Carlsmith
and Aronson (1963) trained experimental participants to predict whether they would be
presented with a sweet or a bitter fluid. Once the participants could accurately predict
which fluid they were about to be presented with, the experimenters surprised them by
presenting the bitter fluid when the participants were expecting the sweet taste or the
sweet fluid when the participants were expecting the bitter taste. Consonant with
consistency theory, the participants reported that both fluids tasted more unpleasant
when they were unexpected than when they were expected.
Consistency theory suggests that the nature of the outcome is unimportant
(Aronson, 1968; Festinger, 1957; Heider, 1958; Swann, 1990). Therefore, both
unexpected negative outcomes and unexpected positive outcomes will be aversive
experiences. It is easy to imagine examples that contradict this assertion. It is probable
22
that while many lottery players hope to win the jackpot, few expect to win. When a
fortunate individual does win, it seems unlikely that his or her feelings of satisfaction
will be diminished due to a mismatch between expectations and experiences. Similarly,
recent empirical evidence points to a more complex interaction between expected
outcomes, actual outcomes, and affective consequences.
Decision affect theory predicts that the affective consequences of an outcome
will be influenced by counterfactual thinking, that is, comparing what occurred with
what might have been (Mellers, Schwarz, Ho, & Ritov, 1997). According to this theory,
unexpected positive outcomes will be more pleasant than expected positive outcomes
and unexpected negative outcomes will be more unpleasant than expected negative
outcomes. In an experiment designed to test this theory, university students took a test
that they were led to believe would tell them whether they had an enzyme deficiency
that had the potential to cause severe health problems (Shepperd & McNulty, 2002).
Unbeknownst to the students, the deficiency was fictitious. Half were given reason to
expect bad news: They were told that the incidence of the deficiency was particularly
high in university students due to their lifestyle. The other half of the sample was given
better news: the incidence of the disorder was particularly low in university students.
The results of this study were unsurprising. When the students with pessimistic
expectations received good news they felt elated. In contrast, those who expected good
news and received bad news felt upset.
The negative emotions of the students who expected good news and received
bad news is consistent with other research, which has found that the absence of an
expected positive outcome causes feelings of disappointment (van Dijk, Zeelenberg, &
van der Pligt, 1999; Zeelenberg, van Dijk, Manstead, & van der Pligt, 1998).
Disappointment following the disconfirmation of positive expectations has been
associated with feeling powerless and wanting to do nothing and dissociate oneself from
23
the event associated with disappointment (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). However, if
expectations are disconfirmed in the opposite direction - that is, the individual expects
bad news and receives good news - the outcome is not at all aversive. Shepperd and
McNulty’s (2002) results imply that expecting the worst may be an effective coping
strategy because individuals will experience elation when experience contradicts
pessimistic expectations or avoid disappointment when these expectations are
confirmed. Nevertheless, expecting the worst has its own problems for psychological
adjustment. While this strategy may lead to joy and elation if the disconfirming
experience occurs, it is probable that the time leading up to the event may not be
particularly pleasant for the individual because, as discussed earlier, negative
expectations about the future are often associated with depressed mood (e.g. Hull &
Mendolia, 1991; Peterson & Vaidya, 2001). Notably, the expectations tapped in the
depression literature tend to be expectations about the future in general whereas the
expectations tapped by Shepperd and McNulty were expectations about one future
event. It is possible that expecting that the outcome of one imminent event will be
negative is not as detrimental as thinking that the future in general will be unpleasant.
There are other examples of the dangers of overly optimistic expectations.
When these expectations pertain to achievements, relationships, and investments; they
may cause individuals to persist in situations in which they cannot succeed (Janoff-
Bulman & Brickman, 1982). Further, Tennen and Affleck (1987) argue that when
individuals have overly optimistic expectations about the controllability of situations,
they may experience adverse emotional consequences. This hypothesis was tested in a
study of mothers of newborn infants who had been admitted to an intensive care unit.
The infants spent at least 10 days in the neonatal intensive care unit and were at
significant risk of suffering from developmental disabilities. The mothers who
experienced the highest levels of distress were those that had taken the most health
24
precautions during pregnancy with the expectation that these precautions would prevent
adverse birth outcomes (Affleck, Tennen, & Rowe, 1988). Greater emotional distress
was associated with lower expectations of birth risk during pregnancy. This seems to
illustrate a case where violated expectations contributed to the distress experienced by
individuals when events were more negative than anticipated.
Expecting a positive occurrence and experiencing a negative one appears to have
a negative effect on psychological adjustment. In the studies discussed above, the
individuals involved expected a positive outcome and experienced the opposite. The
circumstances in which the disconfirmation occurred were unambiguous. The students
expected good news from a medical test and received bad news (Shepperd & McNulty,
2002). The women expected healthy infants and became mothers of very ill infants
(Affleck et al., 1988). Individuals experienced failure in situations in which they had
expected to succeed (Janoff-Bulman & Brickman, 1982). In circumstances like these,
where it is possible to apply a stringent test of whether one’s expectations have been
met, it may be dangerous to hold overly optimistic expectations because if the outcome
is the antithesis of expectations, it can lead to greater distress. In different
circumstances where there is more scope for subjective appraisal of the situation, it may
be easier to cope with disconfirmed expectations.
Coping with Disconfirmed Expectations
In many cases, the contrast between expectations and actual experiences is not
as stark as the situations described above. Additionally, in situations that rely on
subjective judgement to determine whether one’s experiences match expectations,
individuals often have the ability to reappraise the situation so that their perceptions of
the situation match their original expectations. Armor and Taylor (1998) argue that
optimistic expectations are most likely to form in circumstances where it is difficult to
apply a stringent test of confirmation or disconfirmation. Consequently, generalised
25
expectations are more likely to be optimistic than specific expectations. In Leedham et
al.’s (1995) study, the expectations of the heart transplant candidates were generalised.
For example, patients were asked the extent to which they expected to live a full and
satisfying life or the extent to which they expected medical treatments to change their
life. These expectations allow for some subjective interpretation as to whether they
have been met or not. Confirmation of the expectation depends upon how the
individual evaluates his or her own life circumstances and as such differ from situations
where there is objective evidence that an expectation has been disconfirmed. As
discussed earlier in this chapter, individuals are inclined to reinterpret outcomes so that
their recollections are consistent with original expectations (Klaaren et al, 1994;
Mitchell et al., 1997). Thus, it may be possible to hold generalised optimistic
expectations about the future without the risk of distress or psychological discomfort
because even if events do not match expectations from an objective perspective, the
individual subjectively appraises the events in a manner that is consistent with his or her
expectations.
Another way of preventing the negative psychological consequences that can
occur when there is a stark contrast between expectations and actual experiences is to
keep the optimistic expectations within modest bounds (Armor & Taylor, 1998). In
particular, if generalised expectations about the future are kept within modest bounds,
individuals may not have to cope with a situation that is far removed from their
expectations but with a situation that is a little more difficult or not quite as satisfying as
was expected. In these situations, individuals may be able cope with expectancy
disconfirmation reasonably well (Armor & Taylor, 1998).
Furthermore, Armor and Taylor (1998) propose that overly optimistic
expectations are associated with active coping strategies, which promote psychological
and physical adjustment to stressors. Accordingly, the optimistic expectations
26
associated with positive psychological adjustment are active not passive expectations,
and are internally rather than externally orientated. Therefore, an individual may hold
the expectation that “everything will be okay because I will do what I can to make it
okay” rather than “everything will be okay”. Consistent with this view, Jackson,
Pancer, Pratt, & Hunsberger (2000) found that high school students who had optimistic
and efficacious expectations of their transition to university displayed better adjustment
at university than students who held fearful expectations while at high school. The
belief that “everything will be okay because I will do what I can to make it okay” may
predict better psychological adjustment because it will motivate the individual to act in
a manner consistent with their expectations. Thus, even if experiences do not match the
overly optimistic expectations, the behaviours that the individual employs in order to
meet their expectations may bring about a lesser but still favourable outcome making it
easier to live with disconfirmed expectations. For example, the students in Buehler et
al.’s (1994) study took longer than they had expected to complete their research projects
but they still made progress. They were not faced with a situation where they reached
their expected completion date and realised they had not completed any work on their
projects.
It is also possible that some individuals are able to cope with expectancy
disconfirmation better than others are. When expectations do not match individuals’
experiences within a particular domain, their expectations about their own capabilities
in that domain become crucial.
Self-Efficacy Beliefs
Hitherto, the expectations discussed have been outcome expectations, that is,
expectations about a particular event or that the enacting of particular behaviours will
lead to a certain consequence. Self-efficacy expectations are an individual’s belief in
his or her ability to perform a particular behaviour successfully (Bandura, 1977). An
27
individual’s expectation that submitting a job application will result in gaining an
interview is an example of an outcome expectation. An individual’s belief that he or
she is capable of writing an adequate application is an example of an efficacy belief.
According to Bandura (1995), “human accomplishments and positive well-being
require an optimistic sense of personal efficacy” (p. 11). Self-efficacy beliefs influence
behavioural, cognitive, and affective responses in a range of domains. Individuals with
high self-efficacy beliefs have confidence in their own abilities and are more likely to
conceive problems as surmountable challenges, experience less negative emotional
arousal when engaged in challenging tasks, and persevere in the face of difficult tasks
(Bandura, 1997). Individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to
experience significant levels of self-doubt and anxiety when they encounter adversity,
assume more responsibility for failure than success, perceive environmental demands to
be threatening, avoid challenges, and cope dysfunctionally with problems (Bandura,
1997). Self-efficacy has been shown to positively influence behaviour in a number of
areas including academic performance (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli,
1996), pain management (Jensen, Turner, & Romano, 1991; Lackner, Carosella, &
Feuerstein, 1996; Stockman & Altmaier, 2001), smoking cessation (Carey & Carey,
1993), healthy eating patterns and maintenance of exercise routines (Maibach, Flora, &
Nass, 1991), athletic performance (Martin & Gill, 1991), fear reduction (Bandura,
Reese, & Adams, 1982), and interpersonal relationships (Kanfer & Zeiss, 1983).
The link between outcome expectations and self-efficacy and the relative
contribution each makes to behaviour and psychological adjustment have been the
subject of debate (Maddux, 1995). Bandura’s (1997) position is that in situations where
an individual’s behaviour is the principal determinant of an outcome, self-efficacy
beliefs will be the main predictor of behaviour. In these situations, the outcomes that
individuals expect are determined by their efficacy expectations. Therefore, outcome
28
expectations should not make an independent contribution to behaviour. This appears
to be supported by a number of studies that have found that expectations about
outcomes make little or no independent contribution to behaviour when self-efficacy is
controlled (e.g., Shell, Murphy, & Bruning, 1989; Gresham, Evans, & Elliot, 1988;
Jensen et al., 1991). It is the individual’s belief that they can bring about a particular
outcome that influences their expectations about that outcome and ultimately the
individual’s behaviour in the situation. In this way, optimistic expectations about the
future may be tied to an individual’s expectation that they will be able to enact the
behaviours necessary to bring about this outcome.
However, in many of the domains discussed in previous sections, such as,
coping with a life-threatening illness or during the transition to parenthood, an
individual’s behaviour is not the sole or major determinant of the outcome. In these
circumstances, Bandura (1997) argues that efficacy only partly predicts the outcome and
outcome expectations make an independent contribution to behaviour. In these
circumstances an individual’s behaviour may be predicted by his or her belief that he or
she is capable of carrying out the behaviour necessary to bring about a desired outcome
and his or her expectation that circumstances outside his or her own control will be
favourable.
Efficacy beliefs also seem to be important when coping with difficult life
circumstances or transitions (Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995) and may assist individuals
when optimistic expectations have been disconfirmed by negative experiences. An
individual may have optimistic expectations that he or she will successfully recover
from an illness but these expectations may be disconfirmed when recovery takes longer
than expected. An individual with high self-efficacy may be disappointed with the
outcome but confident that he or she can cope with a situation that is more difficult than
expected and recover from this setback. An individual with low self-efficacy beliefs
29
may be unsure of his or her ability to cope with the situation and experience greater
distress. Generalised self-efficacy beliefs have been shown to have a powerful effect on
psychological well-being during times of adaptation and change. During these times,
high, generalised self-efficacy beliefs are a psychological resource buffering the effects
of environmental stressors, whereas low generalised self-efficacy beliefs are a
psychological vulnerability (Cozzarelli, 1993; Major et al., 1990; Maciejewski,
Priegerson, & Mazure, 2000). For example, migrants with high self-efficacy were more
likely to view their cultural dislocation and relocation as a challenge whereas those with
low self-efficacy beliefs were more likely to view their situation as a threat (Jerusalem
and Mittag, 1995). Furthermore, the effects of generalised self-efficacy beliefs
surpassed the effects of environmental factors, such as employment and having a
partner. However, other authors have cautioned that while high efficacy beliefs may be
beneficial for psychological adjustment, extremely high efficacy beliefs may lead
individuals to overestimate their capabilities during challenging circumstances which
may lead to poorer adjustment (Haaga & Stewart, 1992).
Summary
Based on the literature reviewed thus far, it is possible to draw some tentative
predictions about the types of expectations that first-time parents may hold before the
birth of their first child and how these expectations influence their adjustment to
parenthood. Given that research about expectations in other domains indicates that
individuals often have positive expectations about future life events it seems likely that
many parents-to-be will have optimistic expectations. Further, it seems likely that
where these optimistic expectations are fairly generalised they will be associated with
positive adjustment to parenthood in contrast to generalised negative expectations,
which could be associated with negative adjustment. The disconfirmation of overly
optimistic expectations may be problematic when individuals expect a positive outcome
30
and have these expectations disconfirmed in an unambiguous manner so that their
experience is significantly different from their expectations. Disconfirmation of
generalised expectations that are kept within modest bounds may not be as problematic.
Firstly, there may not be a large gap between what was expected and what actually
occurred. Secondly, the individual may be able to appraise the situation in a manner
that is consistent with their expectations. Finally, efficacy beliefs may affect
psychological adjustment during the transition to parenthood. Self-efficacy beliefs may
partly determine the outcomes that individuals expect. In addition, high self-efficacy
beliefs may help individuals cope in challenging circumstances, including when
experiences are more difficult than they had expected them to be.
Expectations of Parenthood
In contrast to the relationship between expectations and psychological
adjustment described above, the research that has examined parenting expectations has
tended to be based on less detailed predictions. It is generally assumed that as first-time
parents embark on the challenge of parenting with no prior experience, it is likely that
their expectations about parenthood will be unrealistic. Further, it is generally held that
the most probable outcome is that new parents’ expectations will be more positive than
their actual experiences and this discrepancy will have a negative effect on adjustment
to parenthood. The evidence for these predictions is mixed.
LeMasters (1957) was one of the first researchers to suggest that the transition to
parenthood can be difficult, arguing that first-time parenthood was an extensive or
severe crisis for the majority of the middle-class participants in the study. This study
pointed to first-time parents’ romanticised expectations of parenthood as a factor that
contributed to this crisis. In contrast, later research found that while the transition can
be a significant stressor, for most, it does not constitute a crisis; individuals experience
positive emotions such as satisfaction and gratification as well as negative emotions
31
(Hobbs, 1965, 1968, 1976; Russell, 1974). However, LeMasters’ idea that first-time
parents have overly optimistic expectations, which contribute to later difficulties, has
remained a consistent theme in the transition to parenthood literature.
Subsequent research has focussed on how expectations affect specific aspects of
the transition to parenthood. Several studies focused on how the parents’ relationship
would function following the birth of the first child (Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble,
1992; Kalmuss et al., 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). This research was motivated by
consistent findings that there is often a decline in relationship satisfaction when couples
become parents (Belsky et al., 1985; Belsky et al., 1983; Wallace & Gotlib, 1990).
Belsky hypothesised that individuals whose prenatal expectations were proven overly
optimistic would experience increased stress during the transition to parenthood, which
would have an adverse affect on marital satisfaction. Parents-to-be reported how they
expected the arrival of the infant to influence various aspects of their lives. These
aspects were marital conflict and co-operation; the marital relationship as a whole; their
feelings about themselves; their relations with extended family, friends, and neighbours;
and the division of infant care-giving tasks. Three and then nine months after the birth,
these expectations were compared to self-reports of postnatal experiences.
As with expectations pertaining to other life events, the expectant parents had
optimistic expectations about what their lives would be like when the baby arrived
(Belsky, 1985). In most areas, these optimistic expectations were matched by postnatal
experiences. However, in two areas participants’ expectations were overly optimistic in
comparison to later experiences. During pregnancy, parents-to-be expected that the
arrival of the baby would have a significantly more positive effect on their marriage
than it actually did. Additionally, fathers were significantly less involved in care-giving
activities than both parents had expected before the birth. Although the discrepancies
between prenatal expectations and reported postnatal experiences were not large, they
32
were associated with an increase in marital problems across the transition to parenthood.
Women for whom the transition to parenthood was less positive or more negative than
expected reported fewer feelings of love for their husbands, a decrease in marital
satisfaction, an increase in feelings of ambivalence about the marriage, and more
conflicts with their husbands. Men whose expectations were disconfirmed reported
greater feelings of ambivalence about the marriage and a decrease in efforts to work at
the relationship. Belsky’s (1985) research appears to be a case where disconfirmed
expectations had a negative effect on psychological adjustment.
Later researchers made expectations about the division of household labour the
focus of their investigations (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). This research
was based on the prediction that couples are likely to form unrealistic expectations
about how the childcare and household labour will be shared once the baby arrives.
Ruble et al. (1988) found that expectations about the division of household and
childcare tasks were not met by postnatal behaviour. Over a third of the sample
expected that childcare and household labour tasks would be divided equally but in
reality women did more housework and childcare and men did less than both partners
had expected. This is consistent with qualitative research conducted by Nicholson
(1990), who found that women had unrealistically optimistic expectations about how
much their male partners would contribute to the care of the baby. Women whose
expectations were disconfirmed expressed greater negative feelings about their
husbands (Ruble et al., 1988). Again, this appears to be an instance of how the
disconfirmation of very specific, optimistic expectations can have an adverse effect on
psychological adjustment.
However, doing more household duties than expected may not be a negative
outcome for all women. Hackel and Ruble (1992) examined the consequences of
expectancy disconfirmation during the transition to parenthood as well as factors that
33
moderate the effects of disconfirmation. Consistent with previous research, there was a
decline in marital satisfaction. At the postnatal test phase, both men and women
reported less satisfaction, less sexual intimacy, and greater conflict within the marriage
than they reported at the prenatal test phase. As in the Ruble et al. study (1988), women
were doing more household labour than they had expected to do before the birth of the
baby. For women who displayed qualities associated with less traditional gender roles
and were predicted to be most committed to their expectations of an equitable split of
household labour, expectancy disconfirmation was associated with negative change in
the marital relationship. These women may have experienced a more equitable division
of labour in the past and felt disappointed when the male and female roles became more
traditional following the birth of the baby. In contrast, for women who displayed
qualities associated with traditional gender roles, doing more relative to expectations
was associated with increased reports of positive feelings.
Hackel and Ruble (1992) speculated that for women with a traditional gender
role orientation doing more household and childcare tasks might be intrinsically
rewarding and perceived as a validation of their basic values. The development of more
traditional gender roles after the birth of the first baby may be an unexpected yet
desirable outcome. For women who had experienced a less traditional relationship with
an equitable split of household labour and expected this situation to continue after the
birth of the first child, more traditional gender roles may be an unexpected and
undesirable outcome. While Hackel and Ruble concede that their conclusions were
speculative and post hoc, their results suggest that expectancy disconfirmation is not
inherently unpleasant for all.
The research of Belsky (1985) and Ruble and colleagues (Hackel & Ruble,
1992; Ruble et al., 1988) has focused on expectations relating to how the parents’
relationship would function after the birth of the first child. Kalmuss et al. (1992)
34
extended this work by focusing on a broader range of expectations about life as a parent
including women’s expectations pertaining to their relationships with their partners,
extended family, and friends; their physical well-being; their employment; and their
finances following the arrival of the baby. The authors also assessed women’s
expectations of parenting competence, satisfaction in the parenting role, and care-giving
assistance from their partners. Twelve months after the infants’ births, the researchers
compared the women’s expectations to their experiences and assessed the effect of any
discrepancies between expectations and experiences on adjustment. Perceived
adjustment to parenthood was measured via women’s responses on three 4-point scales
assessing their perceptions of the ease of their transition to parenthood, their feelings of
satisfaction with their lives, and their perceptions of their stress levels.
In comparison to actual experiences, women had overly optimistic expectations
about their relationship with their partner, family, and friends; their physical well-being;
their parenting competence; and the extent to which their partners would assist with
care-giving (Kalmuss et al., 1992). Disconfirmation of overly optimistic expectations in
the domains of relationship with partner, physical well-being, maternal competence, and
maternal satisfaction had a negative impact on women’s adjustment to parenthood. This
seems to be another case where specific expectations are more positive than actual
experiences resulting in a negative effect on psychological adjustment. However,
expectancy disconfirmations in the areas of care-giving assistance from partner,
relationships with family and friends did not have any negative effect on adjustment.
Thus, the effects of disconfirmed expectations on adjustment to parenthood were mixed:
In some cases, there was no effect on adjustment and in other cases, there was a
negative effect. Hackle and Ruble (1992) also found that disconfirmed expectations
pertaining to the division of childcare had no effect on adjustment. They speculated that
caring for a baby is often intrinsically rewarding for mothers; hence, doing more
35
childcare than expected may not be a negative outcome for many women. Accounting
for the lack of effect of the disconfirmation of expectations pertaining to relationships
with family and friends is more difficult. It is possible that disconfirmation of these
expectations influence different aspects of psychological adjustment but not adjustment
to parenthood, the only outcome measure used in this study.
The conclusions that can be drawn from the findings of Kalmuss et al. (1992)
are limited by the measures used. The effect of violated expectations on two variables
frequently reported to change for the worse during the transition to parenthood - marital
satisfaction and maternal mood - was not assessed. No standardised measures were
used to measure adjustment outcomes, making it difficult to ascertain the reliability or
validity of the results obtained. The main outcome variable was the participants’
perceptions of ease of transition to parenthood: a summary of women’s self-reports on
the 4-point scales tapping level of stress, ease of transition, and life satisfaction. Levels
of stress and satisfaction were not measured in the prepartum testing phase, meaning
that it is impossible to determine what contribution prenatal levels of stress and life
satisfaction made to levels of stress and satisfaction a year after the arrival of the baby.
Thus, while the researchers have provided provocative evidence to suggest that the
effect of expectancy violation may depend upon which expectation is disconfirmed,
further research with measures that have established reliability and validity is needed.
The predominant focus of the transition to parenthood literature has been on
unanticipated negative consequences of having a baby. It seems that women’s
optimistic expectations about the amount of assistance from the spouse, level of social
support, sense of well-being, and maternal competence are not always matched by later
experiences, which in some cases can make the transition to parenthood more difficult.
These findings appear to be consistent with research on expectations in other domains,
which has found that when very specific, optimistic expectations are disconfirmed and
36
the outcomes are more negative than expected, it can have adverse effects on
psychological adjustment. While these studies point to the dangers of overly optimistic
expectations, other research suggests that it can be beneficial to hold optimistic
expectations during the transition to parenthood.
Green and Kafetsios (1997) tested women at several points during their
pregnancy then asked them to report on their experiences at six weeks postpartum. In
this study, positive expectations predicted positive parenting experiences. The nature of
expectations examined could account for these differing results. Rather than focusing
on expectations pertaining to very specific parenting tasks, Green and Kafetsios tapped
more generalised expectations about motherhood. They asked expectant mothers
whether they thought life would be more difficult after the birth, whether they thought
they would enjoy looking after their infant, whether they worried about not being a
good mother, and whether they worried about not having enough time to themselves
after the infant’s birth. Each of these expectations leaves some room for the new
mother to appraise whether her expectation has been met. This seems to be consistent
with the earlier view that generalised, optimistic expectations that are difficult to
disconfirm may be beneficial for adjustment. Other research has also found that
positive expectations predicted positive adjustment to parenthood (Coleman, Nelson, &
Sundre, 1999; Kach & McGhee, 1982; Wylie, 1979). However, these studies did not
measure factors such as mood or relationship satisfaction – two measures of
psychological adjustment that are influenced by the transition to parenthood (e.g.,
Morse et al., 2000). This means that it is impossible to determine whether positive
expectations lead to positive reports of postnatal experiences or whether a third factor
contributed to both positive expectations and positive self-reports after the birth of the
baby.
It seems that both optimistic and negative expectations may be beneficial for
37
aspects of psychological adjustment during the transition to parenthood. In specific
situations, it may be beneficial to expect some negative outcomes. For example, women
in a relationship that has had an equitable division of household labour prior to the
arrival of the infant may be best served to expect that they will be doing more following
the infant’s arrival. Expecting that the equitable split will continue may set these
women up for disappointment and have a negative effect on their relationship.
However, in relation to more general expectations about parenthood, such as deriving
enjoyment from caring for the infant, optimism may be beneficial for adjustment.
Woollett and Parr (1997) describe the transition to parenthood as a “complex, multi-
faceted, and contradictory experience”. Perhaps the best approach for a good
adjustment to parenthood is to hold complex, multifaceted, and contradictory
expectations about the transition.
Delmore-Ko, Pancer, Hunsberger, and Pratt (2000) assessed parenting
expectations by asking expectant parents open-ended questions during the third
trimester of their pregnancy and examined how these expectations influenced
adjustment during the transition to parenthood. This methodology seems to have
elicited a wider range of responses than other methods. The first-time parents in this
study displayed a diverse range of parenting expectations, including expectations about
positive and negative aspects of their new role. Using a cluster analysis technique, the
researchers divided the sample into three groups based on their parenting expectations.
These groups were labeled: prepared, fearful, and complacent.
Women in the prepared group were characterised by high number of
expectations pertaining to the joys and gratifications of parenthood and a relatively high
number of expectations about how they would cope with any problems or difficulties
they may encounter in their parenting role. Examples of these coping expectations
include: “We both do a lot of reading, so I just sort of feel that if something comes up
38
now, we’ll just sort of take it in stride. I feel pretty confident about this aspect of
parenting” (p. 628) and “I’m aware that there’s going to be stressful situations and I
think that awareness in itself will be able to let me handle it better” (p. 628). This group
reported relatively few expectations indicating anxiety or uncertainty about the
parenting role.
In contrast, the fearful group reported a relatively high number of expectations
indicative of anxiety and uncertainty about their forthcoming role (e.g., “I worry that we
don’t know enough about it to be good parents” and “I’m not sure what’s going to
happen” p. 628). In comparison to the prepared group, the fearful group had few
expectations about how they would cope with the parenting role.
The complacent group reported relatively low numbers of enthusiastic, anxious,
uncertain, and coping expectations. These women seemed to be relatively apathetic
toward their impending parenting role. Of the three groups, the prepared group
displayed higher levels of self-esteem and lower levels of stress across the transition to
parenthood. Notably, there were no differences among the groups on measures of
depression and marital adjustment.
Delmore-Ko et al (2000) also examined the expectations and adjustment of men
during the transition to parenthood. Like the female participants the male participants
were divided into groups according to the responses they gave. Three of the groups
were the same as the women’s groups (prepared, fearful, and complacent), and the
patterns of responses given for each group were similar to those given by the women.
Men in the fourth group, labeled mixed, gave a high frequency of anxious, uncertain,
and enthusiastic responses but relatively few coping responses. Again, those in the
prepared group reported significantly lower levels of stress than those in the complacent
group. The authors argued that these results, along with the results from the women,
indicate that expectations that encompass positive aspects of parenting and an
39
expectation that they will be able to cope with the more difficult aspects is associated
with better adjustment to parenthood.
Pancer, Pratt, Hunsberger, and Gallant (2000) found that women whose prenatal
expectations were more complex and included both positive and negative aspects of
parenthood displayed higher levels of self-esteem, reduced depression, and better
marital adjustment across the transition than women who held simpler, one dimensional
expectations three months before the birth of their baby. These results along with
Delmore-Ko et al.’s (2000) work, suggest that optimistic expectations about the joys
and gratifications are beneficial in the adjustment to parenthood but it is also important
to expect some challenges and to formulate some expectations about how to cope with
those challenges. However, these studies did not compare postnatal experiences to
prenatal expectations. Consequently, it is not possible to determine whether there were
any discrepancies between the participants’ expectations and experiences and, if there
were discrepancies, what effect they had on adjustment.
The work of Delmore-Ko et al. (2000) and Pancer et al. (2000) suggests that
expectant parents’ expectations about how they will cope with the challenges of
parenthood are important during this transition. For those that encounter unexpected
difficulties, the expectation that they will be able to cope with the challenges that
parenthood presents may mean that expectancy disconfirmation has a minimal effect on
adjustment.
Parenting Self-Efficacy Beliefs
The importance of parenting self-efficacy beliefs has been implicated in research
investigating a variety of parenting domains. Self-efficacy beliefs have been associated
with a number of positive parenting outcomes including psychological adjustment in
mothers of chronically ill children (Silver, Bauman, & Ireys, 1995; Thompson,
Gustafson, Hamlett, & Spock, 1992), buffering the effects of parenting stress on the
40
mental health of parents of kindergarten and school age children (Kwok & Wong,
2000), children’s academic ability (Seefeldt, Denton, Galper, & Younoszai, 1999), and
parenting satisfaction (Coleman & Karraker, 2000).
Much of the research investigating parenting self-efficacy has been conducted
with parents of toddlers and older children. However, two important studies have
demonstrated that parents’ self-efficacy beliefs exert a powerful effect on adjustment
during the first year of parenthood. These studies attempted to ascertain how self-
efficacy interacted with two common stressors that new parents face: a temperamentally
difficult infant and poor social support. Teti and Gelfand (1991) tested whether self-
efficacy mediated between maternal competence and maternal depression, maternal
perceptions of infant temperament, and social-marital supports in a sample that included
clinically depressed and non-depressed women. Maternal competence was measured by
observing the mothers interacting with their infants who were aged between 3 and 13
months of age. Self-efficacy was significantly correlated with maternal competence,
perceptions of infant difficulty, socio-marital supports, and maternal depression.
Maternal self-efficacy remained significantly correlated with maternal competence after
the effects of the other variables were controlled for statistically. However, when self-
efficacy was controlled for statistically the other variables no longer accounted for
variance in maternal competence indicating that self-efficacy mediated between the
psychosocial variables and maternal competence.
In similar research, Cutrona and Troutman (1986) measured women’s
depression and social support during pregnancy and three months after the birth
assessed depression again as well as parenting self-efficacy and ratings of infant
difficulty. Cutrona and Troutman found that the effect of infant temperament and
perceived social support on depression was mediated by maternal self-efficacy. Hence,
factors that have been associated with maternal depression, such as having an infant
41
who cries frequently or low levels of social support, appear to exert their effect by
undermining the new mother’s sense of efficacy. Mothers who have environmental
influences that boost their sense of efficacy may be less prone to depression. Again, the
findings suggest women’s efficacy beliefs are an important factor in their postnatal
adjustment.
While it would seem that parenting self-efficacy beliefs are influential in the
early stages of parenthood, the extent to which parenting self-efficacy beliefs held
during pregnancy might influence adjustment during the transition to parenthood is
uncertain. On the one hand, given that efficacy beliefs seem to play an important role
during other stages of parenthood, it seems plausible that these beliefs may play an
important role during the transition. However, because the self-efficacy beliefs of first-
time parents are based on very limited experience, it is possible they do not exert a
particularly powerful effect on behaviour. Robust, lasting self-efficacy beliefs are
formed via direct success experiences in relevant behavioural domains (Bandura, 1995,
1997). While first time parents may have had previous experience caring for infants,
very few would have cared for an infant on a constant basis for an extended period of
time. Many first time parents may have to rely on vicarious experience or visualisation
of themselves in the parenting role as sources of their self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore,
their self-efficacy beliefs relating to the specific tasks of parenting may be unreliable.
Researchers who have attempted to establish whether prenatal self-efficacy beliefs
influence postnatal adjustment have produced mixed results.
Olioff and Aboud (1991) asked pregnant women to list 10 activities that they
believed characterised good mothering and the extent to which they were confident that
they would be able to carry out these activities during the first 6 months of their infants’
lives. The authors’ rationale for using this idiosyncratic measure was that it would
provide a sensitive measure of each woman’s concept of parenting self-efficacy. Six
42
months after the birth, the new mothers recorded their self-efficacy beliefs pertaining to
their performance on the same childcare tasks. There were no significant differences
between prenatal and postnatal perceptions of efficacy. Further, prenatal perceptions of
self-efficacy predicted maternal postnatal dysphoria, suggesting that parenting self-
efficacy beliefs held during pregnancy affect postnatal adjustment.
Olioff and Aboud (1991) argued that mothers with low self-efficacy beliefs
might believe that problems or difficulties encountered while caring for their infant
were due to their own lack of parenting efficacy. These women may be less persistent
in efforts to acquire new parenting skills, which would further decrease the likelihood of
achieving desired outcomes. The authors speculated that this cycle resulted in the
higher levels of dysphoria in the women with lower self-efficacy beliefs. In contrast,
mothers with high self-efficacy beliefs may attribute any difficulties and problems to
external factors or view having trouble at some point as an inevitable part of the
transition. These efficacious mothers may persist in the face of difficulties and
therefore increase the likelihood of achieving desired outcomes. An alternative
explanation, given the correlational nature of the research, is the women with low self-
efficacy beliefs accurately assessed that they were not able to cope with the challenges
of parenting and felt depressed about it.
Reece and Harkless (1998) conducted a similar longitudinal study assessing
parenting self-efficacy beliefs during pregnancy and four months after the birth of the
baby but used different measures and produced findings that contradict those of Olioff
and Aboud (1991). The former authors examined the effect of self-efficacy beliefs on
perceived stress and parental adaptation, which encompassed quality of the marital
relationship, partner’s participation in infant care, gratification with delivery,
satisfaction with life, confidence in parenting, satisfaction with the infant and infant care
tasks, and support for the parental role from family, friends, and others. Notably, they
43
did not measure depression during pregnancy or the postnatal period. They found no
relationship between prenatal self-efficacy and postnatal measures of adaptation and
stress. Postnatal perceptions of self-efficacy were significantly correlated with quality
of relationship with partner, confidence in parenting, satisfaction with infant, and
support for parenting for mothers, and confidence in parenting and life satisfaction for
fathers. The authors suggested that prenatal perceptions of self-efficacy may have been
inaccurate and therefore may not have exerted any influence over postnatal measures of
adaptation; in contrast, postnatal self-efficacy beliefs were more likely to be accurate
and exert a more robust influence adjustment. Reece and Harkless (1998) used different
self-efficacy measures and outcome variables to Olioff and Aboud (1991), which makes
it difficult to draw conclusions about the contradictory findings.
Binda and Crippa (2000) examined the effect of self-efficacy beliefs on couples’
adaptation to parenthood rather than each parent’s individual adjustment to parenthood.
Self-efficacy beliefs pertaining to pregnancy and labour were assessed in the prepartum
phase. Approximately four months after birth, the researchers assessed self-efficacy
beliefs relating to parenting and mutual support between the couple as they adjusted to
the arrival of the infant in the family. A structural equation modeling analysis of the
results revealed that maternal self-efficacy influenced paternal self-efficacy, which in
turn influenced paternal satisfaction. Paternal satisfaction then influenced maternal
satisfaction. Binda and Crippa argued that this pattern of relationships served to
strengthen the marital bond during the transition to parenthood and that the perceived
self-efficacy of each partner may serve as a protective factor in coping with the
sometimes stressful transition to parenthood. Although this study focuses on a
circumscribed set of variables, the results suggest that high self-efficacy beliefs can
buffer some of the difficulties of the transition to parenthood.
An optimistic sense of self-efficacy in the early stages of parenthood seems to be
44
associated with better parental adjustment. Factors such as having a fussy infant or poor
social support are associated with poorer adjustment to parenthood and seem to exert
their effects by undermining the parent’s sense of efficacy (Teti & Gelfand, 1991;
Cutrona & Troutman, 1986). These studies have examined self-efficacy once the
parents have had some experience with the task. Studies that have examined the
parenting self-efficacy beliefs of expectant parents have focused on self-efficacy beliefs
pertaining to specific parenting tasks (Olioff & Aboud, 1991; Reece & Harkless, 1998),
such as being able to feed the infant or soothe the infant when he or she cries. Then,
they have attempted to link these beliefs to indicators of adjustment to parenthood such
as mood or the quality of the parents’ relationship. These studies have produced
contradictory results about the extent to which these beliefs affect postnatal adjustment
(Olioff & Aboud, 1991; Reece & Harkless, 1998). A more general sense of prenatal
efficacy pertaining to the extent to which expectant parents believe they are capable of
meeting the challenges of and adapting to parenthood may exert a greater influence on
postnatal adjustment. Research from other areas has found that a general sense of self-
efficacy may be beneficial for adjustment during life transitions (Jerusalem & Mittag,
1995). Parents who enter their new role with the belief that they will be able to meet the
challenges that parenthood presents may be able to persevere through the early
challenges and difficulties without becoming dispirited. Those that enter their new role
unsure of their ability to cope may interpret early difficulties as a sign of their inability
to cope rather than a normal part of the transition and become depressed. Given the
mixed findings of previous research examining, the relationship between prenatal self-
efficacy beliefs and later adjustment warrants further investigation.
Conclusion
The research reviewed in this chapter indicates that expectant parents’
expectations influence their adjustment to their new role. This is consistent with
45
research in other areas, which has found that expectations have a powerful effect on
mood, cognition, and behaviour. As has been demonstrated in research investigating
expectations about other future life events, expectant parents tend to have optimistic
expectations about their impending role. In studies examining factors such as academic
achievement and coping with chronic illness, optimistic expectations have been
associated with positive psychological adjustment and there is evidence that this is also
the case during transition to parenthood (Buehler et al., 1994; Coleman et al., 1999;
Delmore-Ko et al., 2000; Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Kach & McGhee, 1982; Leedham et
al., 1995; Wylie, 1979). This research seems to provide some support for Taylor and
Brown’s (1988, 1994) view that unrealistically optimistic expectations may a beneficial
effect on psychological adjustment. However, these studies have not compared the
expectant parents’ expectations with their postnatal experiences. This means it is
impossible to determine whether antenatal expectations matched postnatal experiences
or whether there were discrepancies and if there were discrepancies, how they
influenced postnatal adjustment.
Studies that have compared expectations with later experiences have found that
unrealistic optimism in certain areas can have a detrimental effect on adjustment
(Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Kalmuss et al., 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In
particular, women’s expectations about the extent to which their partners will assist with
household duties and both partners’ expectations of the impact of parenthood on their
relationship are often overly optimistic. These expectancy discrepancies appear to be
associated with a more difficult adjustment to parenthood. These findings are consistent
with work examining expectations in other areas where expecting a positive outcome
but experiencing a negative outcome is associated with negative affect (Shepperd &
McNulty, 2002). This may indicate that expecting some of the common difficulties that
occur during the transition to parenthood may be beneficial for adjustment.
46
Another possibility is that not all individuals are affected by expectancy
discrepancies in the same way. For example, Hackel and Ruble (1992) found that
women’s gender role orientations moderated the effect of household labour expectancy
discrepancies on adjustment to parenthood. Parenting self-efficacy beliefs may
moderate the effect of expectancy disconfirmation on adjustment. An optimistic sense
of efficacy may enable parents to cope more effectively when events are more difficult
than they had expected and, consequently, these discrepancies may not have as
detrimental effect on their adjustment. While there has been considerable research into
parenting efficacy beliefs, relatively few studies have examined parenting efficacy
during the transition to parenthood and those that have been conducted have produced
contradictory results (Reece & Harkless, 1998; Olioff & Aboud, 1991). In terms of
predicting adjustment to parenthood, it may be more useful to focus on efficacy beliefs
pertaining to how expectant parents expect to cope with the challenges of parenthood
more generally, rather than expectations about specific parenting tasks. Research
examining these more general parenting efficacy beliefs has not been conducted, nor
have there been studies investigating whether efficacy beliefs moderate the effect of
expectancy discrepancies.
The research to be reported in the remaining chapters of this thesis aimed to
address the limitations of previous work, first by examining a broader range of
expectations than has been investigated in the past. Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) work found
evidence to suggest that the effect of expectancy disconfirmation during the transition to
parenthood may depend on the particular expectation that has been disconfirmed. The
finding that expectancy disconfirmation does not always influence adjustment warrants
further investigation. Second, this research will compare expectations with experiences
to determine the impact of expectancy disconfirmation on psychological adjustment
during the transition to parenthood. The aim is to elucidate how the disconfirmation of
47
overly optimistic expectations influences psychological adjustment both during the
transition to parenthood and more broadly. Third, this research will investigate whether
efficacy beliefs moderate the effects of expectancy disconfirmation.
48
CHAPTER 3
STUDY 1: THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASURE OF PARENTING
EXPECTATIONS
This chapter briefly reviews previous work examining attitudes and beliefs
during pregnancy and the early stages of parenthood and describes the measure
development study undertaken in the current project. As outlined in Chapter 2, the aims
of the current research included expanding on previous findings by examining a broader
range of expectations, exploring the relationship between optimistic expectations and
adjustment, and delineating the effects of disconfirmed expectations on adjustment. In
order to address these aims, it was necessary to examine pregnant women’s expectations
about parenthood, that is, their beliefs about the nature of their lives once they became
parents. This necessitated a measure that would assess a broad range of positive and
negative parenting expectations and enable direct comparison between expectations and
reports of experiences. Although previous work has investigated the expectations of
first-time parents, it was difficult to find a questionnaire that measured first-time
expectant mothers’ expectations of parenthood and addressed the requirements
described above. One reason for this is that there are few measures with established
reliability or validity that assess psychological phenomena pertaining specifically to the
transition to parenthood (Ruble et al., 1990).
The scales that do exist tend to ask women to comment on their attitudes and
beliefs pertaining to their current circumstances rather than their expectations of
parenthood. Consequently, these scales assess attitudes and beliefs pertaining to
pregnancy during pregnancy and after the birth, they assess attitudes and beliefs
relevant to early parenthood. An example of this is Kumar, Robson, and Smith’s (1984)
Maternal Adjustment and Maternal Attitudes (MAMA) measure, which is designed to
measure self-perceptions and attitudes in pregnant women and new mothers in order to
49
identify factors that contribute to psychiatric disorders during pregnancy and the
postnatal period. The scale assesses a woman’s perceptions of her body, somatic
symptoms, marital relationship, attitudes to sex, and attitudes to pregnancy and the
baby. Most items in this scale ask women to express their attitudes or beliefs about
their current situation. For example, an item in the prenatal version of the marital
relationship subscale asks “Have you been feeling close to your partner since you
became pregnant?” (p. 50). In the postnatal version, this item asks “Have you been
feeling closer to your partner since you had the baby?” (p. 51). Few of the items assess
women’s expectations pertaining to their future as a parent. The exception to this is the
subscale that taps attitudes to the pregnancy and the baby. In the pregnancy version of
this scale, some of the items tap women’s thoughts about their future, such as whether
they have been worrying about being a good mother, wondering if their baby will be
healthy and normal, and looking forward to caring for their baby’s needs. Other items
in the subscale focus on issues relevant to pregnancy such as whether the woman has
been worrying about hurting her baby while it is inside her.
Other scales designed to assess psychological constructs during pregnancy also
focus on attitudes or beliefs about pregnancy rather than expectations of parenthood.
Affonso and Sheptak’s (1989) Cognitive Adaptation to Pregnancy scale is based on the
assumption that successful adaptation to pregnancy involves self-enhancement, a sense
of mastery, and a search for meaning. Therefore, scale items are designed to tap these
themes and do not measure expectations of parenthood. While Warner, Appleby,
Whitton, and Faragher’s (1997) Maternal Attitudes Questionnaire is designed for use in
a postnatal population, the authors state that it measures expectations about motherhood
and expectations of the self as a mother, as well as thoughts pertaining to role change.
However, close examination of the expectation items reveals that they tap beliefs and
attitudes rather than expectations about the future. The one item that does address
50
expectations assesses whether having a baby has made the women as happy as they had
expected, which appears to be a retrospective evaluation of their feelings rather than a
prenatal expectation. Ruble et al. (1990) developed two scales that assess a
comprehensive range of attitudes, beliefs, and mothering characteristics across the
transition to parenthood. The first scale assessed attitudes towards childbearing and
covered a wide range of areas including maternal worries, body image, feelings about
children, and feelings of dependency. The second scale assessed maternal self-
definition and asked women to rate the extent to which they would exhibit a range of
behaviours and attributes presumed to be relevant to good mothering. While some of
the items in this scale do tap expectations about the early stages of parenthood, the
primary focus is on women’s attitudes about their current state or their beliefs about
themselves and others in their lives.
Some research has examined a broad range of expectations but it has done so
with measures that do not have established reliability or validity. For example, Wylie
(1979) investigated the extent to which the expectations of first-time parents predicted
the ease of adjustment to parenthood. The 32-item questionnaire used by Wylie was
based on measures used by Hobbs (1965) and Russell (1974) and it assessed positive
and negative perceptions of parenthood. As with many of the measures or items used in
this field of research, the initial expectations measure asked respondents about their
expectations of parenthood and the second measure converts the initial expectations into
statements worded in the present tense assessing experiences of parenthood. The items
cover a broad range of topics but no information is provided about their reliability or
validity.
Ruble and colleagues also examined how expectations pertaining to the division
of household labour and childcare influence relationship satisfaction during the
transition to parenthood (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In the prenatal
51
phase of the studies, the participants were asked to rate the percentage of domestic
labour that they expected their spouses and themselves to do after the arrival of the
baby. In the postnatal phase, they were asked to rate the percentage of household labor
that they and their spouse were doing. As discussed in Chapter 2, when women’s
expectations about the amount their spouse would contribute to domestic labour were
disconfirmed, there was a decline in relationship satisfaction. While this research
investigated an important aspect of the transition to parenthood, it is possible that the
division of labour is not the only area where there is a discrepancy between expectations
and experiences.
Belsky (1986) and Kalmuss et al. (1992) examined a wider range of expectations
than Ruble and colleagues (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). In order to
determine whether disconfirmed expectations contributed to the decline in marital
satisfaction across the transition to parenthood Belsky assessed expectations in six
domains: marital conflict and co-operation, overall marital relationship, the effect of
parenthood on themselves, relations with extended family, relations with friends and
neighbours, and shared caregiving. The items for each domain were obtained from a
content analysis of open-ended interviews with first time parents. Expectations were
measured during the last trimester of the women’s pregnancy. Perceptions of parenting
experiences were measured when the infants were three and six months of age. The
internal consistency reliability of each scale ranged from .57 to.92 with a mean of .83.
Although Belsky examined a wider range of parenting expectations, the focus remained
on factors pertaining to the couple’s transition to parenthood rather than the individual
parent’s transition (the findings of Belsky’s study are discussed in Chapter 2). The
study tapped expectations about how the expectant parents thought parenthood would
influence various aspects of their life but asked few questions on their expectations of
parenting itself, their baby, or their relationship with their baby. Questions on the baby
52
were confined to which parent would be responsible for the various care-taking tasks,
for example, the percentage of the time that each parent would take responsibility for
getting up to attend to the baby’s needs in the night.
Kalmuss et al. (1992) looked beyond the previous focus on expectations about
the division of labour and the effect of parenthood on the marital relationship. Their
investigation examined first-time mothers’ expectations in six non-maternal domains -
the effect parenthood would have on the relationship with their spouse, their physical
well being, their relationships with members of their extended family and friends, their
employment, and their financial well-being. In addition, Kalmuss et al. assessed
women’s expectations in three maternal domains, namely, expectations about their
competence and maternal satisfaction in the maternal role and about the amount of
caregiving assistance that they would receive from their spouses. Within each of the
non-maternal domains, participants were asked to compare the way things usually were
with the way they expected things to be when their infant was 12 months old. In the
postnatal test phase, participants were presented with the same item but were asked to
report how much change had occurred rather than how much change they expected to
occur (see Chapter 2 for a discussion of the findings). While the broader scope of
expectations examined by Kalmuss et al. is useful, the investigators do not provide any
information about the reliability or the validity of their expectations measure.
In summary, while there has been work investigating cognitions during
pregnancy and early parenthood relatively few studies have examined parenting
expectations during pregnancy and then compared these expectations to reports of
parenting experiences. Those that have made the comparison have tended to focus on
expectations pertaining to how parenthood would influence the marital relationship.
Areas that have been somewhat neglected in previous work include women’s
expectations of the nature of caring for their infants, their expectations of their
53
relationship with their infants, and how they expect parenthood to influence their
emotional well-being and perception of themselves. Other studies that have been
broader in scope have not provided information about the reliability or validity of their
measures. When planning the current project, it was impossible to find measures with
established reliability and validity that enabled an exploration of expectations about a
range of positive and negative aspects of early parenthood. For the purposes of the
current research, it was also important to have a measure that allowed a direct
comparison between expectations and experiences in order to determine how
discrepancies between these variables influence adjustment to parenthood.
The aim of the current study was to develop a comprehensive, valid, and
reliable measure of parenting expectations. The current measure was designed to assess
women’s expectations of caring for their infant and their relationship with their infant.
In addition, the measure was designed to assess women’s expectations of how
parenthood would influence three major aspects of their lives: their relationship with
their partner, their own physical and psychological well being, and their relationships
with others in their lives, including family, friends, and colleagues. As discussed in
Chapter 1, previous research has found that each of these domains of functioning are
influenced by the transition to parenthood (e.g., Bost et al., 2002; Cappuccini &
Cochrane, 2000; Cowan & Cowan, 1992; Monk et al., 1996; Shapiro et al., 2000;
Thompson et al., 2002; Wells et al., 1999; Wallace & Gotlib, 1990). To create this
measure, items were gathered and adapted from previous studies examining
expectations and other cognitions during the transition to parenthood. Items were also
generated for this study in order to address aspects of parenthood that previous work has
not addressed or to elaborate on themes addressed in a limited manner by previous
research. In order to establish the reliability and validity of the items and whether they
discriminated between participants, all of the items were administered to a sample of
54
women pregnant with their first child. Given that previous research has found that first-
time expectant parents tend to be overly optimistic about parenthood, the hypothesis
was that the women would expect to experience positive aspects of parenthood and
expect to avoid negative aspects of parenthood.
Method
Participants
The requirements for women to participate in this study were that they were
pregnant with their first child and over the age of 18 years. Women were approached at
antenatal classes and at an antenatal clinic at public hospitals in the metropolitan area of
a major Australian city (Perth, Western Australia). One hundred and fifty women
expressed interest in participating in the study and were given the questionnaire; of
these, 87 returned their questionnaires. There is no way to assess whether there were
any consistent differences between those that returned their questionnaires and those
that did not.
The majority of the women (67) were recruited from an antenatal clinic. These
women were attending their initial appointment with the midwife. Twenty women were
recruited from antenatal classes. These women had been pregnant longer than those
recruited from the antenatal clinic as women usually commenced these classes when
they were 28 weeks pregnant. The duration of the participants’ pregnancies at the time
they completed the questionnaire ranged from 8 to 36 weeks (M = 24.3 weeks, SD =
9.11). Of the participants who returned their questionnaires, 12.6% were in the first
trimester of their pregnancy (1 to 12 weeks), 36.8% were in the second trimester of their
pregnancy (13 to 27 weeks), and 50.6% were in the third trimester of their pregnancy
(28 weeks to birth).
The women ranged in age from 18 years to 39 years and the mean age of the
participants was 27.2 years (SD = 5.08). This is approximately the average age of 27.3
55
years for first-time mothers in Australia in 2000 (Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare [AIHW] National Perinatal Statistics Unit, 2003). Of the participants, 58.6%
were married, 29.9% were in de facto relationships, and 11.5% were single. It should
be noted that several participants indicated that they were single but wrote on the
questionnaire that they were in a relationship with their baby’s father, although not
living with him at the time that they participated in this study.
Measures
Parenting Expectations Measure
The expectations measure used in this study contained 103 items gathered
from a variety of sources. The items consisted of a statement relating to an expectation
of what life would be like when the participant was a parent of an infant. Twenty-four
of the items were adapted versions of those used by Wylie (1979). Aside from some
minor word changes, these items were used in their original form. Forty-six of the
items were adapted from items used in studies examining cognitions relating to
pregnancy and the early stages of parenthood (Affonso & Sheptak, 1989; Belsky, 1985;
Kalmuss et al., 1992; Levy-Shiff, Goldshmidt, & Har-Even, 1991; Ruble et al., 1990;
Warner et al., 1997). The items were rephrased for a number of reasons. Some items
were reworded from the present tense to the future tense. Others were phrased into the
first person. In other cases, it was necessary to change the wording so that it was
appropriate for an Australian sample. For example, partner was used rather than mate
to refer to the participant’s spouse. To obtain items that unambiguously represented
either positive or negative expectations about parenthood, neutrally worded or
ambiguous items were reworded to represent either a positive or a negative expectation.
In addition, 26 items were written specifically for this study in order to examine
expectations relating to areas of early parenthood that had not been considered in
previous research or to examine in more detail aspects that other research has touched
56
on. Examples of these include items tapping women’s expectations of how parenthood
will influence their ability to socialise with family and friends, whether they expect to
feel confined to the house, and whether they expect to encounter unwanted interference
from others. All items included in the measure development questionnaire, the source
of the items, and the original version of the items (where appropriate) are displayed in
Appendix A.
Based on previous research examining domains that are influenced by the
transition to parenthood, the collated items were divided into four groups: infant
expectations, partner expectations, self expectations, and social expectations. The
infant expectations items tap issues relating to care of the baby and the women’s
relationship with their infant. The partner expectations items assess the women’s
expectations about how parenthood will influence their relationships with their partners.
The self expectations items assess expectations pertaining to the woman’s emotional,
social, and physical functioning. The social expectations items tap women’s
expectations about how parenting will influence their relationships with others in their
social networks and their expectations about the amount of social support they expect to
receive in the early stages of parenthood.
The expectation items were randomly ordered in the questionnaire. The
participants were required to respond to the item on a 7-point scale where 1 represented
strongly disagree and 7 represented strongly agree. Participants also could also write
NA if they felt that the item was not relevant to them (for example, items that asked
about breastfeeding for women who were not planning to breastfeed). There was also
space at the end of the questionnaire for women to comment on how they had found
completing the questionnaire and to make note of any items that they found ambiguous,
offensive, or irrelevant.
57
MAMA (Kumar et al., 1984)
The MAMA questionnaire (Kumar et al., 1984) was used to assess the
concurrent validity of the expectations questionnaire. As discussed in the introduction
to this study, the MAMA measures attitudes pertaining to pregnancy as well as general
expectations of parenthood meaning that it is not an ideal measure to use to establish
concurrent validity. However, it was selected for this purpose because it is one of the
few published scales assessing parenting expectations that has established reliability and
validity. There is a pregnancy version and a postnatal version of this questionnaire,
both of which contain five sub-scales: body-image, somatic symptoms, marital
relationship, attitudes to sex, and attitudes to pregnancy and baby. The pregnancy
version of the attitudes to pregnancy and baby subscale was used in this study as it
contained the items most relevant to the concepts that the expectations questionnaire is
attempting to assess and it was developed for use on pregnant women. Kumar et al.
found that this subscale has satisfactory test-retest (r = .84, p < .001) as well as
satisfactory split-half reliability (r = .73, p < .001). The authors also found that the
attitudes to pregnancy and baby sub-scale distinguished between woman that reported
negative feelings towards their infants during a structured interview and women that
expressed positive feelings towards their infants. Cronbach’s alpha for the MAMA in
the current sample was .67.
Procedure
Women attending antenatal classes and an antenatal clinic were approached
and asked if they would like to complete a questionnaire that assessed their expectations
of parenthood. If the women agreed to participate, they were given a test package
containing an information sheet, a consent form, instructions, the questionnaire, and a
reply paid envelope. Copies of the questionnaire, instructions, and information sheet
used in this study are displayed in Appendix B. Participants were asked to complete the
58
questionnaire and return it to the School of Psychology at the University of Western
Australia using a reply paid envelope. If the participants had not returned the
questionnaire within two weeks, they were given a reminder telephone call. Of the
participants that returned their questionnaires, 17 were given reminder calls.
Results
The mean, standard deviation, and number of responses for each item are
presented in Table 1. The means for the items ranged between 1.75 and 6.89. The
standard deviations for the expectation items ranged between 0.32 and 1.80. Items with
means higher than 6.50 and lower than 1.50 were removed from the item pool. Items
with means that are close to the extreme values on a scale tend to indicate that most
participants are responding to the item in the same way. Therefore, in order to produce
a measure with sound psychometric properties, it is appropriate to select items with
means that are close to the middle value on the scale as this would indicate that
participants are giving a variety of responses to the item1 (Rust & Golombok, 1989). In
this case, the means of many retained items were higher or lower than the middle value
but were retained for a number of reasons. Participants tended to agree overwhelmingly
with positive expectation items and disagreed with the negative expectation items.
Although the mean was high or low, there was some variation in the level of
disagreement or agreement. For example, on some items different participants marked
slightly disagree, disagree, or strongly disagree. The instrument aims not only to
measure parenting expectations but also whether there are any changes between
expectation scores and experience scores. Given that previous research has found that
the expectations that women hold about life after the birth of their child can be
unrealistically high (e.g., Kalmuss et al., 1992), it is likely that the expectations scores
1 Means that are equal to the middle item on the scale could also indicate that all participants responded to the item by endorsing the middle response. The distributions of the items were checked to ensure that this was not the case.
59
in this study may also be unrealistically high and the means of some items will be lower
on the postnatal version of the measure. For this reason, items skewed towards the
positive or negative end of the scale were retained, although they did not have
psychometrically ideal properties.
The Pearson’s correlations between the participants’ scores on each item and
their total scores on the parenting expectations measure were calculated and are
displayed in Table 3.1. Before these correlations were calculated, the negative
expectation items on the measure were reverse scored to ensure that higher scores on
individual items and higher total scores were indicative of positive expectations of
parenthood: either agreement with positive expectations or disagreement with negative
expectations. Eighty of the calculated correlations were significant. Non-significant
correlations and correlations with values less than .30 were removed from the item pool
as this indicates there was a weak relationship between the individuals’ responses on the
item in question and their responses on the other items in the measure (Rust &
Golombok, 1989).
After items had been removed from the scale due to low correlations between
participants’ scores on the item and their total scores or where item means were too
extreme, ambiguously worded items were also removed. Ambiguity was determined by
examining participants’ comments about the scale. Items that were determined to be
worded neutrally (i.e., statements that did not reflect a clearly negative or clearly
positive expectation), were also discarded. Participants commented that some items
were repetitive and some items were removed to avoid this repetition. When making
the choice between two similar items, the item with the best psychometric properties, as
indicated by the mean and correlation, was retained.
60
Table 3.1 Means for participants’ responses on the expectation items and correlation coefficients between scores for each item and the total scores for the questionniare.
Infant Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will enjoy my baby’s company 87 6.49 0.76 4-7 .64**
I will feel that my baby loves me 87 6.33 0.79 4-7 .65**
My baby will be fun to play with 87 6.09 0.69 4-7 .66**
Breastfeeding will make me feel close to
my baby
84 6.01 1.04 1-7 .55**
I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby 83 5.80 1.10 3-7 .44**
Caring for a baby will be very difficult 87 4.20 1.68 1-7 .37**
I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable 85 3.12 1.44 1-6 .45**
I will be disturbed by feelings I have
towards my baby
86 2.63 1.36 1-6 .47**
The messes that my baby will make will
bother me a lot
87 2.49 1.24 1-7 .53**
I will resent being the main caretaker of the
baby
87 2.13 1.16 1-6 .61**
I will sometimes regret having my baby 87 1.91 1.18 1-5 .65**
Removed Items
I will love my baby 87 6.89 0.32 6-7 .47**
I will feel pride in my baby’s development 87 6.59 0.60 4-7 .67**
Being the parent of a baby will involve a lot
of hard work
85 6.11 0.83 3-7 .15
I will enjoy the care-taking activities
involved in being a mother
87 6.05 0.83 1-7 .56**
Being the parent of a baby will be very
time consuming
87 5.99 0.88 3-7 .11
61
Infant Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Removed Items
I will find myself worrying about my
baby’s health
87 5.63 1.16 2-7 .26*
I will be responsible for most of the child-
care tasks
87 5.26 1.24 2-7 .07
Breastfeeding will come very naturally to
me
85 4.95 1.39 1-7 .40**
I will have no difficulties in becoming
comfortable caring for my baby
87 4.82 1.59 1-7 .43**
It will be difficult to breastfeed my baby 85 3.45 1.45 1-7 .14
I will find breastfeeding embarrassing 85 2.60 1.59 1-7 .22
Partner Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
My partner and I will enjoy spending time
together
84 6.07 0.88 3-7 .46**
My partner will be able to take care of the
baby when I go out
83 5.90 1.16 1-7 .30*
I will feel satisfied with my partner’s
involvement in the daily care of the baby
84 5.68 1.04 3-7 .41**
My partner will help out more with
household chores
83 5.36 1.04 1-7 .30*
My partner and I will have more fun
together
84 4.83 1.12 3-7 .59**
My partner will get on my nerves 84 2.48 1.44 1-7 .56**
The arrival of the baby will cause
difficulties in my relationship with my
partner
84 2.46 1.45 1-7 .58**
62
Partner Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
My partner will be less sensitive to my
feelings
84 2.33 1.20 1-7 .52**
My partner will show less attention to me 84 2.19 1.10 1-5 .49**
I will feel more distant from my partner 84 1.95 1.18 1-7 .45**
My partner will show too little attention to
the baby
84 1.75 1.07 1-7 .45**
Removed Items
My partner will give me the emotional
support that I need
83 5.88 1.00 1-7 .37**
My partner and I will spend a great deal of
time together
82 5.60 1.12 2-7 .51**
I will have stronger feelings of love for my
partner
84 5.43 1.56 1-7 .26*
My partner will respect me more 83 4.65 1.48 1-7 .19
I will have more things to talk to my
partner about
84 4.51 1.68 1-7 .18
My partner and I will argue less about how
we spend our money
81 3.43 1.20 1-6 -.10
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will feel proud to be a parent 85 6.45 0.65 4-7 .65**
Being a parent will make me feel happy 86 6.21 0.86 4-7 .64**
Being a parent will be the most important
thing in my life
85 5.69 1.08 3-7 .55**
Being a parent will fit into the life that I
want to live
87 5.69 1.16 2-7 .57**
63
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
My life will change for the better 86 5.67 1.00 3-7 .63**
I will have a feeling of “fulfillment” 87 5.64 1.15 2-7 .66**
Being a parent will make me feel satisfied 87 5.63 1.05 3-7 .65**
Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled
as a woman
86 5.56 1.17 2-7 .56**
Becoming a parent will be the best thing
that ever happened to me
87 5.35 1.27 1-7 .37**
I will return to my normal physical self
within a few months of the birth of the
baby
87 4.66 1.45 1-7 .43**
Being a parent will increase my sense of
independence
87 4.64 1.40 1-7 .31*
There will not be enough money for non-
essential items or services (for example,
going to the movies, buying CDs or gifts)
87 4.06 1.54 1-7 .32**
I will feel more vulnerable to being
criticised by others
87 3.76 1.49 1-7 .32**
I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset 87 3.62 1.50 1-7 .49**
I will be less sexually responsive 87 3.44 1.46 1-7 .43**
I will feel confined to the house 87 3.02 1.46 1-7 .44**
Being a parent will make me feel frustrated 87 3.01 1.51 1-6 .43**
I will have more periods of boredom 87 2.51 1.21 1-7 .52**
My life will lack variety 87 2.44 1.23 1-5 .60**
I will feel disappointed by parenthood 85 1.99 1.02 1-4 .57**
Removed Items
There will be an interruption of routine
habits of sleeping, going places, etc.
86 6.23 0.76 3-7 -.08
64
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Removed Items
I will feel physically tired and fatigued 87 5.32 1.10 2-7 -.09
I will not get much sleep at night 87 5.32 1.09 2-7 -.13
My feelings will be more intense 87 4.87 0.99 2-7 .25*
I will be more sensitive 85 4.74 1.26 1-7 .27*
There will be increased money problems 86 4.65 1.51 1-7 .32**
My life will change in a way that seems
scary
85 4.58 1.57 1-7 .10
I will worry about my loss of figure 87 4.55 1.65 1-7 .13
Daily life will be no more difficult after the
baby is born
87 4.39 1.53 1-7 .15
I will feel less desire to work outside the
home
87 4.39 1.53 1-7 .06
I will be worried about my personal
appearance
87 4.38 1.65 1-7 .13
Being a parent will make me feel like I
have a purpose for living
86 4.31 1.80 1-7 .28*
There will be reduced feelings of privacy 86 4.23 1.42 1-7 .29*
I will feel healthier 84 4.20 1.07 2-7 .44**
With all the changes that the birth of a baby
brings, I will sometimes feel like I don’t
know myself anymore
87 4.01 1.47 1-7 .27*
I will be more interested in sex 87 3.91 0.98 1-6 .35**
For financial reasons, it will be necessary
for me to work
87 3.87 1.49 1-7 .28*
I will be unable to sleep after going to bed 86 3.72 1.36 1-6 .11
I will not have time to do the housework
that is usually my responsibility
86 3.42 1.48 1-6 .37 **
65
Self Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Removed Items
Meals will be off schedule 86 3.41 1.47 1-7 .28*
I will feel more physically attractive than I
did before I was pregnant
87 3.33 1.18 1-6 .11
I will have an increased appreciation for
religious tradition
86 3.30 1.56 1-6 -.01
I will feel a greater desire to work outside
the home
87 3.16 1.31 1-6 -.18
I will resent not having enough time to
myself after the baby is born
87 2.84 1.51 1-7 .49**
Social Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will receive emotional support from my
family and friends
87 6.09 0.69 4-7 .43**
I will be able to go to my family and
friends for advice
87 6.02 0.76 3-7 .48**
My family and friends will help me out
after the baby is born
86 6.01 0.91 3-7 .40**
I will form new friendships 87 5.69 0.84 2-7 .43**
I will have an increased appreciation for
family tradition
87 5.45 1.15 2-7 .38**
My relationship with my relatives will be
closer
87 5.06 1.22 2-7 .37**
The demands of being a parent will restrict
my social life
87 4.29 1.57 1-7 .38**
There will be unwanted interference from
other people in my life
86 4.14 1.49 1-7 .34**
I will continue my social activities as usual 87 3.97 1.46 1-7 .43**
66
Social Expectations
Items n M SD Range r
Retained Items
I will feel that my friends without children
no longer understand me
85 3.40 1.57 1-7 .56**
I will have less contact with friends 87 3.39 1.56 1-6 .50**
My friends and colleagues will think that I
am less interesting
87 2.74 1.31 1-6 .30*
I will become too dependent on others
when the baby is born
87 2.56 1.13 1-6 .43**
Removed Items
I will feel a new positive appreciation of
my own parents
86 5.55 1.14 2-7 .24**
I will receive uninvited advice from my
family and friends
86 4.87 1.39 1-7 .13
I will feel a new positive appreciation of
my in-laws
83 4.43 1.25 2-7 .30*
I will strengthen old friendships 87 4.14 1.15 2-6 .01
I will have increased contact with my
neighbours
87 3.53 1.35 1-6 .20
My circle of friends will become smaller 87 3.36 1.50 1-7 .29*
I will see my extended family less than I
did before I was pregnant
85 2.94 1.36 1-7 .49**
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
The internal reliability of the scale was established using Cronbach’s alpha,
which for the final 55 items was .94 (n = 75). The alphas for each of the subscales
were: infant expectations .84, partner expectations .83, self expectations .86, and social
expectations .70.
The validity of the scale was examined by correlating the total scores from the
final 55 items with the total score on the Attitudes to Pregnancy and Baby scale of the
67
MAMA questionnaire (Kumar, et al., 1984). The Pearson’s product moment correlation
was .64 (p < .01). While this figure is in the moderate range, it is to be expected given
the differences between the two scales. As discussed earlier, the MAMA questionnaire
assesses several attitudes relevant to pregnancy, whereas the parenting expectations
measure focuses on expectations of postnatal experiences.
Discussion
The measure developed in this study assesses positive and negative expectations
pertaining to a range of issues relevant to early parenthood. Participants commented
that they found the retained items relevant to their situation and straightforward to
complete, indicating that the measure has face validity. The measure is constructed in a
manner that allows a direct comparison between parenting expectations and actual
experiences of parenthood. It will enable future researchers to explore how
discrepancies between expectations and experiences influence adjustment to
parenthood. The measure also taps negative and positive expectations about
parenthood. Previous research has not attempted to do this. In part, this will enable an
examination of whether optimism is beneficial during the transition to parenthood and
what occurs if optimistic expectations are not matched by later experiences. Further,
preliminary results suggest that this measure has sound reliability and validity.
The 55 items were retained based on their ability to discriminate between
participants and the extent to which the items correlated with the overall score of the
measure. Some items were removed based on participant comments that these items
were confusing or difficult to interpret. Their comments were supported by the results
for these items, which indicated that the particular items did not discriminate well
between participants. The internal consistency of the final 55 items was sound. The
parenting measure has been grouped into subscales. Currently, these scales are items
that are grouped together because they relate to a similar topic such as caring for an
68
infant or the influence of parenthood on the woman’s relationship with her partner. At
this stage, more complex analysis to determine whether the items load onto particular
factors was not done, as the sample size was not sufficient for factor analysis.
The final 55 items had a moderate correlation with the MAMA measure
(Kumar et al., 1984). The MAMA questionnaire was selected as a measure of
concurrent validity because it was the only available questionnaire that assessed
parenting expectations and had established reliability and validity. However, the
MAMA also assesses attitudes towards pregnancy. This may explain the moderate
rather than a high correlation value between the two scales. It seems probable that some
women may have negative attitudes towards pregnancy but have optimistic expectations
about their lives with their infants. Nonetheless, the MAMA measure does assess
parenting expectations in addition to attitudes towards pregnancy; therefore, the results
provide encouraging information regarding the validity of the scale.
Thus far, the results indicate that the parenting expectations measure taps a
broad range of positive and negative expectations in a valid and reliable manner. The
measure also enables a direct comparison between parenting expectations and parenting
experiences; this should enable investigation of the relationship between disconfirmed
expectations and adjustment. The longitudinal study of this project will provide an
opportunity to examine how this measure relates to other psychological constructs,
which will provide further information on its validity. For example, based on the
theoretical and empirical work reviewed in Chapter 2, positive expectations on this
measure should be associated with positive psychological adjustment as indicated by
low levels of depression, good relationship adjustment, and high perceived social
support.
The responses of women in this study suggest that women tend to have
optimistic expectations about parenthood. They tended to agree with positively worded
69
items and disagree with negatively worded items. This is consistent with previous
research that has found that people tend to have optimistic expectations about the future
(Weinstein, 1980; Carnelly & Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Fowers et al., 2001). Here, women
tended to agree with positive expectation items and disagree with negative expectation
items. The next study in this project attempted to replicate these results and then
determine whether these very optimistic expectations were matched by actual
experiences of parenthood.
70
CHAPTER 4
STUDY 2: FIRST TIME MOTHERS’ EXPECTATIONS ABOUT
PARENTHOOD: WHAT HAPPENS WHEN OPTIMISTIC EXPECTATIONS ARE
NOT MATCHED BY LATER EXPERIENCES?
Given that the transition to parenthood is generally regarded as a positive life
event and individuals tend to be optimistic about their futures, the optimism of the first-
time expectant mothers in Study 1 is relatively unsurprising. Expectant parents are
generally optimistic about how the arrival of their baby will influence their life
(Carnelly & Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Fowers et al., 2001; Langdridge et al., 2000;
Weinstein, 1980; Woollett & Parr, 1997). Yet, pregnancy and early parenthood can also
present a number of challenges and difficulties (Bernazzani, Saucier, David, & Borgeat,
1997; Feeney et al., 2001). As discussed in Chapter 2, optimism is associated with
better psychological adjustment in the face of challenging circumstances, and therefore
expectant parents’ positive expectations may have a positive effect on their prenatal
adjustment (Buehler et al., 1994; Fournier et al., 2002; Jackson et al., 2000; Leedham et
al., 1995; Murray & Holmes, 1997; Oettingen & Mayer, 2002; Taylor et al., 1992). In
contrast, negative expectations are associated with poorer adjustment (DeVellis &
Blalock, 1992; Hull & Mendolia, 1991; Peterson & Vaidya, 2001; Riskind et al., 1987;
Tripp et al., 1997). A number of studies that have found support for the psychological
benefits of positive expectations, including those that have found evidence for the
benefits of positive expectations during the transition to parenthood, have not made a
direct comparison between expectations and experiences (e.g., Fournier et al., 2002;
Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Leedham et al., 1995).
Research that has made a comparison between prenatal expectations and
postnatal experiences has tended to support the prediction that disconfirmed
expectations can have a negative influence on adjustment (Belsky, 1985; Hackel &
71
Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). However, this has only been demonstrated across a
limited set of expectations: those pertaining to how household labour will be divided
following the arrival of the baby and about the marital relationship. Expectations about
a wide range of other aspects of parenthood, such as how pregnant women expect
parenthood to influence their own well-being and sense of self, have not been addressed
in a reliable and systematic manner.
There is little research into the factors that mitigate expectancy disconfirmation.
Some individuals may be better able to cope with expectancy disconfirmation than
others. Specifically, efficacious individuals seem to be better positioned to cope with
difficulties and major life transitions (Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995). If expectancy
disconfirmation is difficult to cope with, it may be less of a problem for individuals with
a positive perception of their own efficacy. Relatively few studies have examined the
effect of efficacy beliefs during the transition to parenthood. Studies that have
examined efficacy beliefs in the early stages of parenthood have found that women with
a high sense of parenting efficacy are better able to cope with challenges such as a
frequently crying infant or low social support (Cutrona & Troutman, 1986; Teti &
Gelfand, 1991).
This study sought to broaden the understanding of how efficacy beliefs and the
relationship between expectations and later experiences influence adjustment to
parenthood. It examined the parenting expectations of a group of first-time expectant
mothers and their reports of their experiences approximately four months after the births
of their infants. Using the parenting expectations measure, developed in Study 1, the
current study tapped a broader range of expectations than has been investigated
previously. Specifically, this study investigates women’s expectations of parenting and
their babies, expectations of the influence of parenthood on their relationships with their
partners, expectations of the influence of parenthood on their own well-being, and
72
expectations of the influence of parenthood on their social functioning. Women’s
parenting efficacy beliefs were also measured during pregnancy and at four months
postpartum. In addition, women completed measures of relationship adjustment, mood,
and social support at both stages of the study. The first aim of the study was to establish
whether there were discrepancies between expectations and experiences. In light of the
theoretical considerations and earlier literature reviewed in Chapter 2, and the initial
findings reported in Chapter 3, it was predicted that women would have positive
expectations about parenthood and that actual experiences of parenthood would be less
positive than expected.
The second aim was to establish whether parenting expectations were associated
with prenatal psychological adjustment. The hypothesis was that optimistic
expectations would be associated with positive psychological adjustment during
pregnancy. Psychological adjustment was assessed via measures of prenatal
perceptions of parenting efficacy, mood, relationship satisfaction, and perceptions of
social support. This last measure was selected because social support has been
identified as a factor influencing psychological well-being during the transition to
parenthood (Cutrona & Suhr, 1990; Morse et al., 2000). Prenatal mood and prenatal
relationship status were selected as they have been widely reported to be influenced by
the transition to parenthood and may be related to the expectations women hold about
parenthood. It was predicted that women with optimistic expectations about parenthood
would also have better relationship adjustment, higher perceived social support, a higher
sense of parenting efficacy, and few symptoms of depression.
The third aim was to examine whether disconfirmed expectations influence
adjustment to parenthood and whether parenting efficacy beliefs moderated this
relationship. Postnatal mood and postnatal relationship adjustment were selected as
measures of postnatal adjustment. The hypothesis was that experiences that were
73
negative relative to expectations would have a negative effect on adjustment and that
parenting efficacy beliefs would moderate this relationship. It was predicted that
women with a high sense of efficacy would cope more effectively with disconfirmed
expectations, meaning there would be a weaker relationship between expectancy
disconfirmation and adjustment measures in these women. In contrast, women with a
low sense of efficacy would find this kind of expectancy disconfirmation particularly
difficult, meaning there would be a negative effect on their mood and relationship
adjustment. Thus, there would be a stronger association between expectancy
disconfirmation and adjustment measures in women with a low sense of efficacy.
Method
Participants
The participants were recruited from hospital antenatal classes and the rooms of
a private obstetrician in Perth, Western Australia. Inclusion criteria were that the
participants had to be cohabiting with their partner, pregnant with their first child, and at
least 18 years of age. Eighty-seven women completed the initial questionnaire. Of
these women, 72 completed the second questionnaire. Participants who had
experienced a traumatic birth (stillbirth, premature birth, or infant death) did not
participate at Time 2 (n = 5). Ten participants could not be contacted at Time 2.
Comparisons of women who only completed the pregnancy questionnaires with those
that completed both questionnaires did not reveal any significant differences between
the two groups on any of the variables measured at Time 1. One participant completed
both questionnaires but had substantial proportions of missing data and was dropped
from subsequent analyses, leaving a final sample size of 71. The average age of the
participants was 27.7 years (SD = 4.47) and the average age of their partners was 29.14
years (SD = 4.88). The majority of the participants were married (60.9%) with the
remainder in de facto relationships. The couples had been living together for an average
74
of 3.76 years (SD = 2.73). The majority of participants described their ethnic
background as Australian (64.6%) with a further 15.4% from the United Kingdom and
7.6% from Continental Europe. The remainder of the participants came from New
Zealand, Iran, Samoa, or Canada.
Participants were asked to describe any complications they had experienced
during pregnancy or delivery and any health complaints they or their infants had
experienced. Of the participants, 45.8 % reported that they had complications during
pregnancy. These complications included nausea, back pain, and high blood pressure.
Three women reported that they were admitted to hospital during their pregnancy due to
complications. Most women (59.3%) reported that they had labour complications that
required intervention. These interventions included induction of labour, vacuum
extraction, emergency caesarians, and planned caesarians. Four months after the birth,
13.6% of women had ongoing health complaints, the most common complaint being
back pain. A similar number of women (16.9%) reported that their infants had ongoing
health complaints, the most common of which were colic and gastric reflux.
Procedure
Participants were given the questionnaires while attending their antenatal classes
or antenatal obstetric appointments (the information sheets, instructions, and
questionnaires used at Time 1 are displayed in Appendix C). They were asked to
complete the questionnaires at home and return them via post within two weeks.
Reminder calls were made to participants who did not return their questionnaire within
that time period. The median for weeks pregnant when completing the first
questionnaire was 34.0 weeks, with a range of 24 to 39 weeks. Participants were
contacted again four months after their baby was due. The postnatal questionnaire was
sent via mail and participants were asked to return it within two weeks (the information
sheets, instructions, and questionnaires used at Time 2 are displayed in Appendix D).
75
As before, reminder calls were made to those that did not return their questionnaire
within that time period. At the time of completing the second questionnaire, the average
age of the women’s infants was 18.30 weeks (SD = 2.83) with a range of 12 to 25
weeks.
Measures
Each of the measures listed below was administered at Time 1 and Time 2.
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS; Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987)
The EPDS, a 10-item scale designed as a screening tool for postnatal
depression, was used as a mood measure. Cox et al. (1987) found that the scale had
satisfactory sensitivity and specificity for its designed purpose and that it was sensitive
to change in the severity of depression over time. The scale has good internal reliability
with a Cronbach’s alpha of .87. In addition, the EPDS is a valid and reliable measure of
dysphoria in antenatal populations as well as in postnatal populations (Green & Murray,
1994). The EPDS had good specificity and predictive value in an Australian sample
(Boyce, Stubbs, & Todd, 1994). The reliability alphas for the EPDS in the prenatal and
postnatal phases were .81 and .85, respectively.
Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC; Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman, 1978,
as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989)
The PSOC scale is a 16-item measure designed to measure parenting self-
efficacy and satisfaction developed by Gibaud-Wallston and Wandersman. Johnston
and Mash found that the PSOC scale has good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha =
.76) and found a significant inverse relationship between participants’ scores on the
PSOC scale and perceptions of child behaviour problems. Cutrona and Troutman
(1986) found that efficacy scores were correlated with a general measure of self-esteem
and that they mediated the effects of infant temperament and social support on
postpartum depression in mothers of infants. The Cronbach’s alphas for PSOC scale in
76
this study were .85 in the prenatal phase and .87 in the postnatal phase.
Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS; Spanier, 1976)
The DAS was used to measure the quality of the parents’ relationship. The 32-
item instrument is widely used and a factor analysis conducted by Spanier suggested
that it measures four aspects of the relationship: dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion,
dyadic consensus, and affectional expression. Spanier also found that the DAS has
excellent internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of .94. The scale correlates with
the Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment Scale (Locke & Wallace, 1959), providing
evidence for concurrent validity and is able to discriminate between married and
divorced couples (Spanier, 1976). The reliability alphas for DAS in the prenatal and
postnatal phases of the current study were .90 and .93 respectively.
Social Provisions Scale (SPS; Russell & Cutrona, 1984)
This scale was used to assess social support. This 24-item scale is designed to
assess six components, or provisions, of social support identified by Weiss (1974). The
provisions are: receiving a sense of security and safety from others, sharing common
interests and concerns, feeling responsible for the well-being of another person, having
ones skills and abilities recognised by others, being able to rely on the assistance of
others under any circumstances, and being able to receive advice from trustworthy and
authoritative individuals. The coefficient alpha for the internal reliability of the entire
SPS scale is .91 (Cutrona & Russell, 1987). The scales have adequate test-retest
reliability and satisfactory construct and concurrent reliability have been reported
(Cutrona, 1984; Cutrona & Russell, 1987). The alphas for the SPS in the current study
were .88 in both the prenatal and the postnatal phases.
Parenting Expectations Measure
The information about the development, reliability, and validity of this 55-item
measure is provided in Chapter 3. In the current study the reliability alphas of the four
77
subscales in the prenatal phase were: infant expectations, .71; self expectations, .86;
partner expectations, .82; and social expectations, .75. In the postnatal phase the
reliability alphas were: infant expectations, .77; self expectations, .82; partner
expectations, .89; and social expectations, .73.
Results
The data analysis addressed the three major aims of this study. First, the
analysis addressed whether there was a difference between prenatal expectations and
experiences and whether scores on adjustment measures changed across the transition.
The second aim was to establish whether there was a relationship between prenatal
measures of adjustment and the expectations of parenthood. The third aim was to
examine whether discrepancies between expectations and experiences influenced
postnatal adjustment and whether efficacy beliefs moderated this relationship.
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures
The prenatal and postnatal means for the expectation variable and the adjustment
variables were compared using t-tests. These results are displayed in Table 4.1. It was
hypothesised that women’s expectations would be optimistic in comparison to their
postnatal reports of their experiences. Negatively worded items on the expectation and
experiences measures were reverse coded, so that high scores on these variables reflect
optimistic expectations and positive experiences, respectively. The lowest possible and
highest possible scores for each of the expectation categories were as follows: infant
expectations, 11-77; partner expectations, 11-77; self expectations, 20-140; and social
expectations, 13-91. The means for each of the expectation categories are towards the
positive end of the scale. Contrary to the hypothesis, when expectation scores were
compared to experience scores, experiences matched or were more positive than
expectations. For the partner expectations scores and the social expectations scores,
there were no significant differences between expectations and experiences. For the
78
infant expectation scores and self expectations scores, mean experience scores were
significantly higher than mean expectation scores, indicating that women’s experiences
were more positive than expected.
For the adjustment measures, there was a significant increase in mean efficacy
scores from the prenatal to the postnatal test phase and a significant decrease in mean
depression scores. The mean for postnatal relationship adjustment scores was
significantly lower than the mean for prenatal relationship adjustment scores (where
higher scores indicate better relationship adjustment). There was no significant
difference between the means on the social provisions measure.
Table 4.1 Means and t-tests results for differences between expectations and adjustment measures at prenatal and postnatal test phases.
Phase
n = 71 Prenatal Postnatal
Expectation variables M SD M SD t-values (df = 70)
Infant expectations 60.55 6.74 65.36 7.28 -5.23***
Partner expectations 60.96 7.81 59.64 10.49 1.22
Self expectations 102.21 12.91 108.05 12.62 3.89***
Social expectations 64.96 8.21 65.23 7.56 -.640
Adjustment variables M SD M SD t-values (df = 70)
Parenting efficacy 30.20 4.80 32.35 4.93 -3.59*
Social provisions 81.63 7.12 81.85 7.85 -0.25
Depression 6.62 3.87 5.11 3.79 3.91***
Relationship
adjustment
123.89 11.85 120.18 14.86 2.97*
Note. Due to the multiple t-tests, a more stringent alpha level of 0.0056 was calculated using Bonferroni’s correction. *p < .0056. ***p < .001.
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The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations
Four multiple regressions, one for each type of expectation category, were used
to test the hypothesis that prenatal psychosocial adjustment would be related to
expectations of parenthood. For each regression, the relevant prenatal expectation
measure was the dependent variable (infant expectations, partner expectations, social
expectations, or self expectations) and the independent variables were social support,
depression, relationship adjustment, and parenting efficacy beliefs. The results of these
analyses are displayed in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Results from the multiple regressions analysing the relationship between prenatal adjustment measures and parenting expectations. Dependent
Variables
Independent Variable
β
(B, SE)
R2
(n = 71)
Social
Support
Depression Relationship
Adjustment
Parenting
Efficacy
Infant Expectations .42*** .11
(0.10, 0.09)
.092
(0.16, 0.09)
.42***
(0.26, 0.07)
.40***
(0.56, 0.14)
Partner Expectations .42***
-.01
(-0.01, 0.11)
-.05
(-0.11, 0.20)
.60***
(0.39, 0.07)
.12
(0.19, 0.16)
Self Expectations .41*** .08
(0.14, 0.18)
.11
(0.37, 0.34)
.31**
(0.34, 0.12)
.50***
(1.35, 0.26)
Social expectations .27*** .27*
(0.31, 0.13)
.03
(0.07, 0.24)
.137
(0.09, 0.08)
.36**
(0.61, 0.18)
* p < .05. **p < .01. ***p <.001.
In each analysis, the prenatal measures of psychosocial adjustment were
significant predictors of parenting expectations. The extent to which each of the
variables contributed to the final regression equation varied across the expectation
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categories. For infant expectations and self expectations, relationship adjustment and
parenting efficacy scores made significant contributions to the regression equations. In
both cases, high scores on the relationship adjustment measure (where high scores
indicate good adjustment) and high efficacy scores were associated with higher
expectation scores. In the regression examining partner expectations, only relationship
adjustment made a significant contribution to the final equation. Again, high scores on
the relationship adjustment measure were associated with high scores on the expectation
measure. For social expectations, social support and parenting efficacy each made a
significant contribution to the final equation. Higher social support scores (indicating
that the individual perceives she has a high level of social support) and higher efficacy
scores were associated with higher scores on the social expectations measure. Notably,
depression scores did not make a significant contribution to any of the final regression
equations.
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on Adjustment
to Parenthood
The third aim of this study was to examine the effect of disconfirmed
expectations on adjustment and to determine whether parenting efficacy beliefs
moderated this relationship. This necessitated an examination of how the discrepancies
between expectation scores and experiences scores related to scores on measures of
mood and relationship adjustment. The most straightforward way of achieving this
would be to subtract expectation scores from experience scores to produce a
discrepancy score for each participant and then use this as the dependent variable in a
regression analysis. However, this method is problematic. Change scores contain
variance attributable to two scores, namely the pre score and the change from pre to post
scores (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). It is impossible to determine whether any effect
observed is due to variations in the expectation scores, the experience scores, or a
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combination of both. To overcome these problems, Cohen and Cohen (1983)
recommend using residualised scores where the variance associated with the pre scores
is partialed out of the post scores. In this case, standardised residual scores were
calculated by using regression analysis in which expectation scores serve as the
independent variable and experience scores as the dependent variable. This created
expectation discrepancy variables for each of the expectation categories. High scores
on the discrepancy variables indicate that experience scores were high relative to
expectation scores and low scores indicate that experience scores were low relative to
expectation scores.
It was predicted that the discrepancy scores would be positively associated with
relationship adjustment scores (where high scores reflect positive adjustment). There
should be an inverse relationship between the discrepancy scores and mood scores
(where high scores indicate depressed mood). A further prediction was that efficacy
would moderate the effect of disconfirmed expectations, whereby the association
between disconfirmed expectations and adjustment measures would be weaker for
women with a high sense of efficacy than for women with a low sense of efficacy.
These predictions were tested with a series of hierarchical regression analyses. The
bivariate correlations for the dependent and independent variables used in these
analyses are displayed in Table 4.3. The first set of regressions examined the effect of
disconfirmed expectations and efficacy on relationship adjustment. Following Baron
and Kenny’s (1986) recommendations for testing moderator relationships, the
independent variables were entered in the following order: 1) prenatal relationship
adjustment, 2) one of the expectation discrepancy scores, 3) postnatal efficacy (these
scores were standardised), and 4) the interaction of the relevant expectation discrepancy
score and postnatal efficacy. Prenatal relationship adjustment was the first variable
entered into the regression equation because it is a predictor of postnatal relationship
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Table 4.3
Bivariate correlations between independent and dependent variables used in hierarchical regression analyses. Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Mood (Post, DV) -
2. Relationship adjustment (Post, DV) -.56** -
3. Infant expectation discrepancy -.34** .06 -
4. Partner expectation discrepancy -.48** .61** .14 -
5. Self expectation discrepancy -.51** .44** .49** .56** -
6. Social expectation discrepancy -.42** .44** .22 .42** .59** -
7. Relationship adjustment (Pre) -.23* -.24* -.09 .27* .12 .08 -
8. Mood (Pre) .64** -.50** -.07 -.27* -.19 -.28* -.35** -
9. Parenting efficacy (Post) -.22 .09 .35** .06 .30* .20 .17 .03 -
*p < .05. **p .01.
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adjustment and the aim was to determine the effect of expectancy discrepancies and
efficacy on postnatal relationship adjustment once prenatal relationship adjustment had
been statistically controlled for.
Postnatal relationship adjustment
The results of the hierarchical regressions examining the relationship between
disconfirmed expectations and relationship adjustment and the presence of a moderator
effect for efficacy beliefs are displayed in Table 4.4. In three out of four cases,
disconfirmed expectations made significant contributions to the regression equations
after prenatal relationship adjustment had been entered into the equation. The exception
to this pattern was for infant expectations discrepancies, which did not make a
significant contribution to the equation once prenatal relationship adjustment had been
entered into the regression equation.
Efficacy scores did not significantly predict relationship adjustment in any of the
regression equations. The products of the efficacy scores and discrepancy scores made
a significant contribution to the regression equation in one case only: self expectations.
In order to examine this significant interaction, a median split was performed to create
two levels of the efficacy variable. The overall mean for parenting efficacy was
relatively high in this study (32.35 on a scale with a maximum score of 42). Therefore,
the median split created a high efficacy group (n = 36, M = 36.30, SD = 2.26) and a
moderate efficacy group (n = 34, M = 28.53, SD = 3.07) rather than a high efficacy
group and a low efficacy group. For each of the efficacy levels, partial correlations
between postnatal relationship adjustment scores and the self discrepancy scores
(controlling for prenatal relationship adjustment scores) were calculated. For the
moderate efficacy group, the relationship between self expectations discrepancies and
postnatal relationship adjustment was not significant, with a partial correlation
coefficient of .27 (ns). However, for the high efficacy group the partial correlation
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Table 4.4 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences predicted postnatal relationship adjustment, the dependent variable. Independent variables
∆R2 βa B SE
n = 70
1. Prenatal relationship adjustment .51** .74** 0.93 0.11
2. Infant expectation discrepancy .02 .15 2.37 1.43
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .01 -.09 -1.28 1.37
4. Efficacy x infant discrepancy .01 .11 2.11 1.57
n = 71
1. Prenatal relationship adjustment .50** .57** 0.73 0.10
2. Partner expectation discrepancy .19** .43** 6.40 1.11
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .00 -.04 -0.52 1.03
4. Efficacy x partner discrepancy .00 .07 1.30 1.35
n = 70
1. Prenatal relationship adjustment .51** .67** 0.84 0.09
2. Self expectation discrepancy .14** .36** 5.44 1.16
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .01 -.13 -1.97 1.14
4. Efficacy x self discrepancy .02* .16* 3.11 1.44
n = 70
1. Prenatal relationship adjustment .51* .70* 0.88 0.09
2. Social expectation discrepancy .16* .40* 6.11 1.15
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .01 -.07 -1.20 1.13
4. Efficacy x social discrepancy .00 .04 0.61 1.10
Note. In each regression reported above, multivariate outliers with χ2 values greater than Malhalanobis distance at p < .001 were detected on the interaction variables. The relevant cases were excluded from the final analyses, which is the reason for the varying n, R2, and ∆R2 values. aβ, B, and SE statistics represent figures at the final step, when all variables have been entered into the equation. Infant expectations analysis, R2 total = .54, F(4, 65) = 19.24, p < .001; partner expectations analysis, R2 total = .69, F(4, 65) = 36.29, p < .001; self expectations analysis, R2 total = .68, F(4, 65) = 34.48, p < .001; social expectations analysis, R2 total = .67, F(4, 65) = 33.16, p < .001. *p < .05. ** p < .001.
85
coefficient was .69 (p < .001) indicating that experiences that were less positive relative
to expectations were associated with lower relationship adjustment scores. In order to
test whether these correlation coefficients were significantly different, the observed
value of z was calculated. This value was –2.20, indicating that the correlation
coefficients were significantly different. This finding differs from the hypothesis,
which predicted a stronger relationship between adjustment to parenthood and
disconfirmed expectations for those with lower levels of efficacy than for those with
higher levels of efficacy.
Postnatal mood
For the hierarchical regressions examining the relationship between postnatal
mood and disconfirmed expectations, the independent variables were entered in the
following order 1) prenatal mood, 2) one of the expectation discrepancy scores, 3)
postnatal efficacy (these scores were standardised), and 4) the interaction of the relevant
expectation discrepancy score and postnatal efficacy. Prenatal mood was the first
variable entered into the regression equation because it is a predictor of postnatal
relationship adjustment and the aim was to determine the effect of expectancy
discrepancies and efficacy on postnatal mood once prenatal mood had been statistically
controlled for. The results of the hierarchical regressions examining the relationship
between disconfirmed expectations and mood and the test of a moderator effect for
efficacy beliefs are displayed in Table 4.5. The results pertaining to the effects of
disconfirmed expectations on postnatal mood were more consistent than the effects of
disconfirmed expectations on relationship adjustment. In each analysis, the expectancy
discrepancy scores were significant predictors of postnatal mood after statistically
controlling for prenatal mood. In the hierarchical regression examining the effect of
infant expectation discrepancies on postnatal mood, parenting efficacy did not make a
significant contribution once prenatal mood and the discrepancy score had been entered
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Table 4.5 Results from hierarchical regressions analysing the extent to which discrepancies between prenatal expectations and postnatal experiences predicted postnatal mood, the dependent variable. Independent variables
∆R2 βa B SE
n = 70
1. Prenatal mood .41*** .64*** 0.63 0.08
2. Infant expectation discrepancy .09** -.23** -0.92 0.36
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .02 -.15 -0.58 0.34
4. Efficacy x infant discrepancy .02 -.13 -0.61 0.40
n = 71
1. Prenatal mood .41*** .55*** 0.54 0.08
2. Partner expectation discrepancy .10*** -.25** -0.95 0.33
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .05** -.21* -0.80 0.30
4. Efficacy x partner discrepancy .03* -.18* -0.85 0.39
n = 70
1. Prenatal mood .42*** .58*** 0.57 0.07
2. Self expectation discrepancy .18*** -.33*** -1.30 0.31
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .03* -.18* -0.71 0.30
4. Efficacy x self discrepancy .02* -.16* -0.79 0.38
n = 70
1. Prenatal mood .42*** .59*** 0.58 0.08
2. Social expectation discrepancy .08** -.22* -0.91 0.35
3. Postnatal efficacy beliefs .06* -.25* -0.10 0.33
4. Efficacy x social discrepancy .01 -.09 -0.32 0.32
Note. In each regression reported above, multivariate outliers with χ2 values greater than Malhalanobis distance at p < .001 were detected on the interaction variables. The relevant cases were excluded from the final analyses, which is the reason for the varying n, R2, and ∆R2 values. aβ, B, and SE statistics represent figures at the final step, when all variables have been entered into the equation. Infant expectations analysis, R2 total = .53, F(4, 65) = 18.61, p < .001; partner expectation analysis, R2 total = .77, F(4, 66) = 23.26, p < .001; self expectation analysis, R2 total = .66, F(4, 65) = 31.12, p < .001; social expectation analysis, R2 total = .57, F(4, 65) = 21.58, p < .001. *p < .05. **p < .01***. p < .001.
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into the equation. Further, there was no moderator effect. In the hierarchical regression
examining the effect of disconfirmed social expectations on postnatal mood, efficacy
was a significant predictor of postnatal mood but there was not a significant moderator
effect.
There was a significant direct effect and a significant moderator effect of
efficacy in the regressions examining the effects of disconfirmed partner expectations
and disconfirmed self expectations. In order to interpret the moderator effects, a median
split was performed on the sample to create a high efficacy group and a low efficacy
group. As with the analysis described in the regressions for relationship adjustment,
partial correlations were then calculated for each group separately. The partial
correlation coefficients for postnatal mood and the self expectation discrepancy,
partialing out prenatal mood, were -.35 (p < .05) for the moderate efficacy group and
-.69 (p < .001) for the high efficacy group. However, the observed z for these
correlation coefficients was –1.86, indicating that the differences between these
coefficients was not significant. The partial correlations for postnatal mood and partner
expectation discrepancy scores, partialing out prenatal mood, were -.14 (ns) for the
moderate efficacy group and -.61 (p < .001) for the high efficacy group. The observed z
for these scores was –2.19 indicating that the difference between the correlation
coefficients was significant. The association between expectation discrepancies and
efficacy was stronger for participants with higher efficacy scores and expectations that
were positive relative to experiences were associated with higher scores on the postnatal
depression measure.
Discussion
Differences Between Prenatal and Postnatal Measures
The hypothesis that expectations would be more positive than experiences was
not supported by the results: on average, women reported positive expectations and
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positive experiences. They expected to experience positive aspects of parenthood and
to avoid negative aspects. In two expectation categories, women’s reported experiences
exceeded their already optimistic expectations. The first of these categories was infant
expectations, which assessed women’s expectations about their relationship with their
infant and the nature of parenting an infant. Previous research has not examined
expectations about the infant in detail, instead choosing to focus on the marital
relationship. The second category in which women’s experiences exceeded their
expectations was self expectations, tapping the extent to which parenthood would
influence their own well-being. This is another area that has been given limited
attention in previous research (e.g. Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al.,
1988). In the current study, it appears that women were pleasantly surprised by how
much they enjoyed caring for their infant and by the positive effect parenthood had on
their own well-being. This concurs with earlier research by Green and Kafetsios
(1997), who assessed more generalised expectations and experiences of parenthood but
also found that women had positive experiences.
In the current study, women gave their postpartum reports of their parenting
experiences approximately four months after the birth. This time frame may have
allowed the mothers to recover from the birth, become familiar with care-taking tasks,
form a bond with their infant, and adjust to their new routines, all of which potentially
contributed to their positive reports. Given that early parenthood is a period of rapid
change for parents and their infants, it would be of interest to assess women’s postnatal
experiences a month after the birth. The earliest that previous research has assessed
women’s postnatal experiences in comparison to prenatal expectation has been 3
months after the birth (Belsky, 1985). The disparity between expectations and
experiences may be particularly large in the early postnatal weeks when women are still
familiarising themselves with their infant and their new role. Indeed, in the course of
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this research some new mothers anecdotally reported that, while they were enjoying
parenthood four months after the birth, they had found it far more difficult in the very
early stages.
New mothers’ postnatal reports of how parenthood had influenced their
relationship with their partner and their family and friends matched their expectations,
indicating that they were fairly realistic about how parenthood would influence their
relationships with others. These findings differ from the results of previous work,
which has found that women had overly optimistic expectations about the way
parenthood would influence their marital relationship and their relationship with others
(Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Kalmuss et al., 1992; Ruble et al., 1988).
However, there was a large amount of variation within the sample and just as some
women’s expectations matched or exceeded their optimistic expectations for others
parenthood was not as positive as they had expected.
The results from the prenatal and postnatal measures of adjustment indicate that
the women generally coped well with the transition to parenthood. The prenatal and
postnatal averages on the mood measure were within the range that is indicative of an
absence of depression and these scores improved across the transition to parenthood –
the postnatal mean was significantly lower than the prenatal mean. The prenatal and
postnatal relationship adjustment means were indicative of good relationship
adjustment. However, consistent with previous research (Belsky et al., 1985; Belsky et
al., 1983; Shapiro et al., 2000; Wallace & Gotlib, 1990), there was a small yet
significant decline in the relationship adjustment scores across the transition to
parenthood. This indicates that the transition to parenthood has a negative effect on the
parents’ relationship. Again, this pattern was not universal, and there was more
variation in the postnatal relationship adjustment scores than in the prenatal relationship
adjustment scores. The extent to which expectancy discrepancies contribute to postnatal
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relationship adjustment is discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter. Other
factors that may contribute to the decline in relationship adjustment are the way the
couple divides household labour between themselves and changes in nature of the time
that couples spend together (Levy-Shiff, 1994; Monk et al., 1996; Shapiro et al., 2000;
Terry et al., 1991).
The Relationship Between Prenatal Adjustment and Parenting Expectations
The second hypothesis of this study was that optimistic parenting expectations
would be associated with positive prenatal psychological adjustment. This was
supported by the results. However, it is necessary to look closely at the pattern of
relationships between prenatal adjustment and parenting expectations, as they varied
depending on the adjustment measure and the type of expectation. For infant and self
expectations, only relationship adjustment and parenting efficacy were significantly
associated with expectations. Women who were happy in their relationships and
confident in their ability to care for an infant had optimistic expectations of caring for
their infant and of the influence of parenthood on their own well-being. Bandura (1997)
has argued that people’s expectations about their own capabilities predict how
optimistic they are about outcomes relevant to these expectations. Consistent with this
view, women who believed they were capable of parenting were optimistic about the
nature of parenting an infant. To a certain degree, the same explanation applies to the
self expectations: The more capable women believed they would be at parenting, the
more optimistic they were about the effect of parenthood on their psychological and
physical well-being. The results also reflect that, in situations where an individual’s
behaviour is not the only determinant of outcomes, self-efficacy is not the sole predictor
of outcome expectations. The association between infant and self expectations and
relationship adjustment suggests that in the prenatal phase, women’s perceptions of their
relationships with their babies’ fathers is an important factor in influencing the level of
91
optimism they have about caring for their infants and their own well-being as parents.
There was a significant association between women’s relationship adjustment
and their expectations about how parenthood would influence their relationship with
their partner. No other adjustment variables were significantly associated with women’s
expectations of the way parenthood would influence their marital relationship.
Women’s perceptions of their social support were significantly associated with how
they expected parenthood to influence their relationships with others. Contrary to
predictions and to several previous findings (DeVellis & Blalock, 1992; Hull &
Mendolia, 1991; Peterson & Vaidya, 2001; Riskind et al., 1987; Tripp et al., 1997),
scores on the depression measure were not significantly associated with any of the
expectation variables. The moderate range in the mood scores may provide a partial
explanation for this finding. Most participants’ scores were in the normal range on the
mood measure with few scores in the range that is associated with a greater incidence of
depression whereas previous work has been conducted with participants who were
depressed or dysphoric.
Taken together, the results indicate that women’s perceptions of their current life
circumstances operate as a guide for their expectations. If they have good social
support before the arrival of the infant, they expect that the arrival of their baby will
have a positive effect on their relationships with family and friends. If their relationship
is satisfying prior to the birth, they expect it will remain satisfying after the birth. In
other words, if life is going well currently, people expect that it will go well in the
future even when the future will involve circumstances very different to those
encountered in the past, such as becoming a parent. There are similarities between these
results and those of previous work, which have found an association between optimistic
expectations and positive adjustment (Fournier et al., 2002; Leedham et al., 1995;
Murray & Holmes, 1997). In the current study, consistent with Taylor and Brown’s
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(1988, 1992) position, optimistic expectations were associated with positive attitudes
about the self (i.e., efficacy beliefs) and the ability to care for and about others (i.e.,
relationship adjustment and perceived social support).
The Effect of Disconfirmed Expectations and Parenting Efficacy Beliefs on Adjustment
The third hypothesis was that there would be a significant association between
expectancy disconfirmation and postnatal adjustment, whereby expectations that were
disconfirmed in a negative direction would be associated with poorer adjustment to
parenthood. This part of the hypothesis was supported. However, it was predicted that
parenting efficacy beliefs would moderate this relationship and consequently, the
relationship would be stronger for women with low parenting efficacy beliefs. There
was mixed support for this part of the hypothesis.
Consistent with the hypothesis, experiences that were negative relative to
expectations were associated with poorer relationship adjustment in three of the four
expectation categories, self expectations, partner expectations and social expectations;
and with poorer mood in all expectation categories. In all cases, these associations were
significant after controlling for the contribution of prenatal relationship adjustment or
prenatal mood. The exception to this pattern was the relationship between postnatal
relationship adjustment and infant expectations discrepancies, which was not
significant. This is similar to previous findings that disconfirmed expectations
pertaining to infant care-giving have not been associated with postnatal relationship
adjustment (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988) and with Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
findings that not all disconfirmed expectations have an adverse effect on adjustment.
Overall, the expectancy discrepancy results suggest that women who have less
favourable than expected experiences in four domains - the nature of caring for an infant
and the influence of parenthood on themselves, their relationship with their partner, and
their relationships with others – may experience greater difficulty adjusting to their new
93
role. Even in this sample, which made a relatively smooth transition, there was a
significant negative association between expectancy discrepancies and measures of
psychological adjustment, namely, mood and relationship adjustment. This suggests
that the effect of having optimistic expectations disconfirmed is not innocuous and it
cautions against unrealistic optimism in the face of challenging circumstances. These
results, along with those in the previous section, indicate while optimistic expectations
may be associated with positive psychological adjustment in the short term (i.e., during
pregnancy in this study), they may be associated with outcomes that are more negative
if they are unrealistic.
The results differed from the hypothesis concerning the way efficacy moderated
the relationship between expectancy disconfirmation and adjustment. The perceived
parenting efficacy mean of the sample was relatively high, with the consequence that
the median split actually produced a group that had moderate efficacy and a group with
very high efficacy levels. On average, the high efficacy group agreed with all the
statements on the efficacy measure, including that being a parent was manageable, any
problems were easily solved, they felt thoroughly familiar with the role, and they had all
the skills necessary to be a good mother. The moderate group was also skewed towards
agreeing with most items but the strength of their agreement was weaker than that of the
high efficacy group. Thus, the results speak to the nature of the relationship between
disconfirmed expectations and adjustment for women with moderate efficacy versus
women with high efficacy, rather than for women with low efficacy versus women with
high efficacy.
For the relationship between disconfirmed expectations and postnatal mood,
efficacy moderated the effect of disconfirmed expectations in relation to two types of
parenting expectations: expectations about the self and expectations about the partner.
For women with a moderate sense of efficacy, there was a weak or a non-significant
94
relationship between mood and disconfirmed expectations. For women with a high
sense of parenting efficacy, there was a significant relationship between mood and
disconfirmed expectations, such that those whose experiences were negative relative to
expectations were less content. This pattern of findings was contradictory to
predictions.
It may have been particularly discouraging for highly efficacious women to find
that the arrival of the infant did not have the expected positive effect on their well being
and relationship, despite their very positive perception of their own functioning as a
parent. Although the women thought they were doing as well as possible at parenting,
some aspects of parenthood had been less positive than they had anticipated. This
incongruity may have resulted in increased negative affect. For those with a moderate
sense of efficacy, it may have been easier to accommodate these expectancy
discrepancies. Their perceptions of their own efficacy indicated that they did not feel
that they are struggling with the parenting role but, on the other hand, they did not see
their efficacy as at its ceiling. One possibility, albeit speculative, is that moderately
efficacious mothers may believe that the aspects of parenthood that are not a positive as
expected will improve as their efficacy increases, therefore expectancy disconfirmation
is not as distressing for these women. Efficacy made a significant direct contribution to
postnatal mood in three out of four of the regressions after the expectancy discrepancy
and prenatal mood had been accounted for statistically. The effect of efficacy on mood
is consistent with Bandura’s (1997) view that an optimistic sense of efficacy is
associated with positive well-being.
Efficacy moderated the relationship between self expectations discrepancies and
relationship adjustment but not for the other expectation categories and relationship
adjustment. The pattern was the same as that for mood: for the highly efficacious group
there was a strong association between relationship adjustment and disconfirmed
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expectations about the influence of parenthood on women’s own well-being, where
expectations that were disconfirmed in a negative direction were associated with poorer
relationship adjustment. For moderately efficacious women, there was no relationship
between relationship adjustment and disconfirmation of these expectations. It is
possible that, for highly efficacious women, discovering that parenthood had not had as
positive influence on their own well-being as expected, despite their own perceived
parenting skills, may have led them to feel less satisfied in their relationship. Again, for
moderately efficacious women, the discrepancy between expectations and experience
may have been viewed as a consequence of not yet being completely efficacious in their
new role and therefore, was not as aversive. Given that the fulfillment of partner and
social expectations is partly dependent on the actions of others, it is relatively
unsurprising that women’s parenting efficacy beliefs did not moderate the way these
expectations influenced her relationship adjustment. New mothers may have seen the
disconfirmation of these expectations as the result of the actions of others as well as
themselves.
Overall, the results of the moderator analyses were surprising. Further
investigation is needed but the findings do provide some support for Haaga and
Stewart’s (1992) view that extreme efficacy can lead individuals to overestimate the
adequacy of their skills when coping with challenging circumstances. In the context of
early parenting, coming to terms with the unexpected evidence that even though the
individual believes that she is extremely efficacious at parenting itself, the role and the
changes it brings are less than absolutely positive may result in increased negative
affect.
Implications
Taylor and Brown (1988, 1994) have argued that unrealistically optimistic
expectations are associated with positive psychological adjustment in the face of
96
challenging circumstances. The results from the current study suggest that, in general,
realistic rather than unrealistic expectations may be more adaptive in the context of the
transition to parenthood. In some cases, disconfirmed expectations may only be a
problem for women who are particularly confident in their parenting abilities. Previous
studies have found benefits for optimistic expectations but have not compared these
expectations with later experiences meaning that it is not possible to determine whether
there were any adverse effects, if these expectations were proven overly optimistic
(Fournier et al., 2002; Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Leedham et al., 1995). This study
compared expectations with reported experiences. Here, optimistic expectations were
associated with positive psychological adjustment during pregnancy but when these
expectations proved to be overly optimistic, they tended to be associated with poorer
psychological adjustment in women who perceived themselves as highly efficacious
parents. The adverse effects were not associated with large discrepancies. Generally,
those that had their expectations disconfirmed had experiences that were less positive
than they expected, rather than entirely positive expectations contrasting with entirely
negative experiences. This contrasts with Armor and Taylor’s (1998) assertion that if
the discrepancies between overly optimistic expectations and experiences are modest,
these discrepancies may be relatively harmless.
At a practical level, these results provide good news on the transition to
parenthood. The results indicate that many first-time mothers are optimistic about
parenthood and, on average, these expectations are matched or exceeded by experiences
four months after the birth. Furthermore, optimism during pregnancy appears to be
associated with good psychological adjustment at a time when women face a number of
challenges. One implication of these findings is that optimism may be beneficial during
the transition to parenthood. The caveat is that the optimism should be realistic. The
disconfirmation of overly optimistic expectations by less positive experiences was
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associated with higher scores on the depression measure and less relationship
satisfaction. These results have implications for education and counselling
interventions provided to people who are expecting their first child. While naturally
there is a strong focus on preparing parents for childbirth during pregnancy, it may be
beneficial to provide education about some of the positive and negative aspects of early
parenthood (Delmore-Ko et al., 2000). This might increase expectant parents’
awareness of some of the challenges they will face, allow them to formulate strategies
on how they will cope with parenthood, and decrease the likelihood that they will
formulate unduly optimistic expectations.
All of the participants were married or in de facto relationships. The sample was
predominantly Caucasian Australian or of European origin. Caution is needed when
generalising these results to other samples. Further, only a small minority of women in
this study faced significant difficulties during the transition to parenthood. Relatively
few women had scores on the mood measure that were indicative of depression and,
while there were declines in relationship adjustment scores, most people still scored
within a range that is characteristic of good adjustment. Yet, even with these protective
factors, expectancy disconfirmation had a significant effect on adjustment. The
participants in the current research were self-selected and this may have contributed to
the overall positive adjustment of the sample. Those that were facing difficulties or
were experiencing particularly difficult pregnancies may have been disinclined to
volunteer for this research during an already testing and busy time. It is possible that
unrealistic optimism may have even more detrimental effects in women who face
greater challenges during the transition to parenthood such as single mothers, adolescent
mothers, or those with a low income or a history of depression (Helstrom & Blechman,
1998). While this study focused on the expectations of first-time mothers, recent
research has found that men also experience depression and other difficulties adjusting
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to parenthood (Matthey et al., 2000). Future research could usefully investigate whether
disconfirmed expectations also play a role in their adjustment to parenthood.
In conclusion, the consistent finding from Study 1 and Study 2 is that pregnant
women have very positive expectations of parenthood. This raised the questions of
whether only pregnant women hold the positive attitudes towards parenthood or
whether the positive views of the women in the previous two studies reflected broader
cultural attitudes towards parenting. The next two studies examined this question in
more detail. Study 3 examines younger, non-pregnant women’s expectations about
parenthood and Study 4 explores media representations of parenting.
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CHAPTER 5
STUDY 3: YOUNG WOMEN’S PARENTING EXPECTATIONS
This study explores the differences between the expectations of those for whom
parenthood is imminent and those for whom parenthood is still a hypothetical event.
Consistent with previous research (e.g. Belsky, 1985; Green & Kafetsios, 1997;
Kalmuss et al., 1992), Studies 1 and 2 found expectant mothers have optimistic
expectations about parenthood. Generally, they expect that parenthood will bring many
benefits to their lives and expect to avoid a range of negative experiences that can occur
in the early stages of parenthood. For a number of reasons, these women may be
particularly motivated to formulate optimistic expectations of parenthood. As women in
the late stages of pregnancy, they were already undergoing the transition to parenthood.
They had experienced significant changes to their body, many had taken maternity leave
from their place of employment indicating they had experienced a role change, and it is
also possible that their relationships had changed as they prepared for the arrival of their
infant. Within weeks of completing the questionnaires in Studies 1 and 2 they were
faced with childbirth, a challenging, painful event and one that women often fear
(Melender, 2002). Therefore, these women may be particularly motivated to formulate
optimistic expectations of parenthood as a way of coping with any sacrifices they had
made, any discomfort they were experiencing, and any fears they had about the
remainder of the pregnancy or childbirth.
Previous theoretical and empirical work would predict that pregnant women are
more likely than non-pregnant individuals to have optimistic expectations of
parenthood. Taylor and Brown (1988) and Armor and Taylor (1998) argue that
optimistic expectations are likely to become exaggerated when individuals are faced
with adversity. While childbirth and early parenthood are not the chronic illness
situations described by these authors, many women would be aware that the perinatal
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period could contain a number of significant physical and psychological challenges.
Yet, they appear to expect to emerge from this challenge unscathed, if not enhanced, by
the experience. Similarly, previous work has found that individuals are more likely to
form optimistic expectations when there is a particular motivation for them to do so and
that individuals’ expectations reflect their desires and wishes for what they would like
to see happen (Buehler, Griffin, & MacDonald, 1997; Lehman & Taylor, 1988).
Therefore, they may discount negative information and attend to positive information
leading to the formulation of very optimistic expectations. Women not facing these
challenges may attend to positive and negative information about parenthood and
consequently formulate more balanced rather than very optimistic expectations of
parenthood.
Taylor and Brown (1988) argue that optimistic expectations serve an important
function: the promotion of positive psychological adjustment in the face of challenging
events. If this function is not needed, does the optimistic bias disappear? Are there
times when individuals can regard their own future in a more balanced light? This
research may provide information on how the timing of an event influences the
formulation of optimistic expectations. As women in the late stages of pregnancy, the
participants in Studies 1 and 2 were at a stage where they had limited control over
whether they became parents or not. Women who are able to choose parenthood instead
of or in addition to a range of other roles may be more objective about the positive and
negative aspects of parenting.
In order to examine this issue, the current study compares the parenting
expectations of pregnant women with those of a sample of women on a university
campus who were not pregnant or parents but wanted to have children in the future. In
addition to furthering knowledge of the circumstances in which optimistic expectations
are likely to form, this study also aimed to elucidate young women’s attitudes to
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childbearing – a topic of increasing debate. The overwhelmingly positive views of
parenthood held by the women in Studies 1 and 2 come at a time when there is
increasing concern in developed nations that women are becoming more ambivalent
about or even hostile towards parenting. This view has been expressed by social
commentators and demographic researchers (King, 2002; Mackay, 2003; Neal, Groat, &
Wicks, 1989). In many nations, including Australia, there have been three inter-related
changes pertaining to women’s fertility. First, women are having fewer children with
the result that birth rates have declined to below population replacement levels (ABS,
2003; Caldwell, Caldwell, & McDonald, 2002). Second, women are having children
later, with the median age of women giving birth increasing from 28.5 in 1991 to 30.2
in 2002 (ABS, 2003). Third, increasing numbers of women are remaining childless
(ABS, 2003). A number of related factors have been cited as contributing to these
changes, the most potent being advances in reproductive technology that have given
women greater control over their fertility (Weston & Parker, 2002). In addition,
increases in women’s education levels and labour force participation and the associated
economic independence of women means that they have role and occupational choices
other than those of wife and mother (Blossfield & Huinink, 1991; Langdridge et al.,
2000; Mahaffy & Ward, 2002; Santow & Bracher, 2001).
There is relatively little research on young people’s expectations of parenthood
but the research that does exist suggests that this group may have more balanced
attitudes, which entertain the possibility of positive and negative expectations, than
expectant parents. In contrast to the pregnant women in the previous two studies,
childless couples in the early years of marriage perceive a range of costs associated with
parenthood including financial costs, increased stress and worry, making drastic
lifestyle changes, and having less time and energy to put into their careers (Neal et al.,
1989; Seccombe, 1991). However, they also cite a number of benefits including giving
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and receiving love and affection and forming a family unit. These are similar to the
benefits of parenthood that are cited by expectant parents (Landridge et al., 2000).
Other research has found that university students value career pursuits as well as having
children and many female students anticipate having a break in their working career or
stopping work altogether while their children are young (Schroeder, Blood, & Maluso,
1992; Spade & Reese, 1991).
Few studies have made a direct comparison between the expectations of those
about to become parents and those for whom this event is less imminent. This type of
research would clarify whether it is only expectant parents who are optimistic about
parenthood. In a study examining expectations of toddlers’ temperaments, Silverman
and Dubow (1991) compared the expectations of university students with those of
expectant parents. These authors found that university students were more pessimistic
than expectant parents about their future toddlers’ temperaments: the students expected
to have toddlers with more difficult temperaments. One of Silverman and Dubow’s
explanations for this finding was that the decision to become a parent resolves some of
the doubts that individuals have about toddlers’ temperaments and that individuals’
expectations of parenthood become more positive as they approach the role. A similar
explanation, which is consistent with thought in the unrealistic optimism area, is that
expectant parents are particularly motivated to expect that their children will have happy
and easy-going temperaments. Expectant parents may attend to examples of happy
toddlers and discount examples of crying toddlers leading to the formulation of
optimistic expectations.
Contrasting with the findings of Silverman and Dubow (1991), other research
has found that young people have very idealised attitudes towards parenthood. In a
study examining adolescents’ views on a broad range of issues pertaining to parenthood,
Condon, Donovan, and Corkindale (2000) found that between a third and a quarter of
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Australian never-pregnant adolescents held idealised views of pregnancy and
parenthood. They appeared to endorse folk myths about parenthood such as “you don’t
need to learn how to be a competent parent – it just comes naturally” (p. 732) and
“parenting is almost always enjoyable” (p. 732). These young people seem to
overestimate the positives of parenthood and underestimate the negatives. Condon et al.
(2000) did not compare these adolescents expectations with those of expectant parents
but from these results seem to indicate that the optimistic expectations held by the
women in Studies 1 and 2 are shared more broadly. This counters the view that the
decline in birth rates reflects a growing ambivalence towards parenthood.
Other research has examined whether the greater choices available to women
and changing demographic trends has led to a change in attitudes towards parenting.
This research indicates that women’s age, education levels, and current life
circumstances influence their attitudes to parenting. Ex and Janssens (2000) examined
the perceptions of motherhood held by Dutch women and female adolescents. The
researchers found that adolescents were more likely to emphasise the need for mothers
to be child-centered whereas young women emphasised the importance of a mother
being family orientated without losing her autonomy. Females with higher levels of
education tended to stress the importance of autonomous and self-assertive attitudes in
mothers whereas those with less education emphasised the importance of child-
centeredness and a well-groomed appearance more frequently. Ex and Janssens also
asked their participants how they expected themselves to perform as mothers. Overall,
the women thought they would be moderately traditional and devoted to care-giving and
domestic duties, but placed more importance on being assertive and nurturing
relationships with their children and others in their lives. These findings indicate that
age and education influence females’ attitudes on what constitutes a good mother but
they do not inform on whether these girls and women expect parenthood to be a positive
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or negative experience.
Results from other research suggest that attitudes towards childbearing influence
childbearing behaviour. In a longitudinal study, Barber (2001) found that positive
attitudes towards children and parenting in 18-year-old men and women were associated
with earlier marital childbearing subsequently. In comparison, positive attitudes
towards activities that compete with childbearing such as education, career pursuits, and
the purchase of luxury goods were associated with a decreased likelihood of premarital
childbearing and a delay in marital childbearing. Barber argues that as a broader range
of values become socially acceptable, individuals become freer to act on their personal
preferences when making childbearing choices. Thus, individual attitudes towards
childbearing may be more likely to be important in determining individual behaviour
than social pressures. In addition, as it becomes more common and socially acceptable
for women to remain childless, it may also mean that women who are not yet about to
become mothers find it more acceptable to express negative as well as positive beliefs
about the role.
Goals of the Present Study
The current study had two aims. The first aim was to compare the expectations
of pregnant women with those of women who did not have children and were not
pregnant in order to explore whether the optimism displayed by the pregnant women
reflected their own circumstances or are representative of women’s attitudes to
parenthood in general. The women in the previous two studies were facing the
significant challenge of childbirth and parenthood. Therefore, they may have been
particularly motivated to focus on positive aspects of parenthood and formulate
optimistic expectation. This positive bias may reflect an adaptive strategy to cope with
any fears or concerns that lay ahead. Indeed, the results from Study 2 indicate that very
positive expectations of parenthood were associated with positive psychological
105
adjustment. The current study sought to explore whether those for whom parenthood
was still a hypothetical event displayed the same optimism to parenthood.
The second aim was to gather information on how young women view
parenthood. The childbearing decisions of this group bear importantly on future
demographics. Yet, little is known about how this group views parenthood or of their
childbearing plans. The research that does exist has provided contradictory results.
Some research indicates that young people may be more likely than expectant parents to
hold positive and negative expectations of parenthood (Neal et al., 1989; Seccombe,
1991; Silverman & Dubow, 1991) and other research has found that young people can
have very optimistic expectations of parenthood (Condon et al., 2000). Greater
understanding of young women’s expectations of parenthood is important because their
beliefs about this role may influence their childbearing decisions (Barber, 2001). Other
factors that influence childbearing decisions are education, relationship status, and age
(ABS, 2003; Blossfeld & Huinink, 1991; Rindfuss, Morgan, & Offutt, 1996; Wu &
MacNeill, 2002). This study aimed to provide some empirically-based information on
what young women expect parenthood to be like, when they expect to have children and
whether these expectations are influenced by their relationship status and age.
To participate in this study, women had to be aged between 18 and 29 years of
age, childless, and not pregnant. Women studying and working at a university
completed the parenting expectations measure used in the previous study. They were
also asked about their plans regarding children - whether they wanted to have children
sometime in the future and if so, in approximately how many years they would like to
become a parent. The expectations of the university sample were compared to the
expectations of the women recruited in Study 2, that is, women pregnant with their first
child.
In accordance with the theoretical issues outlined, it was predicted that as
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parenthood became a more likely option or more imminent for the women in the study
they would be more likely to focus on the positive aspects of parenthood and less likely
to focus on the negative aspects. Therefore, their expectations would become more
optimistic. The first hypothesis was that the pregnant women would hold more
optimistic expectations of parenthood than the women in the university sample. Given
previous research on factors that influence the timing of childbearing, the second
hypothesis was that there would be a significant association between the university
women’s estimates of when they would have children, and their age and relationship
status. Specifically, those that were older and those in relationships would expect to
have children sooner than those who were younger and single. The third hypothesis
was that those in the university sample who were more likely to become parents sooner
- that is, those who were older and those in relationships - would have more positive
expectations of parenthood.
Increased years of education may influence women’s attitudes to childbearing,
in that, the more years they have invested in their education, the less likely they are to
have children in the near future. However, a university sample has limited variability in
this area and no significant relationships between the nature of women’s expectations
and their education levels were expected.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study were 85 women from the University of Western
Australia. Participants who stated that they did not want to have children were not
included in the final sample. This was to ensure that the difference between the two
groups was the timing of when they would have children and that the differences
between their expectations would not be confounded by parenting expectations of
participants who did not want to have children.
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The final sample consisted of 79 women aged between 19 and 29 years of age.
The women all worked or studied at the University of Western Australia. Most of the
participants were undergraduate students (85.9%), while 9.0% were postgraduate
students and 5.1% were university employees. Given that the expectations of this
sample were being compared to those of the pregnant women in Study 2, it was
necessary to examine whether the two samples differed on demographic variables. The
mean ages, mean years of education, relationship types, and ethnic backgrounds of the
two groups are displayed in Table 5.1. As expected, the university sample was
significantly younger, t(148) = -9.60, p < .001, and had significantly more years of
education, t(147) = 6.38, p < .001, than the pregnant sample. The samples also differed
in their ethnic backgrounds and their relationship types. While the entire pregnant
sample was co-habiting with their partner, only 25.4% of the university sample were in
this type of relationship. Over a third of the university sample was single. For those
that were in a relationship there was a great deal of variation in the lengths of these
relationships. The shortest relationship length was three weeks and the longest was 9
years. The mean was 33.9 months (SD = 24.52).
In order to establish whether ethnicity influenced the variables in question,
independent sample t-test was used to detect differences in expectation scores for
participants from different ethnic backgrounds within the university sample. There no
difference between expectation scores for Australian participants and expectation scores
for non-Australian participants. Likewise, there were not differences between ethnic
groups in regards to their estimates of when they would have children.
Procedure
Three recruitment strategies were used in this study. In the first strategy,
participants were approached in second, third, and fourth year psychology lectures,
given a brief explanation of the research, and invited to participate. Interested
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Table 5.1 Demographic variables for pregnant women and university women. University group
n = 79
Pregnant group
n = 71
Age M (SD) 22.0 (2.55) 27.7 (4.47)
Years of tertiary education
M (SD)
3.06 (1.57) 1.13 (1.99)
Relationship Types 5.1% Married
20.3% De facto
36.7% Partner but not
living together
38.5% Single
60.9% Married
39.1% De facto
Ethnic Background 73.5% Australian
5.2% European
21.8% Asian
64.6% Australian
23.0% European
12.4% Other
individuals took a questionnaire, information sheet, and consent form away with them;
completed the material in their own time; and returned it in an envelope at the next
lecture. In the second strategy, first year psychology students were recruited via their
course website. These students gained course credits as remuneration for their
participation and completed their questionnaire in a quiet room. In the third strategy,
participants were recruited via the university’s general email list. Individuals who
volunteered to participate were sent a questionnaire, consent form, and information
sheet in the mail and returned through the internal mail system. The questionnaire and
information sheet used in this study are displayed in Appendix E.
Materials
The parenting expectations measure was used again in this study (see Chapter 3
for a description of this measure). The instructions were altered slightly to make them
appropriate for women who were not pregnant with their first child. Rather than asking
women to think about how they expected life to be when their baby arrived, women
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were asked to “think about how you would expect life to be for you, if you were the
parent of an infant”. The overall alpha for the parenting expectations measure in this
sample was .94. For the subscales, the alphas were: .78 for the infant expectations, .82
for partner expectations, .86 for self expectations, and .73 for social expectations.
In addition to the parenting expectations measure, the participants were asked
about their age, their relationship status, education, whether they expected to have
children in the future and, if they did, approximately how many years in the future they
thought they would have children.
Results
Comparison Between the Pregnant Women and the University Women
The first hypothesis of this study was that the university sample would be less
optimistic about parenthood than women who were pregnant with their first child. To
test this hypothesis a one-way between groups multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA) was performed to investigate differences between the expectations of the
university sample and the expectations of the pregnant women in Study 2. The four
dependent variables were infant expectations, partner expectations, self expectations,
and social expectations. The means for each group on the dependent variables are
displayed in Table 5.2. There was a statistically significant difference between the
pregnant women and the university sample on the combined dependent variables, F(4,
145) = 3.15, Wilks’ Lambda = .92, partial eta squared = .08. When the groups were
compared on each of the dependent variables, the pregnant women had significantly
higher scores that the university sample on infant expectations and partner expectations.
Effects of Age, Relationship Status, and Education on Plans for Children and
Expectations in the University Women
It was predicted that women who were older and in relationships would expect
to have children sooner than women who were younger and single. Pearson’s
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Table 5.2 Means, standard deviations, and results of the between-subject comparisons for the expectations scores in the pregnant sample (n = 71) and the university sample (n = 79). Pregnant Group University Group
Expectation Category Mean SD Mean SD F(1, 148)
Infant Expectations 60.55 6.74 57.01 7.78 8.81*
Partner Expectations 60.96 7.81 57.32 8.05 7.87*
Self Expectations 102.21 12.91 96.66 14.4 6.11
Social Expectations 64.96 8.21 63.34 7.84 1.59
* p < 0.012 (Bonferroni corrected alpha level for multiple comparisons).
correlations were performed to determine whether there were significant relationships
between women’s estimates of the number of years until they would have children and
their age and years of education. The mean for women’s estimates for the number of
years until they had children was 6.89 (SD = 2.93) with a range of 0 to 15 years. There
was no significant relationship between number of years of education and expectations
of number of years until childbearing (r = -.10, ns). There was a large, inverse
correlation between age and estimates of years until childbearing (r = -.58, p < .001).
A one-way between-groups analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted
to determine whether relationship status influenced expected timing of childbearing.
The independent variable was relationship status, which had three levels: single, partner
but not cohabiting, partner and cohabiting. The dependent variable was the participants’
estimates of the number of years until they would have children. Given that age appears
to have a significant influence on expected years until childbearing, it was entered as a
covariate in this analysis. The descriptive statistics for this ANCOVA are displayed in
Table 5.3. Preliminary checks were conducted to ensure that the assumptions of
normality, linearity, homogeneity of variance, and homogeneity of regression slopes
were met. After adjusting for age, there was a significant effect of relationship status on
expected years until childbearing, F (2, 76) = 3.50, p < .05, eta squared = .08. Pairwise
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Table 5.3
Means and standard deviations for the university participants’ ages and their estimates of the number of years until they would have children. Single
(n = 30)
Partner – not
cohabiting
(n = 29)
Partner –
cohabiting
(n = 20)
Age (M, SD) 21.70 (2.19) 21.17 (1.87) 23.75 (3.13)
Years until childbearing (M, SD) 7.98 (2.54) 6.84 (2.60) 5.30 (3.31)
Adjusted means (and SE) for years
until childbearing
7.72 (.43) 6.29 (.44) 6.42 (.56)
comparisons between the estimated marginal means revealed that women in non-
cohabiting relationships expected to have children significantly sooner than women not
in relationships. The other pairwise contrasts were not significant.
The final prediction was that women who were likely to have children sooner
would have more optimistic expectations of parenthood. Pearson’s correlation was used
to determine whether age and years of education were related to expectation scores.
There were no significant relationships between expectations scores and age (r = -.04,
ns), estimated years until childbearing (r = -.02, ns), or years of education (r = -.01, ns).
A one-way between groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to
determine whether participants’ relationship status had an effect on their expectation
scores. The three groups in this analysis were single participants (n = 30, M = 277.20,
SD = 29.40), participants who were in a relationship but not living with their partner (n
= 29, M = 275.62, SD = 36.92), and those who were married or living with their partner
(n = 20, M = 268.15, SD = 36.41). There was not a significant effect for relationship
status on expectation scores, F (2, 76) = .45, ns.
Discussion
As predicted, the expectations of pregnant women were more optimistic than
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those of the university sample. That is not to say that the women in the university
sample had negative expectations of parenthood. Like the pregnant women, they tended
to agree with positively worded items and disagree with negatively worded items but
the strength of their agreement was weaker. Consistent with the hypothesis, within the
university sample, there was a significant relationship between women’s age and their
estimates of when they would like to have children with older women estimating that
they would have children sooner than younger women. Similarly, relationship status
was linked to estimates of childbearing with women in non-cohabiting relationships
estimating that they would have children sooner than those not in relationships.
However, age and relationship status were not associated with expectations in the
university sample and, as expected, there were no significant relationships between
education levels and estimates of childbearing timing or parenting expectations.
These results are consistent with the notion that the optimism displayed by the
pregnant women reflected their own circumstances. The pregnant women were about to
become parents and as such may be particularly motivated attend to positive
information of parenthood and discount negative information leading to the formulation
of very optimistic expectations. In comparison, the women in the university sample,
who wanted to become parents in the future but still had some choice over whether this
would occur, appeared to be less optimistic. This study examined a broader range of
expectations than Silverman and Dubow (1991) who focussed on toddlers’
temperaments. However, as in their study, the findings from the current study indicate
that individuals for whom parenthood was imminent viewed the experience more
positively than those for whom the role was more distant. Based on these results, it
appears that individuals facing a challenge are more likely to focus on potential positive
outcomes than individuals who are not facing the challenge. This is consistent with
Taylor and colleagues’ view (Armor & Taylor, 1998; Taylor & Brown 1988) that
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optimistic expectations are likely to become exaggerated when individuals are faced
with a challenging event. For the university women, who were not about to face the
challenging event of childbirth, it may have been easier to entertain the idea that their
future lives as parents may involve less than ideal experiences, which in turn led to less
optimistic expectations.
Although the expectations of the university women were less optimistic than
those of the pregnant women, the university women had positive expectations of
parenthood. These findings are similar to previous work, which has found young
people have very optimistic views on their own futures even when it relates to life
events that may be some years away (Weinstein, 1980; Fowers et al., 2001). The results
of the current study do not support the positions put forward by social commentators
and demography researchers that young women are generally ambivalent or negative
about parenting (King, 2002; Mackay, 2003; Neal et al., 1991). Here, both pregnant
women and a sample of university women expect that the role will be a positive
experience and will have a positive influence on their lives. The rationale and
methodology of the current study differed from Condon et al.’s (2000) work in that their
study examined idealisation of early parenting by adolescents and this study examined
expectations held by young women and expectant mothers. Yet, taking into account the
results of both studies, it is possible to conclude that many young people view
parenthood as a positive experience.
The current study also examined links between the university women’s attitudes
towards childbearing and their age, relationship status, and level of education. The
university sample’s estimates of when they intended to have children indicate that on
average they expect to have children within seven years from the time of the study.
Given the average age of the sample, this would mean that on average the participants
wanted to have children at around age 29. This mirrors previous findings, which have
114
indicated that university students plan to have children in their late 20s (Spade & Reese,
1991). It is a few years later than the latest available figure for maternal age at first
birth in Australia: 27.3 years (AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit, 2003).
Examining the factors associated with timing of childbirth, women’s age was
significantly associated with their estimates of when they would have children. The
older the women were, the sooner they thought they would have children. None of the
women in the sample had estimates that indicated they expected to have children in their
late 30s or into their 40s. This is interesting in light of recent media reports that women
are unaware that, even with the advances in reproductive technology, the probability of
conceiving and carrying a pregnancy to term becomes smaller as women age (Gibbs,
Horowitz, Rawe, & Song, 2002; Kalb et al., 2001). Future research may investigate
whether women are aware of the relationship between age and fertility and whether this
awareness influences their childbearing plans. Of course, intentions are often different
to actual behavioral outcomes. It is possible that as the women in this study age, they
will encounter circumstances that compete with childbearing, such as pursuing higher
education and establishing a career. These women may have children later than they
intend to. Longitudinal research in this area would be useful in order to determine how
women’s intentions and life events interact to influence the timing of childbearing.
Relationship status also significantly contributed to women’s estimates of when
they would have children. When statistically controlling for age, women who had a
partner but were not cohabiting with their partner expected to have children sooner than
those who were single. However, this relationship did not hold for women who
cohabiting with their partner. This group was older than the other two groups and there
was no significant difference between cohabiting women and the other two groups once
age was statistically controlled for. For single women, that is those that are not married
or cohabiting with their partner, it appears that being in a relationship influences when
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they expect to have children.
Neither age nor relationship status were significantly associated with parenting
expectations. This is contrary to the hypothesis that women who were likely to have
children sooner, in this case women who had a partner or were older, would have more
optimistic expectations of parenthood. The results from this study suggest that
parenting expectations may become more optimistic when the event is inescapable but
not simply if the event is more likely or a more proximal prospect. In some ways, this
supports Taylor and colleagues’ (Armor & Taylor, 1998; Taylor & Brown 1988) view
that expectations become exaggerated in response to potential adversity. The women in
the university sample who were older and in a relationship may have been more likely
to have children sooner than other women in the university sample. However, they
were still in a position to choose whether they became parents and were not faced with
the immediate challenge of childbirth and parenthood. This may be one reason why
their expectations were not as optimistic as those of the pregnant sample. The results
suggest that expectations do not become more optimistic as an event becomes more
likely, rather they become more optimistic when an event is imminent and an individual
has no control over the occurrence of that event.
At this stage, it is only possible to assume that the difference in the timing of
parenthood led to the differences in expectations between the pregnant women and the
university women. Longitudinal research is needed to confirm this relationship. For
example, research that followed women from a stage where they were contemplating
having children in the future through to a stage where they became pregnant would lend
stronger support to the notion that the optimism of parenting expectations becomes
exaggerated when parenthood is imminent.
Due to differences in the way the pregnancy and the university sample were
recruited, it was not possible to match the two samples on demographic variables. The
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parenthood statuses of the two groups were not the only variables distinguishing them.
The university sample was significantly younger and had significantly more years of
education than the pregnancy sample. Further, less than half of the university sample
was living in cohabiting relationships whereas the entire pregnancy sample were living
with their partner. These differences may have contributed to the differences in
expectations between the two groups. Other research has found that women’s education
level does influence their perception of parenthood (Ex & Janssens, 2000). However,
within the university sample, the relationships between expectations and age, education,
and relationship status were not significant. This suggests that the demographic
differences between the university and pregnancy sample may not be the reason for the
observed differences in expectations. However, further research is needed with samples
that are matched on demographic variables to confirm that this is the case.
Given that higher education is a pursuit that has been associated with higher
rates of childlessness and a delay in parenting (Blossfeld & Huinink, 1991; Rindfuss et
al., 1996; Wu & MacNeill, 2002), one would expect that these women might have
somewhat ambivalent attitudes to this role. However, this assumption is not supported
by these results. It is also possible that because women were asked to comment on their
own futures, they gave responses that were motivated by their own hopes and desires
for their future lives as parents. In other words, the university sample may also have
endorsed positively biased expectations. Other research has demonstrated that young
people have overly optimistic expectations about a number of aspects of their lives
(Weinstein, 1980). One way to get a more objective assessment or to examine the
extent to which the women’s parenting expectations reflect a positive bias regarding
their own futures may be to ask what they expect parenthood to be like for the average
individual. If their expectations for the average individual were lower than their
expectations for themselves, it would suggest that parenthood is another area where
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individuals are prone to displaying a positive bias when predicting their own futures.
The very positive parenting expectations of the women in the previous two
studies come at a time when there is growing concern that young people view parenting
as a negative experience. In a sample of women on a university campus, it was found
that these women also have positive expectations about parenthood, although not as
positive as the pregnant sample. The findings do lend support to the notion that
expectations are likely to become very optimistic when individuals are faced with an
event over which they have limited control and which may be difficult or have negative
outcomes. However, the results also suggest that the positive views of parenthood held
by the pregnant women in Study 2 are more widespread and are to some extent shared
by younger women. The next chapter explores further the cultural context in which the
expectations of the women in the three studies conducted thus far were formulated.
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CHAPTER 6
STUDY 4: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF IMAGES IN PARENTING MAGAZINES
The previous studies have revealed that both pregnant women and those for
whom parenthood is less imminent have positive expectations about parenthood. This
prompts questions about how expectations of parenthood are constructed. Why do
people have predominantly favourable images of a major life transition that they have
not yet experienced? Why are these images socially shared (i.e., held by many people)?
Widely held expectations form part of the cultural context within which lives are lived
and futures planned. Yet, relatively little research attention has been paid to the ways in
which early parenthood is represented within Western societies and to the content of the
information sources used by new parents. One way to address these questions is to
examine the content of media devoted to the transition to parenthood. Media content
can reflect the cultural context in which it was produced (Riffe, Lacy, & Fico, 1998).
For example, Lee (1997) suggests that media images of parenthood reflect the cultural
value that new mothers should experience “unalloyed happiness and love” (p. 99). In
addition, people select and use media sources to satisfy their individual needs and
desires (Rubin, 1994). For example, first-time parents often have limited direct
experience with infants and report relying on parenting books and magazines, amongst
other sources, for parenting information (Carruth & Skinner, 2001; Deutsch, Ruble,
Fleming, Brooks-Gun, & Stangor, 1988). In this way, media sources may shape,
influence, or reinforce the expectations or attitudes that individuals hold about a
particular issue. Therefore, examination of media representations of parenting may
inform of the cultural context in which parenting expectations are formed and of the
nature of an information source used by new parents.
Images of infants, young children, and their parents appear to be widely used
within the media. Indeed, in Australia and other countries, there are magazines devoted
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to pregnancy, parenting infants, and parenting in general. While the transition to
parenthood can have profound implications for women, limited attention has been paid
to the way it is presented in the media. This is despite the fact that media content has
been examined with reference to a broad range of other issues relating to women,
including media representations of feminine attractiveness and gender roles (Bartsch,
Brunett, Diller, & Rankin-Williams, 2000; Malkin, Wornian, & Chrisler, 1999;
Mazzella, Durkin, Cerini, & Buralli, 1992; Milburn, Carney, & Ramirez, 2001).
Two authors who have examined the transition to parenthood have argued that
the media misrepresent early parenting experiences. Kitzinger (1993) argues that new
mothers who turn to the media for guidance are presented with a false and glamorised
picture of the transition to parenthood. In her view, books and magazines targeted to
new mothers fit a particular formula where “whatever the subject and however grim the
information presented, every piece must end positively” (p. 7). She also notes that the
media present infants as “pink, plump”, “smiling adorably”, and “gurgling with
delight”. Similarly, Maushart (1999) describes parenting magazines as “relentlessly
upbeat” (p. 87). The implication is that the not-so-cute aspects of early parenthood such
as changing a dirty nappy or listening to an infant cry all night are avoided in media
devoted to parenting issues. If these views are accurate, perhaps it is not surprising that
the women in the previous studies of this project have had such optimistic expectations
about parenthood. Yet until now, there has been little quantitative evidence to support
descriptive critiques, such as those of Maushart and Kitzinger. Research that has
explored the way parenthood is represented in the media has tended to focus on two
topics: the way motherhood is represented generally and the way media content
pertaining to mothers changed as women’s workforce participation increased in the
second half of the 20th Century.
Knijn (1994) analysed the way representations of mothers in Dutch magazines
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evolved as women’s roles changed in the period spanning from the 1960s to the 1980s.
She found that 1960s magazine content emphasised the self-sacrifice involved in
motherhood, whereas 1980s content focused on motherhood as a role that would bring
self-fulfillment and self-realisation to women. Research examining whether media
content has reflected the changing nature of women’s roles in Western countries has
focused on attitudes towards mothers’ involvement in paid employment and the
utilisation of childcare (Etaugh, Williams, & Carlson, 1996; Keller, 1994). One of the
conclusions drawn from this research is that magazines seek to reflect the views of their
readers. Therefore, in the 1950s when many of the readers’ primary role was that of a
homemaker, the magazines espoused the benefits of this role for women and their
families (Keller, 1994). As the number of women in paid employment increased
throughout the 1970s and 1980s, these magazines reflected a wider range of attitudes
about what was best for women and their children (Etaugh et al., 1996; Keller, 1994).
Presumably aware that their readership could contain both women who had chosen to
stay at home with their children and those who were mothers and paid employees, the
magazines took up the view that each of these situations was good even if this meant
embracing contradictory positions (Keller, 1994). For example, within the same issue, a
magazine may champion the position that the best-adjusted children are those who
receive the constant care of their mothers and then, in another article, advocate the
seemingly contrary position that the best-adjusted children are those who go to daycare.
Of more direct relevance to the transition to parenthood is research investigating
the way parenthood, or more often motherhood, is represented in magazines and books
targeted to parents. Marshall (1991) conducted a discourse analysis of popular
childcare and parenting manuals published between 1979 and 1988. Although these
manuals are aimed at parents, often their content seems to be directed to mothers in
particular. The findings indicated that one of the dominant themes was that motherhood
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is a satisfying and important role that provides ultimate fulfillment for women. Another
theme was that a mother’s love for her child comes naturally and is a given in parenting.
Marshall’s conclusion was that these manuals generally presented the nuclear family as
the best environment for raising children, within which fathers were depicted as an
essential component to successful child-rearing. However, fathers’ role was as a helper
rather than primary caregiver. Marshall argued that the manuals implied that any
domestic or occupational scenarios discrepant with this traditional model were
inherently problematic. Most of these manuals are over two decades old now and, given
that women’s participation in paid employment has increased since their publication, it
is possible that current media representations of parenting may not place such a heavy
emphasis on traditional gender roles.
More recent content analyses of American parenting magazines have found
parenthood is portrayed as a private affair in which parents rather than a wider family
circle bear the sole responsibility for the care of their children (Johnson & Swanson,
2003; Kakinuma, 1993). Representations of mothers in this medium suggested that
mothers were still confined to the domestic sphere, regardless of whether they were
employed outside the home or were an at-home mother (Johnson & Swanson, 2003).
Thus, the magazines continued to present a traditional image of mothers: at home with
the children. Johnson and Swanson’s study only examined mother-related content.
Therefore, it is not possible to determine how these magazines portrayed fathers’ role in
parenting.
Overall, media representations of motherhood have been criticised for
perpetuating gender role stereotypes: children do best when their mothers are home with
them, caring for children is the domain of women, and motherhood brings complete
fulfillment and satisfaction to women (Johnson & Swanson, 2003; Marshall, 1991).
However, research that has explored media representations of parenthood has done so at
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a relatively broad level and there is little in the literature on the nature of the
information that is targeted to new parents. Furthermore, researchers have been
particularly interested in the representations of motherhood in the media, with far less
attention paid to how fathers are represented. Given that previous research has found
that the transition to parenthood can be more difficult for women when they have
unrealistic expectations about how their relationship with their partner will be
influenced by parenthood (Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988; see also Study 2),
it is important to examine how fathers are portrayed in information sources used by
expectant and new parents.
Some authors have expressed concern that if the information sources that women
rely on present only the positive side of early parenthood, they may formulate
unrealistically optimistic expectations of parenthood and feel a sense of failure and guilt
if their experience is not wholly joyful (Kitzinger, 1993; Lee, 1997). This is consistent
with the findings of Study 2, which indicated that unrealistic expectations lead to
decreases in relationship satisfaction and contentment. If magazines are an information
source that expectant parents use, and if they reinforce or lead to the formulation of
unrealistic expectations, they may indirectly contribute to the difficulties that some
experience during this important transition. In addition, magazine content may reflect
broader cultural values pertaining to the transition to parenthood, which may also have
an influence on women’s expectations.
The aim of the current study was to examine how the transition to parenthood,
that is pregnancy and early parenthood, is presented in the media. Because previous
authors have raised concerns about the media messages targeted to new mothers and as
the expectations of first-time parents are the predominant concern of this thesis, images
in magazines targeted towards parents of infants or expectant parents were selected as
the focus of study. Of particular interest was whether early parenthood was portrayed
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as a positive or negative experience. One way to glean this information is to examine
the images - that is, pictures or photographs – displayed in these magazines. From
images in magazines, it is possible to observe the emotions typically displayed by
individuals in these magazines, the behaviour displayed by infants and parents, and who
is displayed caring for infants. It is also possible to infer meanings that may be
conveyed to readers. For example, previous research has found that media images tend
to display men and women in traditional and stereotypical gender roles (Milburn et al.,
2001).
The participants in Study 2 and Study 3 were asked about their perceptions of
media containing images of parents and children. The results for these measures are
presented in this chapter in order to address two questions. First, do women use
parenting magazines during the transition to parenthood? Second, what are women’s
perceptions of the way the transition to parenthood – pregnancy and the early stages of
parenthood - is presented in the media? Women’s ratings of media content will also
allow for comparison between women’s perceptions of this content and the results from
the analysis of this content.
This study analysed the photographic images of infants, pregnant women,
expectant fathers, mothers of infants and fathers of infants in two Australian parenting
magazines. Parenting magazines were selected as a medium because they are an
information source targeted at and used by new and expectant parents. In addition,
previous research has found that this medium is likely to present views that are
consistent with that of its readership and therefore, parenting magazines may provide an
indicator of current Australian attitudes towards the transition to parenthood.
Based on findings of Studies 1, 2, and 3, it was predicted that the way the
transition to parenthood is represented in parenting magazines would be consistent with
the expectations that women appear to hold about parenthood, that is, that parenting is a
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largely positive experience. Five hypotheses were formulated:
1. Parents, including expectant parents, and infants will be portrayed experiencing
positive emotions more often than negative emotions.
2. Mothers will be portrayed as the primary caregiver, that is, mothers will be shown
with infants more often than fathers will.
3. Women will be involved in care-taking and domestic labour behaviour more often
than men.
4. It will be uncommon for those other than parents to be involved in infant care.
Therefore, most images will contain infants with their parents or infants alone and
instances where other individuals are presented caring for infants will be rare.
5. The physical appearance of both parents, including expectant parents, and babies
will be idealised. Both parents and infants will be presented as well-groomed and
clean.
Women’s Media Use and Perceptions of Media Pertaining to Pregnancy and Parenting
Method
Participants
The participants in this study were the same as those in Studies 2 (transition to
parenthood women) and 3 (university women). The demographic information for the
women involved in the longitudinal study is presented in the Participants section of
Chapter 4. The demographic information for the university students is presented in the
Participants section of Chapter 5.
Procedure
In the questionnaire used in Study 2, women were asked about the media they
had been using and their perceptions of these media. They responded twice: once while
they were pregnant and once approximately four months after the birth of their infant.
Women were asked about the extent to which they had been reading or watching
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content relating to parenting and pregnancy in each of the following: parenting or
pregnancy books, television shows, films, internet sites, newspaper or magazine articles,
magazines devoted to parenting or pregnancy, and advertisements. In each case,
participants were asked to rate the frequency with which they used the relevant medium
using the following options: not at all, rarely, occasionally, nearly every day, or every
day. In the postpartum questionnaire, participants were asked to comment on whether
their use of these media had increased or decreased.
Participants were also asked about their general perceptions of the way the
media presents pregnancy or parenting. They were asked to rate the media on 7-point
scales for each of the following continuums (in each case, 4 is not sure): happy or
unhappy (where 1 is very happy and 7 is very unhappy), fulfilling or unfulfilling (very
fulfilling, 1; very unfulfilling, 7), easy or difficult (very easy, 1; very difficult, 7), and
accurate or inaccurate (very accurate, 1; very inaccurate, 7). The questions on the
nature of media content were also presented via questionnaire to the university sample
in Study 3. The questions assessing frequency of use of media content relating to
parenting and pregnancy was not presented to the university sample.
Results
In terms of frequency of use, parenting and pregnancy magazines were the most
frequently used medium after parenting and pregnancy books, parenting or pregnancy
items on news and current affairs television shows, and advertisements for childcare
products and toys. During pregnancy, 67.6% of participants used parenting or
pregnancy magazines at least occasionally. After the birth of their infants, 56.2% of the
participants noted that their use of parenting magazines had remained the same or
increased.
The means and standard deviations for women’s perceptions of parenting media
are displayed in Table 6.1. Both groups seemed to suggest that the media presented
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pregnancy and early parenthood as happy and fulfilling rather than depressing and
unfulfilling. The groups appeared relatively unsure about whether the relevant media
content was accurate or inaccurate and on whether pregnancy and parenthood were
presented as easy or difficult. Comparisons were made between the transition to
parenthood women’s perceptions of parenting media during pregnancy and their
perceptions after the birth. The postnatal ratings on the easy/difficult scale were
significantly lower than the pregnancy ratings, t(70) = 2.23, p < .05. Similarly, the
postnatal ratings on the accurate/inaccurate scale were significantly higher than the
pregnancy ratings, t(70) = -3.25, p < .01. There were no significant differences between
pregnancy rating and prenatal ratings on the fulfilling/unfulfilling scale, t(70) = 1.59, ns,
or on the easy/difficult scale, t(70) = 1.28, ns.
Table 6.1 Means and standard deviations for women’s impressions of media pertaining to pregnancy and parenting.
University Women Transition to Parenthood Women
Pregnancy Postnatal
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Easy/Difficult 4.31 (1.71) 3.83 (1.17) 3.43 (1.40)
Fulfilling/Unfulfilling 2.24 (.94) 2.52 (.98) 2.30 (.92)
Happy/Depressing 2.77 (1.22) 2.49 (.98) 2.32 (.96)
Accurate/Inaccurate 4.49 (1.17) 3.63 (1.12) 4.17 (1.31)
Content Analysis
Method Sample
Two parenting magazines were selected for analysis: Practical Parenting and
Mother and Baby. These magazines were selected because they are the two major
monthly or bimonthly magazines targeted to new mothers in Australia. Practical
Parenting has a readership of approximately 134,000 (Roy Morgan Research, 2004) and
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is published monthly. Mother and Baby magazine has a readership of 167,000 and is
published bimonthly (Roy Morgan Research, 2004). Given that 251,000 women gave
birth in Australia in 2002 (ABS, 2003), these magazines appear to reach a large
proportion of new mothers.
The sample for this study included six issues of Practical Parenting magazine
published between February 2002 and February 2003 and seven issues of Mother and
Baby magazine published between May 2001 and March 2003. The sampling aim was
to include all the issues published across a year for each magazine. However, limited
back issues were available from the publisher. As a result, the final sample consisted of
the issues that were available at the time this study was conducted. Every image
containing an infant, a mother, a father, a pregnant woman, or an expectant father was
coded. The final sample consisted of 1,216 images. Of these, 500 were from Practical
Parenting and 716 were from Mother and Baby.
Procedure
The key figures were defined as parents, expectant parents, and infants. For
each image where one or more of these key figures were present, the affect, behaviour,
appearance, and ethnicity of the key figures were coded. No more than three
individuals were coded for each image; for example, an infant, mother and father. The
coding criteria are outlined below. Copies of the coding instructions and coding sheet
used in this analysis are displayed in Appendix F.
Image type and accompanying content/advertisement: In order to obtain
descriptive data on the nature of the images used in the content analysis, the images
were classified as either magazine content or advertisement and as either professional
photographs or amateur photographs. The accompanying magazine content or the
advertised product was also noted.
Individuals present in photograph: The people present in the picture were noted.
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For example, whether it was an image of an infant alone, a mother alone, or an infant
and mother with other adults present.
Affect: The affect of each key figures was classified as one of: smiling; calm or
relaxed; frowning/anxious/tense; crying; or cannot determine. For infants, there was an
additional category of funny, strange, or humorous facial expression. Images that fell
into this category were often photographs sent to the magazine by parents because their
infants were displaying idiosyncratic, comical or otherwise unusual facial expressions.
Ethnicity: The ethnicity of the central figures was coded as Caucasian,
Aboriginal, other, or not sure.
Appearance: For mothers and fathers, their appearance was coded as either neat
or dishevelled. Their clothing was coded as either stained or unstained and the type of
clothing was coded (formal/evening wear, business attire, smart casual, at home casual,
medical gown, exercise wear, or nothing). For infants, two measures of skin quality
were coded: clean versus unclean and clear versus irritated (i.e., evidence of a rash or
skin irritation). Their clothing was coded as stained or unstained and the type of
clothing was coded (nothing, nappy, fully clothed, costume, or cannot determine).
Behaviour: The behaviour that parents displayed in the photographs was coded.
After coding, parent behaviour was classified into nine categories, which are displayed
in Table 6.2.
Reliability
While the coding procedure was being refined, a second coder coded 20 images
in order to check the applicability and reliability of the coding criteria. Any
disagreements at this stage were resolved by reviewing the image and discussing its
properties until agreement was achieved. Then, the entire data set was coded, followed
by a reliability check. A trained coder coded 93 (7.65% of the entire sample) randomly
selected images. This is the proportion recommended by Riffe et al. (1998) in order to
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Table 6.2 Parent behaviour categories used in the content analysis.
Category Examples of Behaviour
Infant Care and Domestic Behaviour
Nurturing Parent holding infant, looking at/watching infant,
parent kissing infant, reading to infant, playing with
infant, talking to infant, touching infant
Domestic Chores Domestic chores, shopping
Care-Giving Breastfeeding infant, bottle-feeding infant, feeding
infant solids, pushing infant in pram,
bathing infant, giving infant medicine, dressing infant,
changing infant
Social and Self-Care Behaviour
Self-Care Sleeping, eating, drinking, preparing food or drink,
reading, exercising, bathing self
Health-Care Talking to health professional, undergoing medical
procedure
Pregnancy and Labour In labour, practicing labour positions, relaxation
exercises
Social Interaction Talking on phone, talking to or interacting with
another adult, embracing or touching another adult
Work Related Working, using computer
Not-Meaningful Sitting, looking directly at camera and not engaged in
any other behaviour
ensure to a 95% level of probability that a 90% level of agreement would be observed
between the coders if the entire content population was coded by both coders. The
observed agreement between coders ranged between 85.4% and 100% across the
measures listed above, with a mean of 92.65 % (SD = 4.74). For the variables included
in the final analysis, Scott’s pi ranged between .63 and 1.0 with a mean of .84 (SD =
.08). The initial coding variables included variables tapping infant behaviour and
attachment behaviours but as the Scott’s pi for these variables revealed that the
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agreement between the coders was no greater than would be expected by chance, these
variables were not used in the subsequent analyses.
Results
Image Characteristics
In total, 1,216 images were obtained for coding. From these images, 1,686 key
figures were coded. Of the images, 26.2% were advertisements and 73.8% were
magazine content. Most of the images (75.6%) were professional photographs and
24.4% were amateur photographs. When the magazine content accompanying the
images was examined the five most frequent topics were readers’ letters and photos
(17.9%), pregnancy related articles (16.6%), labour and birth related articles (13.3%),
infant care-giving advice (10.0%), and articles on the development and growth of
infants (8.9%). The five most common categories of advertised goods and services
were products for parents and infants (65.8%), pregnancy related products and services
(16.6%), infant feeding related products (8.5%), infant health care products and services
(6.6%), and parental health care products and services (1.6%).
Parent and Infant Affect
Hypothesis 1 predicted that positive emotions would be portrayed more often
than negative emotions. Table 6.3 displays the frequencies for the affects of key
figures. There were significant differences in the frequencies of the emotions portrayed
(infants: χ2 = 108.2, df = 4, p < .001; mothers: χ2 = 40.6, df = 1, p < .001; fathers: χ2 =
23.4, df = 2, p < .001). For infants, mothers, and fathers positive emotions were
displayed in close to 90% of cases.
Division of Caregiving Responsibility Between Parents and Others
Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 are related and the results will be examined together.
Hypothesis 2 was that women would be portrayed with infants more often than fathers
would be portrayed with infants. There were significant differences in the frequency
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Table 6.3 Percentages for emotions displayed by mothers, fathers, and infants in magazine images. Key Figures
Infants Mothers Fathers na = 807 na = 559 na = 112
Emotion Smiling/joyful 35.6% 58.5% 48.2%
Relaxed/calm 53.0% 34.2% 41.1%
Frowning 6.9% 7.0% 10.7%
Crying 1.6% 0.4% 0.0%
Funny/strangeb 2.8%
Note. In this analysis, expectant mothers were included in the mothers group and expectant fathers were included in the fathers group. a Represents the number of key figures for whom it was possible to code their affect. b This category was used for infants only.
with which infants were presented with their mothers, fathers, or both parents (χ2 =
33.2, df = 2, p < .001). Mothers were shown with infants in 25.4% of images, fathers
were shown with infants in 3.1% of images, and both parents were shown with infants
in 2.1% of images. The remaining percentage consists of images where parents were
depicted without their infants, infants were depicted without their parents, or expectant
parents were depicted.
Hypothesis 3 was that mothers would be involved in care-taking behaviour more
often than fathers. Table 6.4 displays the types of behaviour parents were engaged in
within the images sampled. Overall, mothers were more likely to be portrayed carrying
out infant caregiving tasks and domestic duties and fathers were more likely to be
portrayed carrying out social and self-care behaviour (χ2 = 16.39, df = 1, p < .001).
Hypothesis 4 was that in images of mothers, fathers, and infants, the presence of
others would be uncommon. Others such as grandparents, health professionals, and
other children and adults were portrayed with infants and their parents in 5.8% of
images (χ2 = 78.4, df = 1, p < .001).
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Table 6.4 Percentages for parent behaviours in the magazine images.
Mothers Fathers
Behaviour n = 662 n = 129
Infant Care & Domestic
Nurturing 41.6 31.8
Domestic Chores 2.3 0.8
Care-Giving 7.9 4.7
Total 51.8 37.3
Social & Self-Care
Self-Care 14.4 9.3
Health-Care 3.5 0.0
Social Interaction 7.9 33.3
Work Related 0.8 1.6
Pregnancy and Labour 7.9 NA
Total 34.5 44.2
Note. Figures in table do not add up to 100 because non-meaningful behaviour (e.g. staring directly at camera with no other behaviour depicted) was not included in this analysis. In this analysis, expectant mothers were included in the mothers group and expectant fathers were included in the fathers group.
Physical Appearance of Key Figures
Hypothesis 5 was that the appearance of parents, including expectant parents,
and infants would be idealised.
Clothing and grooming: Table 6.5 displays the percentages for clothing and
grooming criteria for mothers and fathers. In the vast majority of cases, mothers and
fathers were presented in clean clothes and were neatly groomed. Parents were
generally presented in casual wear rather than clothing that may indicate they had
another role, such as business attire.
Infants’ clothing and appearance were also presented in a positive manner.
Infants were presented with clear skin significantly more often than they were presented
with irritated skin or rashes (93.2% vs. 6.8% of cases; χ2 = 73.96, df = 1, p < .001).
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Their clothing was clean in 98.9% of cases (χ2 = 96.04, df = 1, p < .001) and their skin
was clean in 97.0% of cases (χ2 = 88.36, df = 1, p < .001). In 60.1% of images, infants
were fully clothed. In the remainder of the images infants were wearing nothing
(21.5%), a nappy (9.1%), were wrapped in a towel or blanket (6.2%), or were wearing a
costume (3.1%).
Table 6.5 Percentages for clothing and grooming variables for mothers and fathers.
Key Figure
Mother Father
% %
n = 593a n = 118b
General appearance Neat 80.3 85.6
Disheveled 19.7 14.4
n = 545c n = 106d
Clothing cleanliness Stained 1.7 4.7
Clean 98.3 95.3
n = 557e n = 118f
Clothing type Formal/evening wear 1.4 3.4
Business attire 3.8 11.0
Smart casual 53.5 45.8
At home casual 27.8 20.3
Medical gown 1.1 1.7
Exercise wear 9.7 9.3
Nothing 2.7 8.5
Note. Sample sizes exclude occasions where it was not possible to code the appearance of the key figures (e.g., where the image was too blurred). In this analysis, expectant mothers were included in the mothers group and expectant fathers were included in the fathers group. a χ2 = 36.84, df = 1, p < .001. b χ2 = 49.91, df = 1, p < .001. c χ2 = 93.16, df = 1, p < .001. d χ2 = 81.99, df = 1, p < .001. e χ2 = 92.76, df = 6, p < .001. f χ2 = 93.39, df = 6, p < .001.
Ethnicity: Caucasian infants, mothers, and fathers were portrayed significantly
more often than infants, mothers, and fathers from other ethnic groups (infants: χ2 =
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84.64, df = 1, p < .001; mothers: χ2 = 88.36, df = 1, p < .001; fathers: χ2 = 84.64, df = 1,
p < .001). The percentages for infants, mothers, and fathers that fell into the other
ethnicity category were 4.5%, 3.2%, and 3.8% respectively. These figures are lower
than the actual figures for the number of non-Caucasian parents and infants in Australia.
For example, among women giving birth in Australia in 2000, 3.4% were indigenous
Australians, 8.4% were born in Asia, and 2.2% were born in the Middle East or North
Africa (AIHW National Perinatal Statistics Unit, 2003). None of the images examined
in this study contained indigenous Australians.
Discussion
The findings from the first section of this study, examining women’s perceptions
of parenting media, revealed that women about to become parents and those in the early
stages of parenthood do use parenting magazines. During pregnancy, 67.6% of women
reported using magazines at least occasionally and 56.2% of new mothers reported that
their use had remained the same or increased.
New mothers, pregnant women, and other women believed that the media
represent the transition to parenthood as a happy and fulfilling event. The participants
were less sure about whether these magazines were accurate or whether they presented
the transition to parenthood as an easy or difficult event, with mean scores largely in the
middle of the scale suggesting participant ambivalence on these variables. On these
latter two variables, the ratings of the parenting sample changed significantly across the
transition to parenthood. New mothers’ postnatal ratings suggested that they believed
that the magazines presented parenthood as a somewhat easy rather than difficult. This
contrasts to their pregnancy ratings, which seemed to indicate greater ambivalence over
whether the media present parenthood as an easy or difficult experience. In addition,
the accuracy ratings of new mothers suggested that they were less likely, when
compared to their pregnancy ratings, to suggest that parenting media were accurate.
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The postnatal mean on this measure was in the middle of the scale, which may suggest
that women’s perception of the accuracy of parenting media depends upon their own
experiences. Those that have had a relatively easy and happy transition may see these
media as accurate; those that have had a more difficult transition may see these media as
inaccurate. One way to explore this in the future would be to ask women how easy,
fulfilling, and happy they had found parenthood and compare these ratings with their
ratings of parenting media.
Examination of the results for the content analysis revealed that all five
hypotheses were supported. Individuals in parenting magazines displayed positive
emotions far more often than they displayed negative emotions. Mothers were
portrayed as the primary caregiver. They were depicted with infants more often than
fathers were and they were more likely than fathers to be portrayed carrying out infant
care-taking behaviour. The involvement of others was uncommon. People such as
grandparents, health professionals, friends, or relatives were rarely seen in images of
parents and their infants. The physical appearance of key figures was idealised. Parents
were neatly groomed in most images. Parents were seen in casual clothing more often
than in more formal clothing, such as business wear. Infants were presented as clean
with clear skin. Consistent with previous research, Caucasian mothers, fathers, and
infants were over-represented in parenting magazine images and individuals of other
ethnic backgrounds were under-represented (Johnston & Swanson, 2003). In summary,
parenting was represented as a positive affair in which parents are well groomed and
composed and infants are smiling with glowing skin. The difficult aspects of parenting
were neglected in the photographic images favoured by these magazines.
In the current content analysis, less than half a percent of the images coded
showed women crying and only one and a half percent of images showed an infant
crying. In the majority of images, women looked happy and composed both during
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pregnancy and as new mothers. Infants looked content and calm. In addition, the neatly
groomed appearances of both parents and infants added to the impression that parenting
was a calm and composed affair. There were few images of an exhausted or depressed
mother attempting to care for a screaming infant. In this respect, the magazine images
contrast with the practical realities of routine parenting. On average, normal infants
spend six percent of their day crying (Pauli-Pott, Becker, Mertesacker, & Beckmann,
2000). Those with colic spend on average 20% of the day crying (Pauli-Pott et al.,
2000). While many new parents do experience positive emotions, 60% of new mothers
report exhaustion and fatigue in the early stages of parenthood (Thompson et al., 2002).
Depressed mood is less prevalent but it does occur in a significant proportion of women
both before and after the birth (Matthey et al., 2000; Morse et al., 2000).
When the findings of the current study are compared with research examining
the experiences of parents and their infants, the arguments of Kitzinger (1993) and
Maushart (1999) that parenting magazines present an overwhelmingly and possibly
unrealistically positive view of those undergoing the transition to parenthood and their
children are vindicated. The present findings are also consistent with previous
discourse analysis, which has found that parenting media present motherhood as an
overwhelmingly positive event (Marshall, 1991). If women used these images as their
sole information source when they are formulating their expectations, they would be
unlikely to expect negative emotions during the early stages of parenthood nor to expect
to have to cope with a baby who cries frequently. The joyful, casual-smart and content
mothers and cheerful, clean infants that appear in the vast majority of parenting
magazine images do not appear to provide a comprehensive picture of early parenthood.
In terms of the division of childcare between mothers and fathers, mothers were
more likely to be represented with infants. When fathers were presented, they were less
likely than mothers to be depicted carrying out care-giving activities. More often, they
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were presented interacting with the mother rather than alone with the infant. Even the
title of one of the magazines, Mother & Baby, indicated that the parenting of infants is
assumed to be the domain of women (there is no male equivalent, e.g. Father & Baby,
magazine published in Australia). To a certain degree, this may accurately reflect the
way labour is divided between new parents. Women are responsible for the majority of
the childcare in early parenthood (Cappuccini & Cochrane, 2000; Hackel & Ruble,
1992). Hence, the magazines may be reflecting the circumstances of their readers. This
is consistent with findings of previous studies that magazines reflect the values of the
broader culture (Etaugh et al., 1996; Keller, 1994). Nevertheless, these magazines do
perpetuate the value that most of the responsibility of caring for infants belongs to
women.
Consistent with previous research (Johnson & Swanson, 2003; Kakinuma,
1993), parenting was portrayed as a private affair where the presence of others was
uncommon. Parents were more likely to be seen in casual clothes rather than business
clothes or other clothes indicating that they had a role other than that of parent. It is
somewhat ironic that, at a time when individuals are more likely to need support from
others (Cutrona & Suhr, 1990; Morse et al., 2000), parenting magazines present new
parents in something akin to a social vacuum – separated from the rest of society. This
may be a misrepresentation of how parenthood affects friendships. Other research has
demonstrated that while the nature of parents’ relationships with others may differ to the
relationships of non-parents, parents have an equal number of friends to non-parents and
report feeling closer to their families than non-parents (Ganiere, Dinsmoore, &
Silverman, 1995).
Parenting magazine images provide information on the sociocultural context in
which new parents formulate their expectations. The results from this content analysis
indicate that this medium provides an overwhelmingly positive view of parenthood.
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Even in articles that focussed on parenting problems, the images were frequently
positive. For example, a Mother & Baby article on soothing crying infants was
accompanied by the headline “we show you simple ways to soothe and settle your new
baby” (Soothing Ways, 2002; pp. 32-33) with pictures of calm infants and a smiling
mother. While the content may provide useful information, it is possible that the
pictures and headline send the message that for most people soothing a crying infant is
an easily achievable task. This seems consistent with Kitzinger’s (1993) view that
parenting magazines fit a formula where, regardless of the seriousness of the problem,
the tone must be upbeat. In this way, the idealised images in these magazines may lead
individuals who have no experience of caring for infants to formulate unrealistic
expectations or perceptions of parenthood.
Nonetheless, media use is not simply a one-way transaction in which the
audience absorbs the message (Rubin, 1994; Segrin & Nabi, 2002). People select their
media to meet their needs and interests. The website for Mother & Baby magazine
argues that new mothers want information and reassurance. More specifically, they
want answers to two questions “Is this normal?” and “Am I doing it right?” (Emap,
2004, the reader section, para. 1). It is not surprising that individuals approaching or
experiencing a life transition would purposefully seek out relevant, appealing, and
authoritative information sources. Some women may turn to parenting magazines for
the reassurance that “everything will be okay” and the positive messages in these
magazines may address this need effectively. Women also turn to these magazines for
parenting information (Carruth & Skinner, 2001). While they may turn to the
magazines in search of parenting information, they may be exposed to sociocultural
values about parenting in addition to the information that they sought. If a tired and
harried mother with a crying infant and no time to shower compared herself to the
immaculately groomed, smiling, composed women in parenting magazines, she may
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well come to the conclusion that parenting seems to be easy for other mothers and
wonder why this is not the case for her. This message may not be reassuring for women
who are struggling with the early stages of parenting. One way to examine how media
images influence women’s perception of themselves would be to compare the way
depressed and non-depressed new mothers react to these images. The effects magazines
have on women may also be influenced by their reasons for using these magazines.
Therefore, more research on the reasons women use parenting magazines is appropriate.
It is important to avoid confusing descriptions of media content with media
effects. At this stage, it is not known whether the images in these magazines influence
women’s expectations of parenthood. These magazines are one of many possible
influences on women’s attitudes towards and expectations of parenthood. It is
important to understand the nature of other information sources used by women. It is
possible that health professionals, family members, and friends provide more cautious
advice about parenthood, which balances the very positive view provided by parenting
magazines. No doubt, some expectant parents would also be able to weigh up the
information presented in magazines with their own experiences of witnessing others
parent infants and young children.
Based on the results from this study and the previous studies in this project it is
possible to say that women have very positive expectations about parenthood and these
expectations are mirrored or even amplified in parenting magazines. Both parents and
their media appear to reflect current Australian values towards parenthood – that it is an
overwhelmingly positive experience. Given that Study 2 found that unrealistically
positive expectations are associated with a more difficult adjustment to parenthood,
further investigation into the factors that influence women’s expectations is warranted.
This includes an examination of the information sources that women use, the reasons for
this use, and how this use influences their attitudes and expectations.
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CHAPTER 7
GENERAL DISCUSSION
The four studies described in this thesis have furthered knowledge of the
transition to parenthood by examining factors that influence individuals’ psychological
adjustment during this transition and investigating broader cultural perceptions of early
parenthood. Studies 1 and 2 addressed three central aims in the current project. The
first aim was to examine, in a valid and reliable manner, a broader range of parenting
expectations than has been addressed in previous research. The second aim was to
compare parenting expectations with experiences of parenthood. The third aim was to
determine if differences between expectations and experiences were associated with
adjustment to parenthood and whether parenting efficacy beliefs moderated this
relationship. Following on from the findings of the first two studies, Studies 3 and 4
examined the wider cultural context within which the women formulated their
expectations of parenthood, and broadened understanding of how the transition to
parenthood is viewed within Australian culture. This chapter will review the central
findings and conclusions of this thesis and will discuss directions for future research.
The Relationship Between Expectations and Adjustment to Parenthood
Study 1 produced a valid and reliable measure that encompasses expectations
pertaining to the broad range of changes that the transition to parenthood brings.
Although previous research had looked at parenting expectations across several
domains, there tended to be a focus on the marital relationship (Belsky, 1985; Hackel &
Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988). Research that has focussed on a broader range of
expectations used measures that did not have established reliability and validity
(Kalmuss et al., 1992). Study 1 produced a measure that addresses these gaps. The
parenting expectations measure assesses four categories of expectations, including two
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categories that have been given less attention in previous work. One category of
parenting expectations neglected in previous work was women’s expectations of the
way parenthood would influence their own well-being and sense of self. This
expectation category was included because the transition to parenthood has significant
consequences for women’s psychological and physical well-being and can change their
perceptions of themselves (Fawcett, 1988; O’Hara, 1997; Thompson et al., 2002; Wells
et al., 1999).
Another category of expectations that was given less attention in previous work
was women’s expectations about the nature of parenting itself – that is, expectations of
caring for their baby and of their relationship with their infant. Previous research has
demonstrated that women enjoy looking after their infants and derive pride from
parenting (Green & Kafetsios, 1997).
The third and fourth expectation categories has been a focus of previous work
and were included in the current parenting expectations measure because they relate to
constructs that have been demonstrated to be important during the transition to
parenthood. These categories were expectations pertaining to the influence of
parenthood on women’s relationships with their partners and the way it influences their
relationships with others in their lives (Belsky et al., 1985; Belsky et al., 1983; Cowan
& Cowan, 1992; Cutrona & Suhr, 1990; Morse et al., 2000).
Thus, the four categories of expectations included in the parenting expectations
measure are self expectations, infant expectations, partner expectations, and social
expectations. Each set of expectations assesses a range of positive and negative aspects
of parenthood allowing for the expression of positive and negative expectations. The
measure also allows a direct comparison between expectations and experiences. In this
way, the measure makes it possible to determine how optimistic expectations relate to
adjustment during the transition to parenthood, whether these expectations match later
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experiences, and consequently, how any discrepancies between expectations and
experiences influence postnatal adjustment.
Initial testing suggested that the parenting expectations measure had sound
validity and reliability. In Study 2, variations in expectations were significantly
predicted by variations in measures of relationship adjustment, efficacy beliefs, and
social support. Furthermore, discrepancies between expectation scores and experience
scores predicted postnatal adjustment after the effects of prenatal adjustment had been
statistically controlled for. The results from Study 3 indicate that the measure
discriminates between the expectations of pregnant women and the expectations of
women who were not pregnant in theoretically expected ways – the expectant parents
were significantly more positive than women who were not pregnant. Hence, the results
from Studies 2 and 3 provide further information on the construct validity of the
measure. The processes of validating and assessing the reliability of this measure needs
to continue. One area that needs particular attention is the underlying structure of the
measure. Currently, the items are divided into categories based on the topic of the
expectations; for example, items relating to expectations about the infant are in the
infant expectations category. Factor analysis is needed to confirm the factor structure of
the measure. This type of analysis was not possible in the current research due to the
sample sizes.
Using the parenting expectations measure, it was possible to determine that
pregnant women, facing a role with which they had no direct experience, formulated
optimistic expectations of parenthood. The results from Studies 1 and 2 indicated that
women expected to experience positive aspects of parenthood and avoid negative
aspects. While this optimism could be attributed to the naivety of individuals who have
no experience with their new role, the new parents’ optimism is consistent with work in
other areas, which has found that people are optimistic about their own futures (Fowers
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et al., 2001; Weinstein, 1980). Research that has examined expectations pertaining
specifically to parenting has also found that women are optimistic about their futures as
parents (Belsky, 1985). However, this work has not examined the relationship between
these expectations and adjustment during pregnancy. It has tended to focus on the
potentially negative consequences of optimistic expectations: optimistic expectations
formulated by individuals with little experience of parenthood could be disconfirmed in
a negative direction.
In contrast, this thesis drew on the work of Taylor and Brown (1988, 1994) and
predicted that optimism during pregnancy may be psychologically adaptive. This
theory appeared to hold true for the pregnant women in Study 2. In the prenatal period,
where women do face a number of challenges including depression, fears about
childbirth and pregnancy, and varying levels of physical discomfort (Da Costa et al.,
2000; Dunkel-Schetter & Lobel, 1998; Green, 1998; Morse et al., 2000; Melender,
2002), optimistic expectations were associated with positive adjustment. The results
from this study suggest that women who are well adjusted - that is, have positive
relationship adjustment, high perceived social support, and an optimistic sense of their
own parenting efficacy - have optimistic expectations of parenthood. What is unknown
here is whether the optimistic expectations of the women were a result of their positive
adjustment, whether their optimistic expectations led to positive adjustment, or whether
there was a third underlying factor accounting for the positive adjustment and the
optimistic expectations. Longitudinal research that assesses women’s psychological
adjustment and their parenting expectations a number of times during pregnancy and
possibly in the time leading up to pregnancy may elucidate the causal links between
optimism and psychological adjustment.
Study 2 also examined how these optimistic expectations compared to parenting
experiences and whether expectations that were overly positive, relative to experiences,
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were associated with a more difficult adjustment to parenthood. This addressed a gap in
previous work. Research that has found links between optimistic expectations and
positive psychological adjustment in other areas of human endeavour has not made this
comparison nor has it examined the consequences for adjustment if experiences do not
match optimistic expectations (Buehler et al., 1994; Coleman et al., 1999; Delmore-Ko
et al., 2000; Green & Kafetsios, 1997; Kach & McGhee, 1982; Leedham et al., 1995;
Wylie, 1979).
Surprisingly, given that previous research has found that individuals tend to be
overly optimistic about parenthood (e.g., Belsky, 1985; Hackel & Ruble, 1992), women
in Study 2 found some aspects of parenting more positive than their already optimistic
expectations. Notably, this occurred for the two expectation categories that previous
research has tended to overlook - women’s expectations of how parenthood would
influence their own well-being and their expectations of caring for their infants. Their
reported experiences of the way parenthood affected their relationships with their
partners and others matched their positive expectations. Overall, women’s positive
reports of their early parenting experiences concurred with their scores on the mood and
relationship adjustment measures – both of which were indicative of positive
psychological adjustment. However, there was considerable variation within the sample
and for some, parenthood was not as positive as they had expected. This type of
expectancy discrepancy was associated with lower mood and poorer relationship
adjustment with this pattern evident for all expectation categories other than infant
expectations, where unrealistic expectations were not associated with poorer
relationship adjustment. This latter finding is in line with other research which found
that relationship satisfaction was not associated with expectations of infant care-giving
(Hackel & Ruble, 1992; Ruble et al., 1988).
While optimism may be associated with better psychological adjustment during
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pregnancy, this optimism may be psychologically hazardous if it is proven
unrealistically optimistic. Even with relatively small gaps between expectations and
experiences, where experiences were less positive than expected rather than the
antithesis of positive expectations, there was a significant association between
expectancy discrepancies and psychological adjustment. Armor and Taylor (1998) note
that their arguments for the benefits of unrealistic optimism are often based on research
that is not longitudinal, meaning it is difficult to determine the long term consequences
of unrealistic optimism. The current research suggested that there are benefits and the
dangers of optimism. When the consequences of this optimism were examined in
longitudinal research, it appeared that the effects of unrealistic optimism were not
always innocuous.
There did appear to be some instances where unrealistically optimistic
expectations were not linked to poorer adjustment to parenthood. The relationships
between expectancy discrepancies and adjustment were moderated by efficacy beliefs,
that is, there was a non-significant or weak relationship between expectancy
discrepancies and adjustment measures in women with moderate efficacy and a strong
relationship between these variables in women with high efficacy. Specifically, having
self expectations disconfirmed in a negative direction and having partner expectations
disconfirmed in a negative direction were associated with lower postnatal mood in
individuals with high efficacy beliefs. Likewise, the relationship between self
expectancy discrepancies and postnatal relationship adjustment was moderated by
efficacy beliefs, such that the relationship was stronger for women with high parenting
efficacy beliefs. For women with high parenting efficacy, self expectations that were
overly positive relative to expectations were associated with poorer relationship
adjustment. These moderator relationships were unexpected and need further
consideration. The findings suggest that expectancy disconfirmation may be
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problematic in certain areas for women with a very high sense of efficacy but not for
those with a moderate sense of efficacy. It may be that for women who believe that
they are highly efficacious in their parenting role, it is difficult to cope when the impact
of parenthood on their relationship and their own well-being is not as positive as they
had expected, despite their own parenting efficacy. Again, it suggests that excessive
optimism can be risky for individuals’ psychological well-being.
The findings that moderate efficacy beliefs were associated with a weaker
relationship between expectancy discrepancies and psychological adjustment are
consistent with the findings of Hackel and Ruble (1992) that expectancy
disconfirmation is not always a problematic event during the transition to parenthood.
The current study produced a sample of women with very high efficacy and a sample
with moderate efficacy. This differed from the hypothesis, which assumed that the
sample would split into a high efficacy group and low efficacy group. Self-efficacy
theory predicts that individuals with a high sense of efficacy cope more effectively with
challenges than those with a low sense of efficacy (Bandura, 1997). By recruiting a
sample that included a group of individuals with low efficacy, it may be possible to
further delineate how efficacy interacts with disconfirmed expectations. It may be that
very high efficacy and very low efficacy do not buffer the effects of expectancy
discrepancies. In this research, women who believed that they were very efficacious
parents appeared to be particularly disappointed when parenthood did not have the
expected effect on their lives. It is also possible that women with low efficacy would
cope poorly with disconfirmed expectations, perhaps seeing it as evidence of their own
perceived inadequacy.
Optimistic Parenting Expectations in a Broader Context
One question raised by the optimism of women in Studies 1 and 2 was whether
this optimism was an artifact of their pregnancy. Taylor and colleagues (Armor &
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Taylor, 1998; Taylor & Brown 1988) have argued that expectations are particularly
likely to become unrealistically optimistic in the face of challenging circumstances. In
Study 3, pregnant women who were facing a challenging event - childbirth - held more
optimistic expectations of parenthood than women who were not pregnant but wanted to
have children in the future. One conclusion that could be drawn from this finding is that
individuals who are faced with a difficult event over which they have limited control
may be particularly motivated to focus on the potential positive outcomes and formulate
optimistic expectations. However, the participants’ childbearing status was not the only
difference between the two groups: The university sample was significantly younger
and had significantly more years of education than the pregnant sample. Longitudinal
research is needed to confirm the relationships observed in the Study 3. By tracking
women’s expectations as their childbearing status changes – for example, from a period
of contemplating whether or not to have children through to pregnancy – it may be
possible to examine how the imminence and controllability of an event changes the
nature of individuals’ expectations about that event.
The findings from Study 3 also contribute to a debate where there appears to be
considerable speculation yet not a lot of research: young women’s expectations of
parenthood. No previous work has examined in detail what young women expect
parenthood to be like on a day-to-day basis, even though these expectations may bear on
women’s childbearing decisions, which in turn influence future demographics. In Study
3, a group of university educated women had positive expectations of parenthood. The
optimism of the young women about parenthood is consistent with previous research
suggesting that young people have optimistic expectations about their futures (Carnelly
& Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Fowers et al., 2001; Weinstein, 1980). The consistency of the
expectations of two different groups of women about a life transition they had not yet
experienced suggested that their expectations may reflect broader cultural values of
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parenthood.
In order to gain insight into cultural context in which women formulated their
expectations, Study 4 examined media representations of parenthood and focused on
photographic images in parenting magazines. Media representations provide
information on the cultural values that may shape the expectations and attitudes of
individuals living within that culture. The women in Study 2 read parenting magazines
during pregnancy and early parenthood and other research has found that women use
these magazines as a source of parenting information (Curruth & Skinner, 2001).
Consistent with the results relating to the nature of women’s parenting expectations,
these magazines presented a very positive picture of parenthood. Both adults and
infants were far more likely to be portrayed expressing positive emotions than negative
emotions. Infants and their parents were often impeccably groomed adding to the calm
and composed image of early parenthood conveyed by the magazines. The presence of
those other than parents and their infants was uncommon in these images, suggesting
that the care of infants is the sole domain of parents and assistance from others is not
necessary. In addition, women were portrayed carrying out care-giving tasks more
often than men who were portrayed with mothers and infants rather than as the sole
caregiver of the infant. When compared to research on the actual experiences of parents
(Matthey et al., 2000; Morse et al., 2000; Pauli-Pott et al., 2000; Thompson et al.,
2002), the overwhelmingly positive affect of parents and infants in the magazine images
appears to be unrealistic. In contrast, the division of labour that is displayed, where
women are depicted carrying out most of the early childcare, is consistent with research
on the actual division of childcare during the early stages of parenthood (Cappuccini &
Cochrane, 2000; Hackel & Ruble, 1992). Taken together, the results suggest that
parenting magazines present stereotypical images of parenthood: Parenthood is a calm
and mostly joyous affair and is chiefly the responsibility of women.
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The stereotypes that are presented in these images mean that while women may
turn to these magazines for factual information, they are also presented with the implicit
message that parenthood should be a fulfilling, happy, and trouble-free experience. If
the implicit messages in these magazines are consistent with and contribute to the
dissemination of current cultural values of parenthood, it may explain why the women
in the previous three studies held positive expectations of parenthood. Armour and
Taylor (1998) have suggested that one of the mechanisms that contribute to the
formulation of unrealistically optimistic expectations are attentional processes which
lead individuals to attend to positive information and discount negative information.
Although expectant parents may gain information from a range of sources, including
sources that tell them that early parenthood is difficult, they may be particularly
motivated to attend to the positive information and images presented in parenting
magazines. The information presented in these magazines - that parenthood is a
positive experience and while they may encounter problems, these problems are easily
solved - may be more appealing to expectant parents than more negative information
that they may receive elsewhere. In this way, these magazines could reinforce positive
expectations of parenthood. At this stage, it is only possible to speculate on how
parenting magazines and other media may influence women’s expectations. In order to
determine what, if any, influence the media have on parenting expectations, it is
necessary to examine the reasons women use these media as well as messages they
attend to within these media (this is discussed in more detail below).
General Conclusions
The findings of this thesis suggest that parenthood, despite the challenges it can
present to individuals, is viewed as a positive experience by those about to become
parents, by those for whom parenthood is some time away, and by media targeted to
new parents.
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For many of the women in Study 2, the actual experience of parenthood was
positive but for some, the experiences were not as positive as expected and this
discrepancy was associated with poorer adjustment. The images in parenting magazines
may suggest to expectant or new parents that there is a high likelihood that they will
have a trouble-free transition to parenthood, or that most people experience a trouble-
free transition to parenthood. This is not a problem for those whose expectations are
exceeded or matched by parenting experiences. However, some parents have
unrealistically optimistic expectations and the disconfirmation of these expectations is
associated with poorer adjustment to parenthood.
These findings suggest that while optimism may be psychologically adaptive
before an event, it should be realistic. This contrasts with Taylor and Brown’s (1988;
1994) position that unrealistically optimistic expectations are associated with positive
adjustment in the face of challenging circumstances. While the current research
focussed on the transition to parenthood, unrealistically optimistic expectations may be
associated with poorer adjustment in individuals facing other challenging life events,
such as coping with life threatening or chronic illnesses. Other research has explored
whether unrealistic optimism is associated with psychological adjustment but relatively
little work has looked at whether disconfirmed expectations have a detrimental effect on
adjustment in these circumstances (e.g., Fournier et al., 2002; Leedham et al., 1995).
The cultural values and personal importance ascribed to parenting may mean that
unrealistic optimism during the transition to parenthood is a unique example of the
hazards of unrealistic optimism. However, given the problems associated with
unrealistic optimism in the current research, further research is needed before it is
possible to say that being unrealistically optimistic is an adaptive strategy in the face of
other challenging life circumstances.
This widely held view that parenthood is an overwhelmingly positive experience
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may exacerbate the distress of those that experience difficulties during this time. As
Lee (1997) argued, even those who adjust well to parenthood experience difficulties and
challenges, yet, they are faced with a broader cultural view that parenthood brings
absolute contentment. Having negative or difficult experiences during the transition to
parenthood and finding the role less positive than expected may be particularly
distressing for new parents. They may feel that they are not having the same joyous
experience of parenthood that comes easily to others or are failing to meet the culturally
expected standard for parenthood.
The widespread positive view of parenthood observed in four studies in this
thesis needs to be considered when interpreting the findings. The consistent finding that
many people share positive views of parenthood suggests that there may be a broader
cultural value that parenthood is an overwhelmingly positive experience. Consequently,
women may have been reluctant to provide responses inconsistent with this view. It is
possible that the optimism and positive views expressed by women in Studies 1, 2, and
3 are inflated due to social desirability effects. However, even if this was the case,
effects for disconfirmed expectations were found and significant differences in
measures of adjustment were observed. This is noteworthy because previous research
has found that individuals attempt to avoid experiencing expectancy disconfirmation by
discounting or reappraising disconfirming information (Klaaren et al., 1994; Mitchell et
al., 1997). Even if individuals in the current research did attempt to reconcile their
expectations with their experiences, for a significant percentage discrepancies between
their expectations and their reported experiences remained.
The current research has identified important associations between
psychological adjustment and expectations in first-time parents. It has also identified
similarities between these expectations, the expectations of young women, and media
representations of parenthood. Future research could build on these findings by
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focussing on three broad areas. The first is to confirm the correlational findings
observed in Study 2 and examine the causal links between expectancy discrepancies and
adjustment to parenthood. One area that could be examined is whether there are events
or characteristic of parents or infants that influence the disconfirmation of expectations.
For example, temperamental factors, such as a fussy infant may mean that the effect of
parenthood on the woman’s relationship with her partner is different to her prenatal
expectations. It could be these events or individual characteristics rather than the
discrepancies that lead to poorer adjustment to parenthood. More detailed information
on the nature of individuals’ experiences in the postnatal period may elucidate factors
that lead to expectancy discrepancies and the causal nature of the relationship between
expectancy discrepancies and adjustment. Similarly, another avenue for future research
would be to examine whether it is possible to manipulate factors that lead to expectancy
discrepancies and whether changing these factors leads to a decrease in disconfirmed
expectations and a more positive adjustment to parenthood. For example, individuals
who undergo prenatal parenting education may be more aware of the challenges of early
parenthood and less likely to formulate unrealistic expectations. Hence, they may have
an easier transition to parenthood. Research that compares the expectations and
subsequent adjustment to parenthood of groups with and without prenatal parenting
education would be useful in confirming these relationships.
The second area to examine is the relationship between women’s expectations
about parenthood and their childbearing status. Study 3 indicated that the parenting
expectations of non-pregnant women differ from those of pregnant women but the way
in which women’s expectations change as parenthood becomes imminent is unknown.
Parenting expectations are likely to be an important governing factor in women’s
childbearing decisions. Longitudinal research examining how these expectations
change, as women’s childbearing status changes, would increase understanding of the
153
link between expectations and behaviour, generally, and the way cognition influences
childbearing behaviour, specifically. More broadly, this type of research would also
elucidate how the nature of optimistic expectations change as an event becomes more
imminent and the individual has less control over occurrence of that event.
Third, the similarities observed between women’s expectations and media
representations of parenthood warrant further investigation. The current research
observed considerable similarity between the nature of women’s expectations of
parenthood and media representations of early parenthood. These results suggest that
there may be links between women’s expectations and media representations of
parenthood, yet, at this stage it is only possible to speculate on what associations exist
between these variables. Given that the media appear to present an unrealistically
positive view of parenthood and unrealistic optimism is associated with poorer
adjustment to parenthood, it is important to determine whether there is a specific
connection between women’s media use and their expectations of parenthood. It is
unlikely that media content will influence all individuals in the same way (Rubin,
1994). As has been seen in other areas (Segrin & Nabi, 2002), the relationship between
the media use and beliefs about parenthood may depend upon individual differences in
parents’ personalities, perceptions, and beliefs; the type of media they use; and the
reasons for this use. Future research should examine each of these variables and the
relationships between them in detail.
The current research focussed on women’s expectations of parenthood and
Study 2 examined the expectations of women who were cohabiting with their infant’s
fathers. A significant minority of individuals enter parenthood in circumstances
different to those observed in the current research, which may affect their parenting
expectations. If expectancy discrepancies have a significant effect in women who
experienced relatively few difficulties during the transition to parenthood, then these
154
discrepancies may have an even larger effect in individuals that face more considerable
challenges during the transition to parenthood. Further, it is possible that some
individuals may be more prone to having overly optimistic expectations about
parenthood just as there may be some individuals who are less likely to be overly
optimistic. For example, Condon et al. (2000) found that adolescents have idealised
views of pregnancy and parenthood. If these idealised views translate into unrealistic
expectations of parenthood, it may add to the significant challenges that adolescent
parents already face.
It is important to recognise that parenting and attitudes to parenting are likely to
differ from one culture to another. The current study detected some minor differences
in attitudes in the different samples studied. However, these samples were
predominantly made up of middle class, Anglo-Saxon women. The results of the
magazine content analysis suggest that media images may be one variable that shapes
attitudes to parenting. It is reasonable to assume that the implicit messages and images
inherent in this socialisation process may differ from one society to the next and that
individuals from different cultural backgrounds may not formulate such optimistic
expectations of parenthood. Therefore, care should be taken when generalising these
findings to samples drawn from different cultures. Future research should investigate
whether expectations vary across different cultural groups. It is possible that there is
limited cross-cultural variation in the nature of parenting expectations. From an
evolutionary perspective, it may be adaptive for humans to be optimistic about
parenting. If this were the case, it would make sense for individuals from a wide range
of cultures to focus on the positive aspects of parenthood and disregard the negative
aspects when formulating their expectations.
Another area that needs greater attention in future research is the effect of
infants’ characteristics on expectancy disconfirmation. As mentioned earlier in this
155
section, individual differences between infants may influence whether their parents’
expectations are confirmed or disconfirmed. Infants’ temperaments, sleep patterns, and
feeding patterns influence the care-giving demands placed on new parents and the way
the arrival of the infant affects the parents’ lives. For example, an infant who sleeps
through the night at 6 weeks may not result in as many disruptions to parents’ social and
occupational functioning as an infant who still needs to be attended to in the night at 9
months. It is also possible that disconfirmed expectations may influence parents’
relationship with their infants. A parent who expected to master the activities of
parenting easily might have an infant with a particularly fussy temperament and,
consequently, find that parenting is much more difficult than he or she had anticipated.
Given that in this research disconfirmed expectations influenced women’s relationships
with their partner, it is also possible that disconfirmed expectations could influence their
relationship with their infant. The importance of the early attachment between an infant
and his or her primary caregiver (Carlson, 1998; Kochanska, 2001; Lyons-Ruth, 1996;
Waters et al., 2000) means that the effect that disconfirmed expectations have on this
relationship is worthy of investigation. The relationship between the expectations and
the experiences of parents who have infants with disabilities or serious illnesses may
also warrant further investigation. It is probable that these parents may face larger
discrepancies between their expectations and their experiences and, given that only
small discrepancies had an affect on adjustment in Study 2, these discrepancies may
have a much larger effect on the parents’ adjustment and possibly their relationships
with their infants.
In conclusion, the research described in this thesis has broadened understanding
of how expectations influence psychological adjustment during the transition to
parenthood and in doing so has also contributed to the understanding of the relationship
between expectations and psychological adjustment more broadly. It has also
156
elucidated what women, both those about to become mothers and those for whom
motherhood is some time away, expect from parenthood and what they experience once
they become mothers. Finally, this research has provided a description of an
information source that may influence women’s perceptions of parenthood namely,
media images. In each study, positive perceptions of parenthood were observed. This
socially shared, positive view of parenthood may be one factor that results in women
formulating very positive expectations of parenthood.
157
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180
APPENDIX A
PARENTING EXPECTATIONS ITEMS
Table A1 Items used in the development of the parenting expectations measure and the sources of those items.
Infant Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
I will enjoy my baby’s company Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will be disturbed by feelings I have
towards my baby
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
My baby will be fun to play with Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
The messes that my baby will make will
bother me a lot
The messes that babies make bother me a lot
(Ruble et al., 1990)
I will sometimes regret having my baby I sometimes regret having my baby (Warner
et al., 1997)
I will feel that my baby loves me Generated for the current study
Breastfeeding will make me feel close to
my baby
Generated for the current study
I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby Generated for the current study
Caring for a baby will be very difficult Generated for the current study
I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable Generated for the current study
I will resent being the main caretaker of
the baby
Generated for the current study
Removed Items
I will feel pride in my baby’s development Same as original version, (Wylie, 1979)
I will have no difficulties in becoming
comfortable caring for my baby
Same as original version except for minor
change (baby changed from child; Wylie,
1979)
I will enjoy the care-taking activities
involved in being a mother
Have you enjoyed caring for your baby’s
needs? (Kumar et al., 1984)
I will find myself worrying about my
baby’s health
I often find myself worrying about my baby’s
health (Ruble et al., 1990)
181
Infant Expectations
Final version Source
Removed Items
I will love my baby Generated for the current study
It will be difficult to breastfeed my baby Generated for the current study
Being the parent of a baby will be very
time consuming
Generated for the current study
I will be responsible for most of the child-
care tasks
Generated for the current study
Breastfeeding will come very naturally to
me
Generated for the current study
Being the parent of a baby will involve a
lot of hard work
Generated for the current study
I will find breastfeeding embarrassing Generated for the current study
Partner Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
My partner will show less attention to me Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will feel more distant from my partner Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
My partner will show too little attention to
the baby
Same as original version, (Wylie, 1979)
My partner and I will have more fun
together
Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) overall marital
relationship domain
My partner will be less sensitive to my
feelings
Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) overall marital
relationship domain
My partner and I will enjoy spending time
together
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal satisfaction domain assessing
amount enjoyment from the time together
The arrival of the baby will cause
difficulties in my relationship with my
partner
The baby will estrange my spouse (Levy-
Shiff et al., 1991)
My partner will be able to take care of the
baby when I go out
I expect to feel free to ask my husband to take
care of the baby when I go out (Ruble et al.,
1990)
182
Partner Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
My partner will get on my nerves My husband/mate often gets on my nerves
(Ruble et al., 1990)
I will feel satisfied with my partner’s
involvement in the daily care of the baby
I expect to be bothered by my
husband’s/mate’s lack of involvement in the
daily care of a baby (Ruble et al., 1990)
My partner will help out more with
household chores
Generated for the current study
Removed Items
I will have more things to talk to my
partner about
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
My partner and I will argue less about how
we spend our money
Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) marital
conflict and co-operation domain
I will have stronger feelings of love for my
partner
Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) overall marital
relationship domain
My partner will respect me more Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) relations with
extended family domain
My partner will give me the emotional
support that I need
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of relations with spouse
assessing amount of emotional support
My partner and I will spend a great deal of
time together
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal satisfaction domain assessing
amount of time together
Self Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
I will have a feeling of “fulfillment” Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will be less sexually responsive Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
Being a parent will fit into the life that I
want to live
I wonder if this experience will fit into the life
that I want to live (Affonso & Sheptak, 1989)
I will feel more vulnerable to being
criticised by others
I am more vulnerable now to feeling criticised
by others (Affonso & Sheptak, 1989)
183
Self Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
My life will change for the better I believe that my life is changing in ways that
are good (Affonso & Sheptak, 1989)
I will return to my normal physical self
within a few months of the birth of the
baby
I wonder “ Will I ever return to my normal
physical self again?” (Affonso & Sheptak,
1989)
Being a parent will make me feel happy Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal satisfaction domain assessing
feelings of happiness in the maternal role
Being a parent will make me feel satisfied Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal satisfaction domain assessing
feelings of satisfaction in the maternal role
There will not be enough money for non-
essential items or services (for example,
going to the movies, buying CDs or gifts)
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of financial well-being
assessing availability of money for non-
essentials
Being a parent will make me feel
frustrated
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal satisfaction domain assessing
feelings of frustration in the maternal role
I will have more periods of boredom Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal satisfaction domain assessing
feelings of boredom in the maternal role
Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled
as a woman
Being pregnant makes me feel fulfilled as a
woman (Ruble et al., 1990)
Being a parent will increase my sense of
independence
Being pregnant increases my sense of
independence
(Ruble et al., 1990)
My life will lack variety My life lacks variety (Ruble et al., 1990)
I will feel proud to be a parent I feel proud of being a mother (Warner et al.,
1997)
I will feel disappointed by parenthood I am disappointed by motherhood (Warner et
al., 1997)
184
Self Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
Being a parent will be the most important
thing in my life
Generated for the current study
Becoming a parent will be the best thing
that ever happened to me
Generated for the current study
I will feel confined to the house Generated for the current study
Removed Items
There will be an interruption of routine
habits of sleeping, going places, etc.
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will not get much sleep at night Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
There will be increased money problems Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
My life will change in a way that seems
scary
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will worry about my loss of figure Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will be worried about my personal
appearance
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
There will be reduced feelings of privacy Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will be unable to sleep after going to bed Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
Meals will be off schedule Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
My feelings will be more intense My feelings are now more intense (stronger)
than before (Affonso & Sheptak, 1989)
I will be more sensitive I am more sensitive these days (Affonso &
Sheptak, 1989)
With all the changes that the birth of a
baby brings, I will sometimes feel like I
don’t know myself anymore
I have a sense that I will lose who I am or
who I was in all of this/When I look in the
mirror I ask myself, “Who is this person?”
“Where is the person I used to know”
(Affonso & Sheptak, 1989)
I will feel more physically attractive than I
did before I was pregnant
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of physical well-being
(physical attractiveness)
185
Self Expectations
Final version Source
Removed Items
I will feel a greater desire to work outside
the home
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal domain of employment assessing
desire to work (non-financial)
I will feel healthier Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of physical well-being
(overall status of physical health).
I will feel less desire to work outside the
home
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992)
maternal domain of employment assessing
desire to work (non-financial)
For financial reasons, it will be necessary
for me to work
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of financial well-being
assessing financial necessity of respondent’s
working
I will be more interested in sex I feel I am less interested in sex than I used to
be (Ruble et al., 1990)
Daily life will be no more difficult after
the baby is born
My daily life has been no more difficult since
my baby was born (Warner et al., 1997)
I will resent not having enough time to
myself after the baby is born
I have resented not having enough time to
myself since having my baby (Warner et al.,
1997)
I will not have time to do the housework
that is usually my responsibility
Generated for the current study
I will have an increased appreciation for
religious tradition
Generated for the current study
I will feel physically tired and fatigued Generated for the current study
Being a parent will make me feel like I
have a purpose for living
Generated for the current study
Social Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
I will have less contact with friends Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
186
Social Expectations
Final version Source
Retained Items
I will have an increased appreciation for
family tradition
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
My relationship with my relatives will be
closer
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will receive emotional support from my
family and friends
Adapted from separate measures taken by
Belsky (1985) to assess domains of relations
with extended family and relations with
friends and neighbours
I will form new friendships Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) relations with
friends and neighbours domain
I will continue my social activities as usual We will continue our social activities as usual
after the baby’s arrival (Levy-Shiff et al.,
1991)
I will become too dependent on others
when the baby is born
I am concerned about becoming too
dependent on others during my pregnancy
(Ruble et al., 1990)
I will be able to go to my family and
friends for advice
Generated for the current study
The demands of being a parent will restrict
my social life
Generated for the current study
There will be unwanted interference from
other people in my life
Generated for the current study
I will feel that my friends without
children no longer understand me
Generated for the current study
My friends and colleagues will think that I
am less interesting
Generated for the current study
Removed Items
I will feel a new positive appreciation of
my own parents
Same as original version (Wylie, 1979)
I will receive uninvited advice from my
family and friends
Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) relations with
extended family domain
187
Social Expectations
Final version Source
Removed Items
I will strengthen old friendships Adapted from Belsky’s (1985) relations with
friends and neighbours domain
I will see my extended family less than I
did before I was pregnant
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of relations with extended
family (amount of time with extended family)
I will see my extended family less than I
did before I was pregnant
Adapted from Kalmuss et al.’s (1992) non-
maternal domain of relations with extended
family (amount of time with extended family)
I will feel a new positive appreciation of
my in-laws
Generated for the current study
My circle of friends will become smaller Generated for the current study
I will have increased contact with my
neighbours
Generated for the current study
188
APPENDIX B
STUDY 1 INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
Telephone (08) 9380 3719
The University of Western Australia Department of Psychology Nedlands, Western Australia 6907 Fax (08) 9380 1006
Email [email protected]
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy
beliefs on adjustment
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering participation in this research project. The aim of this project is to provide further understanding into the parenting expectations that women hold prior to the birth of their first child, and how these expectations match reality when the baby arrives. Most people would agree that the transition to parenthood is one of the most significant transitions of adulthood. Being a parent is a role that is emotionally, intellectually, and physically demanding, as well rewarding. This research is investigating people’s expectations when they become parents for the first time. In this study, we are developing a questionnaire about parenting expectations. The questionnaire developed in this study will be used in future research. As a participant in this study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire on the expectations you have about how life will be when you become a parent. The questionnaire covers expectations in a range of areas including your feelings about yourself, your relationships with other people in your life, and your daily routines. This questionnaire should take no more than 45 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. You are free to withdraw from this study at any time without prejudice in any way. It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any further questions please contact: Kate Harwood, 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected].
189
Department of Psychology
The University of Western Australia
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment
Instructions
1. Read the information sheet provided. Keep this information sheet and the consent
form attached to it for your own records. 2. Read and sign the consent form attached to this questionnaire. 3. Fill in the questionnaire. Ensure that you read all of the instructions and questions
carefully. 4. Once you have completed the questionnaire put it in the addressed envelope
provided and post it back to UWA. The envelopes are pre-paid so there is no need to pay any postage.
Thank you for participating in this research project. If you have any questions feel free to contact Kate Harwood by phone on 9380 3719 or by e-mail, [email protected]
190
Parenting Expectations CODE: Age:_______________________________ How many weeks pregnant are you? ____________________ Marital status: Single Married De facto Instructions: For this questionnaire you are asked to think about your expectations about being a parent. The questionnaire consists of a number of statements about expectations of how your life is going to be when your baby arrives. Read each statement carefully, and then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree that you will continue your social activities as usual when your baby arrives. Try not to spend too much time on each question. If a question does not apply to you (for example if it asks about breastfeeding and you do not plan to breastfeed your baby or if it asks about a partner and you are single) just write “NA” next to the question. Remember each statement is about how you expect life to be when your baby arrives. Your task is to decide whether or not you agree with the statement and then to circle the appropriate response. 1. I will not have time to do the housework that is usually my responsibility.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I will have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I will have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
191
4. I will be worried about my personal appearance.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I will have more things to talk to my partner about.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. Being a parent will make me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. I will be less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I will find myself worrying about my baby’s health.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. I will have stronger feelings of love for my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Caring for a baby will be very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. I will feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
192
12. I will feel pride in my baby’s development.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. I will resent not having enough time to myself after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
14. My partner will help out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. Breastfeeding will make me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
16. Being a parent will make me feel like I have a purpose for living.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. I will have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Becoming a parent will be the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. There will be unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
193
20. My friends and colleagues will think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. I will have no difficulties in becoming comfortable caring for my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
22. My partner will show too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. I will worry about my loss of figure.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My feelings will be more intense.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
25. I will feel less desire to work outside the home.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I will enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. My partner will show less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
194
28. I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I will resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
30. Being a parent will fit into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I will find breastfeeding embarrassing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. My partner will get on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. My relationships with my relatives will be closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
34. Daily life will be no more difficult after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. I will have increased contact with my neighbours.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
195
36. Meals will be off schedule.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I will receive uninvited advice from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
38. There will be increased money problems.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. Being a parent will make me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. I will be disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I will feel a new positive appreciation of my own parents.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. There will be an interruption of routine habits of sleeping, going places, etc.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
43. I will be unable to sleep after going to bed.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
196
44. My partner will respect me more.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. There will be a reduced feeling of privacy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
46. I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. My partner will be able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. My family and friends will help me out after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. My partner and I will spend a great deal of time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
51. My life will change for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
197
52. I will feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. Being a parent will be the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
54. I will feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I will be more sensitive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
56. Being a parent of a baby will involve a lot of hard work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
57. My life will change in a way that seems scary.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
58. I will feel healthier.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
59. I will feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
198
60. My partner will give me the emotional support that I need.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
61. I will return to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
62. I will feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
63. I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
64. My partner and I will argue less about how we spend our money.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
65. I will be responsible for most of the child-care tasks.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
66. I will have increased appreciation for religious tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
67. My partner and I will have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
199
68. I will feel more physically attractive compared to before I was pregnant.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
69. I will see my extended family less than I did before I was pregnant.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
70. My partner will be less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
71. I will be able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
72. I will feel physically tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
73. I will be satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
74. I will receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
75. My baby will be fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
200
76. I will form new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
77. I will feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
78. Breastfeeding will come very naturally to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
79. My circle of friends will become smaller.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
80. The arrival of the baby will cause difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
81. I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
82. I will feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
83. Being a parent of a baby will be very time consuming.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
201
84. My partner and I will enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
85. I will not get much sleep at night.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
86. I will feel a greater desire to work outside the home.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
87. There will not be enough money for non-essential items or services (for example, going to
the movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
88. I will become too dependent on others when the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
89. I will have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
90. Being a parent will make me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
91. I will strengthen old friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
202
92. For financial reasons, it will be necessary for me to work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
93. With all the changes that the birth of a baby brings, I will sometimes feel like I don’t know
myself anymore.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
94. I will enjoy the care-taking responsibilities involved in being a mother.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
95. It will be difficult to breastfeed my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
96. I will be more interested in sex.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
97. The messes that my baby will make will bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
98. I will sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
99. My life will lack variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
203
100. The demands of being a parent will restrict my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
101. I will love my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
102. Being a parent will increase my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
103. I will feel a new positive appreciation of my in-laws.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
Instructions: In the next section, please complete each question by putting a circle around the answer that most closely applies to you. Work quickly and please remember to answer each question. The aim is to record how you have been feeling during the past month. If you have not considered some of the questions during the past month, go ahead and answer them on your present feelings. 1. Have you been worrying that you may not be a good mother?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
2. Have you been worrying about hurting your baby inside you?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
3. Has it worried you that you may not have any time to yourself once your baby is born?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
4. Have you regretted getting pregnant?
1 2 3 4 Never Rarely Often Very often
5. Has the thought of wearing maternity clothes appealed to you?
1 2 3 4 Very much A lot A little Not at all
204
6. Have you been feeling happy that you are pregnant?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
7. Has the thought of having several more children appealed to you?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
8. Have you felt that pregnancy was unpleasant?
1 2 3 4 Very much A lot A little Not at all
9. Have you been looking forward to caring for your baby’s needs?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
10. Have you been wondering whether your baby will be healthy and normal?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
11. Have you felt that life will be more difficult after the baby is born?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
12. Has the thought of breast-feeding your baby appealed to you?
1 2 3 4 Not at all A little A lot Very much
Thank you for completing this questionnaire. Your responses will be used to develop a shorter version of this questionnaire that will be used in future research. We are interested in any feedback you may have about the questionnaire. In particular were there any questions that were ambiguous, that is you were not sure what they were asking? In your opinion were there any irrelevant questions? Did you think any of the questions were inappropriate? If you wish to make a comment please do so in the space below.
205
APPENDIX C
STUDY 2 PRENATAL INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
Email [email protected]
The University of Western Australia Department of Psychology 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009 Fax (08) 9380 1006 Telephone (08) 9380 3719
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering participation in this research project. The aim of this project is to provide further understanding into the parenting expectations that women hold before the birth of their first child, and how these expectations match reality when the baby arrives. Most people would agree that the transition to parenthood is one of the most significant transitions of adulthood. Being a parent is a role that is emotionally, intellectually, and physically demanding, as well rewarding. This research is investigating people’s expectations when they become parents for the first time. As a participant in this study you will be asked to complete a questionnaire on two occasions, once while you are pregnant and again about four months after the birth of your baby. The questionnaire in this phase of the study covers several areas: 1. Some general information about yourself including your age, your education, and your
employment. 2. The expectations you have about being a parent. 3. Your relationship with your partner, family members and friends. 4. How you have been feeling. 5. Your coping resources. 6. The types of entertainment and information you have been watching and reading during
your pregnancy. This questionnaire should take no more than 45 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. Approximately four months after the birth of your baby you will be contacted by telephone and asked if you are willing to participate in the second phase of the study. If you are willing to participate again a follow up questionnaire will be sent to you. If at any time you wish to withdraw from the study, you are free to do so without prejudice.
It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study, you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any concerns about this study, or if you require further information, please do not hesitate to contact: Kate Harwood, phone 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected]. Keep this information sheet for your own records.
206
Department of Psychology
The University of Western Australia
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Instructions
1. Read the information sheet provided. Keep this information sheet and the consent form
attached to it for your own records. 2. Read and sign the consent form attached to this questionnaire. 3. Complete the questionnaire. Ensure that you read all of the instructions and questions
carefully. 4. Once you have completed the questionnaire put it in the addressed envelope provided and
post it back to UWA. The envelopes are pre-paid so there is no need to pay any postage. 5. Please return the questionnaire within two weeks of receiving it. If you have any questions feel free to contact Kate Harwood by telephone on 9380 3719 or by e-mail, [email protected]. We will contact you approximately four months after the birth of your baby to find out how everything is going and to send out the follow-up questionnaire.
Thank you for participating in this research project.
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Prenatal Participant No. Date: 1. What is your age?
2. What is your ethnic background?
3. What is your Occupation?
4. What is the highest level of education that
you have obtained?(tick the appropriate box)
Secondary School up to Year 10 Secondary School up to Year 12 TAFE University degree Postgraduate degree
5. Are you employed currently? Yes No
Employment status: Full-time Part-time
Casual On Maternity Leave
6. Do you plan to return to work after the birth of your baby? Yes
No If yes, how long after the birth do you plan to return to work?
7. What is your relationship status?
Married De Facto Relationship
8. How long have you been married to/lived with your partner?
9. What is your partner’s age?
10. What is your partner’s ethnic background?
11. What is your partner’s occupation?
12. What is the highest level of education that
your partner has obtained?
Secondary School up to Year 10 Secondary School up to Year 12 TAFE University degree Postgraduate degree
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13. Is your partner employed
currently? Yes No
Employment status: Full-time Part-time Casual
14. What is your baby’s due date?
15. How many weeks pregnant are you?
16. Was your pregnancy planned?
Yes No
If yes, how long have you been trying to become pregnant?
17. Have you experienced any complications or problems
during your pregnancy? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the problems/complications? 18. Did you use any reproductive technologies to assist with conception (e.g. IVF, GIFT)?
Yes No If yes, state which procedure was used:
19. Have you ever had a miscarriage? Yes No
If yes, how many?
20. Have you ever had a termination? Yes No
If yes, how many?
21. Do you plan to breastfeed your baby? Yes No The following pages consist of a number of questionnaires. Please read the instructions of
each questionnaire carefully then answer the questions. Thank you.
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Social Provisions Scale (Russell and Cutrona, 1984) Instructions: In answering the following questions, think about your current relationships with friends, family members, co-workers, community members, and so on. Please indicate to what extent each statement describes your current relationships with other people. Use the following scale to indicate your opinion.
1 Strongly Disagree
2 Disagree
3 4 Strongly Agree Agree
So, for example, if you feel a statement is very true of your current relationships, you would respond with a 4 (strongly agree). If you feel a statement clearly does not describe your relationships, you would respond with a 1 (strongly disagree). Rating 1. There are people I can depend on to help me if I really need it. _____
2. I feel that I do not have any close personal relationships with other people. _____
3. There is no one I can turn to for guidance in times of stress. _____
4. There are people who depend on me for help. _____
5. There are people who enjoy the same social activities I do. _____
6. Other people do not view me as competent. _____
7. I feel personally responsible for the well-being of another person. _____
8. I feel part of a group of people who share my attitudes and beliefs. _____
9. I do not think other people respect my skills and abilities. _____
10. If something went wrong, no one would come to my assistance. _____
11. I have close relationships that provide me with a sense of emotional security and wellbeing. _____
12. There is someone I could talk to about important decisions in my life. _____
13. I have relationships where my competence and skills are recognized. _____
14. There is no one who shares my interests and concerns. _____
15. There is no one who really relies on me for their well-being. _____
16. There is a trustworthy person I could turn to for advice if I were having problems. _____
17. I feel a strong emotional bond with at least one other person. _____
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18. There is no one I can depend on for aid, if I really needed it. _____
19. There is no one I feel comfortable talking with about problems. _____
20. There are people who admire my talents and abilities. _____
21. I lack a feeling of intimacy with another person. _____
22. There is no one who likes to do the things I do. _____
23. There are people who I can count on in an emergency. _____
24. No one needs me to care for them anymore. _____
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EPDS (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987)
Instructions: As you are pregnant, we would like to know how you are feeling. Please underline the answer which comes closest to how you have felt in the past 7 days, not just how you feel today. Here is an example, already completed: I have felt happy: Yes, all of the time Yes, most of the time No, not very often No, not at all This would mean, “I have felt happy most of the time” during the past week. Please complete the other questions in the same way. In the past 7 days: 1. I have been able to see the funny side of things
As much as I always could Not quite so much now Definitely not so much now Not at all
2. I have looked forward with enjoyment to things As much as I ever did Rather less than I used to Definitely less than I used to Hardly at all
3. I have blamed myself unnecessarily when things went wrong Yes, most of the time Yes, some of the time Not very often No, never
4. I have been anxious or worried for no good reason No, not at all Hardly ever Yes, sometimes Yes, very often
5. I have felt scared or panicky for no good reason Yes, quite a lot Yes, sometimes No, not much No, not at all
6. Things have been getting on top of me Yes, most of the time I haven’t been able to cope at all Yes, sometimes I haven’t been coping as well as usual No, most of the time I have coped quite well No, I have been coping as well as ever
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7. I have been so unhappy that I have had difficulty sleeping
Yes, most of the time Yes, sometimes Not very often No, not at all
8. I have felt sad or miserable Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Not very often No, not at all
9. I have been so unhappy that I have been crying Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Only occasionally No, never
10. The thought of harming myself has occurred to me Yes, quite often Sometimes Hardly ever Never
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DAS (Spanier, 1976) Instructions: Most people have disagreements in their relationships. Please indicate the extent to which you and your partner agree or disagree on each of the items on the list below. Use the following scale to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement.
5 Always agree
4 Almost
always agree
3 Occasionally
disagree
2 Frequently
disagree
1 Almost always
disagree
0 Always disagree
1. ______ Handling family finances
2. ______ Matters of recreation
3. ______ Religious matters
4. ______ Demonstration of affection
5. ______ Friends
6. ______ Sexual relations
7. ______ Conventionality (correct or proper behaviour)
8. ______ Philosophy of life
9. ______ Ways of dealing with in-laws
10. ______ Aims, goals, and things believed important
11. ______ Amount of time spent together
12. ______ Making major decisions
13. ______ Household tasks
14. ______ Leisure time interests
15. ______ Career decisions
Instructions: Please indicate below approximately how often the following circumstances occur between you and your partner. Use the scale below when making your responses.
5 Never
4 Rarely
3 Occasionally
2 More often
than not
1 Most of the
time
0 All the time
16. ______ How often do you discuss or have you considered divorce, separation, or
terminating the relationship?
17. ______ How often do you or your partner leave the house after a fight?
18. ______ In general, how often do you think that things between you and your partner are
going well?
19. ______ Do you confide in your partner?
20. ______ Do you regret that you ever married or lived together?
21. ______ How often do you and your partner quarrel?
22. ______ How often do you and your partner “get on each other’s nerves”?
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23. Do you kiss your partner? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every day Occasionally Rarely Never
24. Do you and your partner engage in outside interests together? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every day Occasionally Rarely Never
How often would you say the following events occur between you and your partner?
1 Never
2 Less than
once a month
3 Once or twice a month
4 Once or
twice a week
5 Once a day
6 More often
25. ______ Have a stimulating exchange of ideas
26. ______ Laugh together
27. ______ Calmly discuss something
28. ______ Work together on a project
Instructions: These are some things about which couples sometimes agree and sometimes disagree. Indicate if either issue below caused differences of opinion or has been a problem in your relationship during the past few weeks. (Circle yes or no) 29. Being too tired for sex Yes No 30. Not showing love Yes No 31. The numbers on the following line represent different degrees of happiness in your
relationship. The middle point, “happy”, represents the degree of happiness of most relationships. Please circle the number that best describes the degree of happiness, all things considered, of your relationship.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Extremely unhappy
Fairly unhappy
A little unhappy
Happy Very happy
Extremely happy
Perfect
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32. Please circle the number of one of the following statements that best describes how you feel
about the future of your relationship.
5 I want desperately for my relationship to succeed, and would go to almost any length to see that it does
4 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do all that I can to see that it
does
3 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do my fair share to see that it does
2 It would be nice if my relationship succeeded, but I can’t do much more than I am
doing now to make it succeed 1 It would be nice if it succeeded, but I refuse to do any more than I am doing now to
keep the relationships going
0 My relationship can never succeed, and there is no more that I can do to keep the relationship going
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PSOC –Efficacy Scale (Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman, 1978, as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989)
Instructions: Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements by circling the appropriate response. 1. I will make a fine role model for a new mother to follow in order to learn what she would
need to know to be a good parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. The problems of taking care of a baby are easy to solve once you know how your actions
affect your baby, an understanding I will acquire.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. Being a parent is manageable, and any problems are easily solved.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. I will meet my personal expectations for expertise in caring for my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my baby, I will be the one.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. It will not take me long to become thoroughly familiar with the role of being a mother.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. I honestly believe that I have all the skills necessary to be a good mother to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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Parenting Expectations
Instructions: This questionnaire consists of a number of expectations commonly held by first-time parents. You are asked to think about what you expect life to be like when your baby arrives. Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I will feel tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree with the statement that you will feel tired and fatigued when you are a parent of a baby. 1. I will have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I will have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I will have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. My partner will help out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I will enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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6. Being a parent will make me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. Caring for a baby will be very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I will feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. Breastfeeding will make me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Becoming a parent will be the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. There will be unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
12. My friends and colleagues will think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. My partner will show too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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14. I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. I will resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
16. My partner will get on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. My relationships with my relatives will be closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Being a parent will make me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. I will be disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
20. I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. My partner will be able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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22. My family and friends will help me out after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My life will change for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
25. My partner will show less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I will feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. Being a parent will be the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
28. I will feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I will be less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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30. I will feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I will return to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. I will feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
34. My partner and I will have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. My partner will be less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
36. I will be able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I will be satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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38. I will form new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. I will feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. The arrival of the baby will cause difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. I will feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
43. My partner and I will enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
44. There will not be enough money for non-essential items or services (for example, going to
the movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. I will become too dependent on others when the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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46. I will have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. The messes that my baby will make will bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. I will sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. My life will lack variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. The demands of being a parent will restrict my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
51. Being a parent will increase my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
52. Being a parent will make me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. My baby will be fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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54. Being a parent will fit into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I will receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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Entertainment and Information Use
Please indicate the extent to which you have been watching or reading the following types of entertainment and information recently. Please use the following scale to make your responses.
0 1 2 3 4 Not at all Rarely Occasionally Nearly every
day Every day
1. Books about parenting and pregnancy ____ 2. Talk shows on TV, e.g. Oprah, when they cover pregnancy/ parenting issues ____ 3. News and current affairs programmes covering pregnancy/ parenting issues ____ 4. TV comedies with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 5. TV dramas with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 6. Films with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 7. Internet sites about pregnancy and parenting ____ 8. Magazines devoted to pregnancy and parenting e.g. Mother & Baby, Pregnancy ____ 9. Articles about pregnancy/ parenting in women’s magazines e.g. New Idea,
Australian Women’s Weekly ____ 10. Newspaper articles about pregnancy/ parenting ____ 11. Advertisements with parents and their children ____ 12. Advertisements for childcare products and toys ____
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To answer the questions below think about the images of pregnancy and parenthood that you have seen in the media and indicate how closely you think they match the descriptions below. Circle the appropriate response. 1. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as easy or difficult experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very easy Easy Somewhat
easy Not sure Somewhat
difficult Difficult Very
difficult 2. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as fulfilling or unfulfilling
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
fulfilling Fulfilling Somewhat
fulfilling Not sure Somewhat
unfulfilling Unfulfilling Very
unfulfilling 3. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as happy or depressing
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very happy Happy Somewhat
Happy Not sure Somewhat
depressing Depressing Very
Depressing 4. Taking into account your own experiences during pregnancy, how accurate do you think
media images of pregnancy and parenthood are?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
accurate Accurate Somewhat
Accurate Not sure Somewhat
inaccurate Inaccurate Very
Inaccurate
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APPENDIX D
STUDY 2 POSTNATAL INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009
The University of Western Australia Department of Psychology
Fax (08) 9380 1006 Telephone (08) 9380 3719 Email [email protected]
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering further participation in this research project. Your participation in the first phase of this study is greatly appreciated. The aim of this project is to provide further understanding into the parenting expectations that women hold before the birth of their first child, and how they feel about these expectations after the baby arrives. In order for us to achieve this aim, your participation in the second phase of this study is particularly important. As in the first phase of the study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire. The first phase of the study was interested in your expectations about being a parent. This phase of the study is interested in the experiences you have had since the birth of your baby. The questionnaire in this phase of the study covers several areas: 1. Your parenting experiences. 2. Your relationships with your partner, family members, and friends. 3. How you have been feeling. 4. Your coping resources. 5. The types of entertainment and information you have been watching and reading
during your pregnancy. This questionnaire should take no more than 45 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. You are free to withdraw from this study at any time without prejudice in any way. It is hoped that the findings from this research will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any further questions please contact: Kate Harwood, 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected]. Keep this information sheet for your own records.
228
School of Psychology
The University of Western Australia
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Instructions
1. Read the information sheet provided. Keep this information sheet for your own
records. 2. Read and sign the consent form on the next page of this questionnaire. 3. Complete the questionnaire. Ensure that you read all of the instructions and
questions carefully. 4. Once you have completed the questionnaire put it in the addressed envelope
provided and post it back to UWA. The envelopes are pre-paid so there is no need to pay any postage.
If you have any questions feel free to contact Kate Harwood by telephone on 9380 3719 or by e-mail, [email protected].
Thank you for participating in this research project.
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Postnatal Participant No. Date: 1. What is your baby’s date of birth?
2. What was your baby’s weight at birth?
3. What sex is your baby?
Male Female
4. Did you experience any complications during your
pregnancy? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the complications?
5. Did you experience any complications during your
labour? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the complications? 6. Do you have any ongoing health problems due to
complications during your labour and/or pregnancy? Yes No
If yes, could you describe the health problems? 7. Has your baby experienced any health problems? Yes No If yes, could you describe the health problems:
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8. Are you employed currently? Yes No
Employment status:
Full-time Part-time Casual On Maternity Leave
9. Is your partner employed currently?
Yes No
Employment status:
Full-time Part-time Casual
10. Are you breastfeeding your baby? (tick the most appropriate response for you) a) Yes, I am breastfeeding currently b) I did not breastfeed at all c) I am not breastfeeding now, but I did initially If you ticked c) how old was your baby when you stopped breastfeeding?
The following pages consist of a number of questionnaires. Please read the instructions of each questionnaire carefully then answer the questions. Thank you.
231
Social Provisions Scale (Russell and Cutrona, 1984) Instructions: In answering the following questions, think about your current relationships with friends, family member, co-workers, community member, and so on. Please indicate to what extent each statement describes your current relationships with other people. Use the following scale to indicate your opinion.
1
Strongly Disagree
2
Disagree
3
Agree
4
Strongly Agree
So, for example, if you feel a statement is very true of your current relationships, you would respond with a 4 (strongly agree). If you feel a statement clearly does not describe your relationships, you would respond with a 1 (strongly disagree).
Rating 1. There are people I can depend on to help me if I really need it. _____
2. I feel that I do not have any close personal relationships with other people. _____
3. There is no one I can turn to for guidance in times of stress. _____
4. There are people who depend on me for help. _____
5. There are people who enjoy the same social activities I do. _____
6. Other people do not view me as competent. _____
7. I feel personally responsible for the well-being of another person. _____
8. I feel part of a group of people who share my attitudes and beliefs. _____
9. I do not think other people respect my skills and abilities. _____
10. If something went wrong, no one would come to my assistance. _____
11. I have close relationships that provide me with a sense of emotional security and wellbeing. _____
12. There is someone I could talk to about important decisions in my life. _____
13. I have relationships where my competence and skills are recognized. _____
14. There is no one who shares my interests and concerns. _____
15. There is no one who really relies on me for their well-being. _____
16. There is a trustworthy person I could turn to for advice if I were having problems. _____
17. I feel a strong emotional bond with at least one other person. _____
18. There is no one I can depend on for aid, if I really needed it. _____
19. There is no one I feel comfortable talking with about problems. _____
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20. There are people who admire my talents and abilities. _____
21. I lack a feeling of intimacy with another person. _____
22. There is no one who likes to do the things I do. _____
23. There are people who I can count on in an emergency. _____
24. No one needs me to care for them anymore. _____
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EPDS (Cox, Holden, & Sagovsky, 1987) As you have recently had a baby, we would like to know how you are feeling. Please underline the answer which comes closest to how you have felt in the past 7 days, not just how you feel today. Here is an example, already completed: I have felt happy: Yes, all of the time Yes, most of the time No, not very often No, not at all This would mean, “I have felt happy most of the time” during the past week. Please complete the other questions in the same way. In the past 7 days: 1. I have been able to see the funny side of things
As much as I always could Not quite so much now Definitely not so much now Not at all
2. I have looked forward with enjoyment to things As much as I ever did Rather less than I used to Definitely less than I used to Hardly at all
3. I have blamed myself unnecessarily when things went wrong Yes, most of the time Yes, some of the time Not very often No, never
4. I have been anxious or worried for no good reason No, not at all Hardly ever Yes, sometimes Yes, very often
5. I have felt scared or panicky for no good reason Yes, quite a lot Yes, sometimes No, not much No, not at all
6. Things have been getting on top of me Yes, most of the time I haven’t been able to cope at all Yes, sometimes I haven’t been coping as well as usual No, most of the time I have coped quite well No, I have been coping as well as ever
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7. I have been so unhappy that I have had difficulty sleeping
Yes, most of the time Yes, sometimes Not very often No, not at all
8. I have felt sad or miserable Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Not very often No, not at all
9. I have been so unhappy that I have been crying Yes, most of the time Yes, quite often Only occasionally No, never
10. The thought of harming myself has occurred to me Yes, quite often Sometimes Hardly ever Never
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DAS (Spanier, 1976) Instructions: Most people have disagreements in their relationships. Please indicate the extent to which you and your partner agree or disagree on each of the items on the list below. Use the following scale to indicate the level of agreement or disagreement.
5 Always agree
4 Almost
always agree
3 Occasionally
disagree
2 Frequently
disagree
1 Almost always
disagree
0 Always disagree
1. ______ Handling family finances
2. ______ Matters of recreation
3. ______ Religious matters
4. ______ Demonstration of affection
5. ______ Friends
6. ______ Sexual relations
7. ______ Conventionality (correct or proper behaviour)
8. ______ Philosophy of life
9. ______ Ways of dealing with in-laws
10. ______ Aims, goals, and things believed important
11. ______ Amount of time spent together
12. ______ Making major decisions
13. ______ Household tasks
14. ______ Leisure time interests
15. ______ Career decisions
Instructions: Please indicate below approximately how often the following circumstances occur between you and your partner. Use the scale below when making your responses.
5 Never
4 Rarely
3 Occasionally
2 More often
than not
1 Most of the
time
0 All the time
16. ______ How often do you discuss or have you considered divorce, separation, or
terminating the relationship?
17. ______ How often do you or your partner leave the house after a fight?
18. ______ In general how often do you think that things between you and your partner are
going well?
19. ______ Do you confide in your partner?
20. ______ Do you regret that you ever married or lived together?
21. ______ How often do you and your partner quarrel?
22. ______ How often do you and your partner “get on each other’s nerves”?
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23. Do you kiss your partner? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every
day Occasionally Rarely Never
24. Do you and your partner engage in outside interests together? (Circle appropriate response)
4 3 2 1 0 Every day Almost every
day Occasionally Rarely Never
How often would you say the following events occur between you and your partner?
1 Never
2 Less than
once a month
3 Once or twice a month
4 Once or
twice a week
5 Once a day
6 More often
25. ______ Have a stimulating exchange of ideas
26. ______ Laugh together
27. ______ Calmly discuss something
28. ______ Work together on a project
Instructions: These are some things about which couples sometimes agree and sometimes disagree. Indicate if either issue below caused differences of opinion or has been a problem in your relationship during the past few weeks. (Circle yes or no) 29. Being too tired for sex Yes No 30. Not showing love Yes No 31. The numbers on the following line represent different degrees of happiness in your
relationship. The middle point, “happy”, represents the degree of happiness of most relationships. Please circle the number that best describes the degree of happiness, all things considered, of your relationship.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Extremely unhappy
Fairly unhappy
A little unhappy
Happy Very happy
Extremely happy
Perfect
237
32. Please circle the number of one of the following statements that best describes how you feel
about the future of your relationship.
5 I want desperately for my relationship to succeed, and would go to almost any length to see that it does
4 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do all that I can to see that it
does
3 I want very much for my relationship to succeed, and will do my fair share to see that it does
2 It would be nice if my relationship succeeded, but I can’t do much more than I am
doing now to make it succeed 1 It would be nice if it succeeded, but I refuse to do any more than I am doing now to
keep the relationships going
0 My relationship can never succeed, and there is no more that I can do to keep the relationship going
238
PSOC –Efficacy Scale (Gibaud-Wallston & Wandersman, 1978, as cited in Johnston & Mash, 1989)
Instructions: Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements by circling the appropriate response.
1. I would make a fine role model for a new mother to follow in order to learn what she would
need to know to be a good parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. The problems of taking care of a baby are easy to solve once you know how your actions
affect your baby, an understanding I have acquired.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. Being a parent is manageable, and any problems are easily solved.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. I meet my personal expectations for expertise in caring for my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. If anyone can find the answer to what is troubling my baby, I am the one.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. Considering how long I’ve been a mother, I feel thoroughly familiar with this role.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. I honestly believe that I have all the skills necessary to be a good mother to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
239
Parenting Experiences
Instructions: This questionnaire consists of a number of statements that relate to the experiences of early parenthood. We are interested whether you have experienced any of the feelings or situations listed below. Read each statement carefully, and then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I have felt tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree that you have felt tired and fatigued since the birth of your baby. 1. I have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. My partner helps out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
240
6. Being a parent makes me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
7. Caring for a baby is very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. Breastfeeding makes me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Becoming a parent is the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. There is unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
12. My friends and colleagues think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. My partner shows too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
241
14. I feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. I resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
16. My partner gets on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. My relationships with my relatives are closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Being a parent makes me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. I am disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
20. I enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. My partner is able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
242
22. My family and friends have helped me out since the baby was born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. Being a mother makes me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My life has changed for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
25. My partner shows less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. Being a parent is the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
28. I feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I am less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
243
30. I feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I returned to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. I feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. I find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
34. My partner and I have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. My partner is less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
36. I am able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I am satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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38. I have formed new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. I feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. The arrival of the baby has caused difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I have continued my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. I feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
43. My partner and I enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
44. There is not enough money for non-essential items or services (for example, going to the
movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. I have become too dependent on others since the baby was born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
245
46. I have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. The messes that my baby makes bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. I sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. My life lacks variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. The demands of being a parent have restricted my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
51. Being a parent has increased my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
52. Being a parent makes me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. My baby is fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
246
54. Being a parent fits into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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Entertainment and Information Use
Please indicate the extent to which you have been watching or reading the following types of entertainment and information recently. Please use the following scale to make your responses.
0 1 2 3 4 Not at all Less than usual About the same
as usual More than
usual Much more than usual
1. Reading books about parenting and pregnancy
____ 2. Watching talk shows on TV, e.g. Oprah, when they cover pregnancy/ parenting issues
____ 3. Watching news and current affairs programmes covering pregnancy/ parenting issues ____ 4. Watching TV comedies with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children
____ 5. Watching TV dramas with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children ____ 6. Watching films with characters that are either pregnant or parents of young children
____ 7. Reading internet sites about pregnancy and parenting
____ 8. Reading magazines devoted to pregnancy and parenting e.g. Parenting, Pregnancy
____ 9. Reading articles about pregnancy/ parenting in women’s magazines e.g. New Idea,
Australian Women’s Weekly ____
10. Reading newspaper articles about pregnancy/ parenting
____ 11. Advertisements with parents and their children
____ 12. Advertisements for childcare products and toys
____
248
To answer the questions below think about the images of pregnancy and parenthood that you have seen in the media and indicate how closely you think they match the descriptions below. Circle the appropriate response. 5. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as easy or difficult experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very easy Easy Somewhat
easy Not sure Somewhat
difficult Difficult Very
difficult 6. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as fulfilling or unfulfilling
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
fulfilling Fulfilling Somewhat
fulfilling Not sure Somewhat
unfulfilling Unfulfilling Very
unfulfilling 7. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as happy or depressing
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very happy Happy Somewhat
Happy Not sure Somewhat
depressing Depressing Very
Depressing 8. Taking into account your own experiences of pregnancy and parenthood, how accurate do
you think media images of pregnancy and parenthood are?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
accurate Accurate Somewhat
Accurate Not sure Somewhat
inaccurate Inaccurate Very
Inaccurate
249
APPENDIX E
STUDY 3 INFORMATION SHEET AND QUESTIONNAIRE
SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY
35 Stirling Highway Crawley, Western Australia
Facsimile: 9380 1006 Kate Harwood Telephone: 9380 3719
Email: [email protected]
The transition to parenthood: The effect of prenatal expectations and self-efficacy beliefs on adjustment.
Project Information Sheet
Thank you for considering participation in this research project. The broad aim of this project is to examine the parenting expectations and self-efficacy beliefs of first-time mothers, how expectations match later experiences, and the effect of these factors on adjustment to parenthood. So far, we have examined the expectations of women who are pregnant with their first child and we are interested in how these expectations compare to perceptions of parenthood held by women who are not about to become a mother. Even people who are not parents have either direct or vicarious experience with parenting. We have all been parented, know people that are parents, or have observed parenting in our daily lives or in the media. For this study, we are interested in your perceptions of what life as a parent would be like. As a participant in this study, you will be asked to complete a questionnaire on your perceptions of what life as the parent of an infant would be like for you. The questionnaire contains a number of statements tapping how you think being a parent would affect different aspects of you life including your feelings, your relationships, and your lifestyle. You will be asked whether you plan to have children in the future and if so at approximately what age you would like to have children. We will also collect some demographic information such as your age, level of education, and ethnic background. The questionnaire should take approximately 10 to 15 minutes to complete. All information collected will remain strictly confidential. You are free to withdraw from this study at any time without prejudice in any way. Psychology 100 students will receive half a credit point for participation in this study. It is hoped that the findings from this study, combined with the findings of studies we have already conducted with women going through the transition to parenthood, will provide greater understanding of the processes involved in the transition to parenthood. The findings will inform future attempts to provide counselling and other psychological services to persons at this stage of their life. By participating in this study, you will assist us in achieving these aims. If you have any further questions please contact: Kate Harwood, 9380 3719, email [email protected], Neil McLean, 9380 3580, [email protected], or Kevin Durkin, 9380 2479, [email protected].
250
Participant No.
Background Information Instructions: Please answer the following questions about yourself.
Date: 1. What is your age?
2. What is your ethnic background?
3. What degree are you enrolled in?
Alternatively, if you are not a student, what is your occupation?
4. What year of your degree are you
enrolled in? (If applicable)
5. Do you have any other qualifications e.g. university
degree, TAFE diploma? Yes No
If you answered yes, please list your qualifications: 6. What is your relationship status?
Single Single, but have a boyfriend/girlfriend De Facto Relationship/Living with my
partner Married
If you are in a relationship at the moment, please state how long you have been with your partner: 7. Do you want to have
children at some point in the future?
Yes No
If you answered yes, approximately how long from now (in years) would you like to have children?
251
Perceptions of Early Parenthood This questionnaire consists of a number of parenting expectations commonly held by first-time parents. We are interested in your perceptions of what life as a parent of an infant would be like. Think about how you would expect life to be for you, if you were the parent of an infant. Read each statement carefully, and then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement by circling the response that most applies to you. Here is an example already completed: I will feel tired and fatigued.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
This response would mean that you agree with the statement that you will feel tired and fatigued when you are a parent of a baby.
1. I will have a feeling of “fulfillment”.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
2. I will have an increased appreciation for family tradition.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
3. I will have less contact with friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
4. My partner will help out more with household chores.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
5. I will enjoy my baby’s company.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
6. Being a parent will make me feel frustrated.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
252
7. Caring for a baby will be very difficult.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
8. I will feel more distant from my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
9. Breastfeeding will make me feel close to my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
10. Becoming a parent will be the best thing that ever happened to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
11. There will be unwanted interference from other people in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
12. My friends and colleagues will think that I am less interesting.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
13. My partner will show too little attention to the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
14. I will feel “edgy” or emotionally upset.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
15. I will resent being the main caretaker of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
253
16. My partner will get on my nerves.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
17. My relationships with my relatives will be closer.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
18. Being a parent will make me feel happy.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
19. I will be disturbed by feelings I have towards my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
20. I will enjoy breastfeeding my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
21. My partner will be able to take care of the baby when I go out.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
22. My family and friends will help me out after the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
23. Being a mother will make me feel fulfilled as a woman.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
24. My life will change for the better.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
254
25. My partner will show less attention to me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
26. I will feel proud to be a parent.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
27. Being a parent will be the most important thing in my life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
28. I will feel disappointed by parenthood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
29. I will be less sexually responsive.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
30. I will feel that my friends without children no longer understand me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
31. I will return to my normal physical self within a few months of the birth of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
32. I will feel more vulnerable to being criticised by others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
33. I will find breastfeeding uncomfortable.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
255
34. My partner and I will have more fun together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
35. My partner will be less sensitive to my feelings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
36. I will be able to go to my family and friends for advice.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
37. I will be satisfied with my partner’s involvement in the daily care of the baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
38. I will form new friendships.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
39. I will feel that my baby loves me.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
40. The arrival of the baby will cause difficulties in my relationship with my partner.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
41. I will continue my social activities as usual.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
42. I will feel confined to the house.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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43. My partner and I will enjoy spending time together.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
44. There will not be enough money for non-essential items or services (for example,
going to the movies, buying CDs or gifts).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
45. I will become too dependent on others when the baby is born.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
46. I will have more periods of boredom.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
47. The messes that my baby will make will bother me a lot.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
48. I will sometimes regret having my baby.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
49. My life will lack variety.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
50. The demands of being a parent will restrict my social life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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51. Being a parent will increase my sense of independence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
52. Being a parent will make me feel satisfied.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
53. My baby will be fun to play with.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
54. Being a parent will fit into the life that I want to live.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
55. I will receive emotional support from my family and friends.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly disagree
disagree somewhat disagree
neither agree nor disagree
somewhat agree
agree strongly agree
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Perceptions of Parenting in the Media We are interested in your impressions of how being the parent of a young infant is portrayed in the media (including, television programmes and advertisements, advertisements and articles in newspapers and magazines, internet sites). To answer the questions below think about the images of early parenthood that you have seen in the media and indicate how closely you think they match the descriptions below. Circle the appropriate response. 1. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as easy or difficult
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very easy Easy Somewhat
easy Not sure Somewhat
difficult Difficult Very
difficult 2. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as fulfilling or
unfulfilling experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
fulfilling Fulfilling Somewhat
fulfilling Not sure Somewhat
unfulfilling Unfulfilling Very
unfulfilling 3. In general, do the media present pregnancy and parenthood as happy or depressing
experiences?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very happy Happy Somewhat
happy Not sure Somewhat
depressing Depressing Very
depressing 4. Taking into account your own experiences of pregnancy and parenthood, how
accurate do you think media images of pregnancy and parenthood are?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very
accurate Accurate Somewhat
Accurate Not sure Somewhat
inaccurate Inaccurate Very
Inaccurate
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APPENDIX F
STUDY 4 CODING INSTRUCTIONS AND CODING SHEET
Coding Instructions Key figures:
Adults presented alone will be coded as parents unless something about their appearance denotes that they are portraying another role: e.g., stethoscope conveying the person is a health professional.
Pregnant women are coded As are expectant fathers: denoted by references in the text. Code infants: Toddlers or older children not coded unless they are in an image with
an infant. Parents of infants coded: If parents are portrayed with older children and no infant,
do not code. Do not code images so small that it is impossible to determine affect, clothing,
cleanliness etc. Do not code images that present only part of a body (e.g. infant’s foot or pregnant
woman’s stomach) making it impossible to derive meaningful information. Not applicable: Circle NA when the category does not apply e.g. asks for information about father when father is not present, or asks for information about clothing when baby is naked. Can’t determine: Applies when it is impossible to code a variable due to:
The way the photo is cropped (e.g. only face seen making it impossible to code clothing type)
The relevant figure is out of focus (e.g. cannot determine affect because facial features are blurred)
Figure is facing away from the camera (e.g. can code behaviour but not affect because figure has back to camera)
Parent appearance: Smart casual vs. at home casual distinction:
Sheet lists t-shirts as at home casual but code as smart casual if there are factors suggesting a higher dress standard e.g. well groomed hair & makeup, clothing & accessories worn with the t-shirt.
Baby appearance: Clean vs. dirty skin:
Counted suds/bubbles from bath as clean. Counted saliva as dirty
Attachment variables: Code these variables when a parent and infant are featured.
Congruent parent & baby affect counted as both expressing a positive emotion (e.g. one was calm and one was joyful) or both expressing a negative emotion. Incongruent coded when one key figure was expressing a negative emotion and the other was expressing a positive emotion.
For parent attachment behaviour “parent holding baby away from body” does not
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apply to situations where the parent is holding the baby away from their body for the purposes of caretaking activities e.g. bathing, feeding.
Code “not applicable” if one or both faces are not visible. For baby attachment behaviour, if there is no sign that the baby is either trying to
maintain contact or trying to resist contact (e.g. being passive while being held by a parent) code as “not applicable”.
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Coding Sheet
Image identification number: Magazine: Magazine issue: Accompanying magazine content or advertised product: Image Type: 1 = Advertisement 2 = Magazine content 3 = Cover
_________ Photograph type: 1 = Professional 2 = Amateur
_________ Key figures: 1 = Baby 2 = Mother 3 = Pregnant woman 4 = Father 5 = Pregnant woman & expectant father 6 = Mother & Father 7 = Mother & Baby 8 = Father & Baby 9 = Mother, father, & baby 10 = Mother, baby, & other children 11 = Father, baby, & other children 12 = Mother, father, baby, & other children 13 = Mother/pregnant woman with health professionals 14 = Baby with health professionals 15 = Mother, father, & baby with other adults 16 = Mother with other adults 17 = Father with other adults 18 = Mother & father with other adults 19 = Mother & baby with other adults 20 = Mother, father, baby with other adults and/or children
21 = Baby with another child/other children 22 = Pregnant woman with another child/other children 23 = Pregnant woman, expectant father, & another child/other children 24 = Expectant father 25 = Expectant father, pregnant woman, & health professionals 26 = Infant with another infant 27 = Baby with another adult 28 = Mother, infant, other adults & children 29 = Mother, father, infant & health professional/s 30 = Mother, father & health professional 31 = Pregnant woman, older child/children, & another adult 32 = Mother, infant, & health professional 33 = Pregnant woman with other pregnant women/another pregnant woman 34 = Infant with another adult & older children 35 = Pregnant woman with another adult
_________ Ethnicity key figures: 1 = Caucasian 2 = Other 3 = Aboriginal 4= Not sure Baby _________ NA Mother _________ NA Father _________ NA Parent affect: 1 = Smiling, joyful 2 = Relaxed, calm, serene 3 = Frowning, tense, anxious, stressed 4 = Crying 5 = Can’t determine Mother_________ NA Father _________ NA
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Baby affect: 1 = Smiling 2 = Calm, relaxed 3 = Frowning, anxious, tense 4 = Crying
5 = Funny/strange/humorous facial expression 6 = Can’t determine
_________ NA Parent behaviour: 1 = Parent holding baby 2 = Sleeping 3 = Talking to health professional/undergoing medical procedure 4 = Eating/drinking/preparing food or drink 5 = Domestic chores (ironing/washing clothes etc.) 6 = Breastfeeding baby 7 = Bottle-feeding baby 8 = Feeding baby solids 9 = Looking at/watching baby 10 = Pushing baby in pram 11 = Bathing baby 12 = Reading to baby 13 = Playing with baby 14 = Sitting 15 = Shopping
16 = Talking on phone 17 = Reading 18 = Talking to baby (not holding) 19 = Exercising 20 = In labour 21 = Kissing baby 22 = Touching baby e.g. stroking, massaging, applying skin care product 23 = Bathing self 24 = Talking to/interacting with another adult 25 = Posing for picture 26 = Embracing/touching another adult 27 = Giving baby medicine 28 = Dressing baby/changing nappy 29 = Other
Mother B1_________ Mother B2 _________ Mother B3 _________ NA Father B1 _________ Father B2 _________ Father B3 _________ NA Baby behaviour: 1 = Sitting 10 = Walking/standing supported 2 = Lying on stomach 11 = Riding in pram 3 = Lying on back 12 = Holding object/body part in mouth 4 = Holding object 13 = Pointing at something 5 = Sleeping 14 = Showing something 6 = Being held 15 = Bathing 7 = Drinking/eating 16 = Crawling/kneeling 8 = Undergoing medical procedure 17 = Looking at another person 9 = Walking/standing unsupported 18 = Can’t determine 19 = Other
B1 _________ B2 _________ NA Parent appearance: 1 = Neat appearance 2 = Disheveled appearance 3 = Can’t determine Mother _________ NA Father _________ NA 1 = Stained/dirty clothing 2 = Clean/stain free clothing 3 = Can’t determine Mother _________ NA Father_________ NA
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Clothing type: 1 = Formal, evening wear 5 = Medical gown 2 = Business attire 6 = Exercise wear 3 = Smart casual wear 7 = Nothing
8 = Can’t determine Mother _________ NA Father_________ NA
Baby appearance 1 = Rash/skin irritation 2 = Clear skin 3 = Can’t determine _________ NA 1= Stains/dirt on clothes 2 = Clean clothes 3 = Can’t determine _________ NA 1= Stains/dirt on skin 2 = Clean skin 3 = Can’t determine _________ NA Clothing type: 1 = Nothing 4 = Fully-clothed 2 = Nappy 5 = Costume 3 = Wrapped in blanket/towel 6 = Can’t determine
_________ NA Attachment: Congruent parent & baby behaviour: 1 = Presence of mutual gaze between parent and baby 2 = Baby or parent avoiding eye contact - parent looking at baby and baby looking away or vice versa 3 = Joint attention (including looking at camera together) 4 = Congruent parent and baby affect 5 = Incongruent parent and baby affect
A1_________ A2_________ NA Baby attachment behaviour: 1 = Contact maintaining behaviour – looking towards parent, reaching for parent, clinging/holding on to parent. 2 = Contact resisting behaviour – turning away from parent in distress, disinterest in parent, pushing parent away.
_________ NA
Parent attachment behaviour: 1 = Parent holding baby close to body 2 = Parent holding baby away from body _________ NA
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