What Can Be Observed?
• Physical actions
• Verbal behavior
• Expressive behavior
• Spatial relations and locations
• Temporal patterns
• Verbal and pictorial records
Phenomena Example
Human behavior or physical Shoppers movementaction pattern in a store
Verbal behavior Statements made byairline travelers who waitin line
Expressive behavior Facial expressions, tone of voice, and other form of body language
What Can Be Observed
Phenomena Example
Spatial relations How close visitors at anand locations art museum stand to paintings
Temporal patterns How long fast-food customerswait for their order to be served
Physical objects What brand name items are stored in consumers’ pantries
Verbal and Pictorial Bar codes on product packagesRecords
What Can Be Observed
Observation of Human BehaviorBenefits
• Communication with respondent is not necessary
• Data without distortions due to self-report (e.g.: without social desirability) Bias
• No need to rely on respondents memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
Observation of Human BehaviorBenefits
• Certain data may be obtained more quickly
• Environmental conditions may be recorded
• May be combined with survey to provide supplemental evidence
Observation of Human BehaviorLimitations
• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
• Interpretation of data may be a problem
• Not all activity can be recorded
• Only short periods can be observed
• Observer bias possible
• Possible invasion of privacy
Observation of Physical Objects
• Physical-trace evidence
• Wear and tear of a book indicates how often it has been read
Scientifically Contrived Observation
• The creation of an artificial environment to test a hypothesis
Response Latency
• Recording the decision time necessary to make a choice between two alternatives
• It is presumed to indicate the strength of preference between alternatives.
Content Analysis
• Obtains data by observing and analyzing the content of advertisements, letters, articles, etc.
• Deals with the study of the message itself
• Measures the extent of emphasis or omission
Mechanical Observation
• Traffic Counters• Web Traffic• Scanners• Peoplemeter• Physiological
Measures
Eye Tracking Monitors
• Record how the subject actually reads or views an advertisement
• Measure unconscious eye movements
Psychogalvanometer
• Measures galvanic skin response
• Involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin
• Assumption: physiological changes accompany emotional reactions