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The impact of managerial skills onemployee outcomes: a cross culturalstudyRichard C. Hoffman a & Frank M. Shipper aa Perdue School of Business, Salisbury University, Management &Marketing, Salisbury, USA
Available online: 26 Aug 2011
To cite this article: Richard C. Hoffman & Frank M. Shipper (2011): The impact of managerialskills on employee outcomes: a cross cultural study, The International Journal of Human ResourceManagement, DOI:10.1080/09585192.2011.581635
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The impact of managerial skills on employee outcomes: a cross culturalstudy
Richard C. Hoffman* and Frank M. Shipper
Perdue School of Business, Salisbury University, Management & Marketing, Salisbury, USA
Leaders with global skills are in demand by MNCs. Global management skills dependon the applicability of management practices across cultures. Using data frommanagers in 50 countries, this study examines the interaction effect of cultural valuesand managerial skills on two outcomes, employees’ attitudes and workgroupeffectiveness. Our results indicate that cultural values tend to have a greater effectwhen a manager is less skilled than when the manager is highly skilled. When themanager is highly skilled, the interaction effects of culture tend to disappear.The practical and research implications of these findings are discussed.
Keywords: cultural values; job attitudes and effectiveness; managerial skills
Introduction
Having competent global leaders has been rated as the most important factor to success in
international business; furthermore, most human resource executives in US MNCs do not
believe they have a sufficient cadre of managers with global skills (Gregerson, Morrison and
Black 1998). Possessing global skills, in part, depends on the applicability of existing
management theories across cultures (Yukl 2002). For example, do managers
trained/educated in one country have the requisite skills to manage successfully in another
country? Do effective managerial skills/behaviors transcend cultures or are they culturally
bound? Without answers to these questions, managers assigned to other cultures and those
assigned to develop such managers may be providing advice that is inappropriate on what
skills to develop to manage effectively (e.g. Shipper, Hoffman and Rotondo 2007).
Hofstede (2001) and others (Ronen and Shenkar 1985; House, Hanges, Javidan,
Dorfman and Gupta 2004) have found that different cultures reflect different values.
Recently, researchers (Lenartowicz and Johnson 2002; Leung, Bhagat, Buchan, Erez and
Gibson 2005, p. 368) have argued that, rather than determining whether or not culture
makes a difference, we need to address, ‘ . . . how and when it makes a difference’. Thus,
the purpose of this study is to examine how cultural values may interact with managerial
skills, employees’ attitudes, and work unit effectiveness. It is hoped that this research may
shed light on the practice of management in a global setting and, therefore, building on
research that has an impact on practice (DeNisi 2006).
Management practices across cultures: convergence, divergence or ?
Concern about the appropriateness of management practices across cultures is
encompassed by the cultural divergence–convergence theories of management and
ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online
q 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2011.581635
http://www.informaworld.com
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
The International Journal of Human Resource Management,
2011, 1–22, iFirst
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organizations. Briefly, those who adhere to the culturally bound contingent or divergent
views of management practices suggest that cultural tradition, ideologies and norms are
bound to differentiate attitudes and behaviors among cultures (e.g. Hostfede 2001). This is
often referred to as an ‘emic’ analysis of behavior. Leadership may be culturally bound
because culturally differentiated values give rise to differentiated views regarding
effective leaders and behaviors (Javidan and Carl 2005). Alternatively, because culture
represents different sets of norms and beliefs, this may limit acceptable behaviors
available to leaders (Yukl 2002).
On the other hand, leadership and management practices are deemed to be more cross-
culturally universal or convergent due to a number of factors, including (1) the globalization
of markets and industries, (2) technological breakthroughs in communications and
transportation, and (3) the homogenization of management training based on standard
criteria enforced by international accrediting agencies (e.g. AACSB, EQUIS, etc.). These
factors have contributed to creating international norms and practices that transcend local
traditions (Hafsi and Forashaki 2005). Recently, the GLOBE studies (House et al. 2004)
have identified certain leadership styles/behaviors that appear to be universally acceptable
while others were found to be universally discredited or unacceptable.
The cross-cultural management debate and subsequent research has matured
somewhat, and this has led some researchers to suggest that the relationship between
culture and effective management practices may have more nuances than the opposing
views of the debate suggest.
Some scholars (e.g. Ralston, Holt, Terpstra and Kai-Cheng 1997) have argued for an
integrative alternative to convergence–divergence debate which they call ‘crossvergence.’
This view examines the interaction of culture with economic ideology and its subsequent
influence on values. However, as Witt (2007) points out, national culture and economic
ideology are somewhat distinct concepts, so crossvergence is not another perspective of
cultural influences but rather of the interaction of culture with other ideologies. More in
keeping with our focus on national culture, Leung et al. (2005) indicate that responses to
globalization may include creative synthesis and innovation in addition to adaptation or
rejection. Still others (Den Hartog, House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla and Dorfman 1999) have
indicated that there may be different types of universals or convergence among management
practices. The first of these is the simple universal suggesting that a given management
practice is effective in all cultural settings. Thus, the management behavior or skill does not
vary across cultures. A variform universal is one in which subtle changes can be made to
management practices across cultures. For example, ‘people’ behaviors may be effective
across many cultures, but in some cultures it is manifested as coaching on job-related
activities, while in other cultures, it may be counseling subordinates on personal problems.
Thus, how the practices or skills are expressed or carried out may differ across cultures. Lastly,
there is the functional universal that focuses on the stability of relationships between different
variables across cultures. If a management skill or behavior is found to be related to
effectiveness or ineffectiveness across cultures, this would support a functional universal, if
not, it would support a functional divergence of the relationship across cultures.
Since the preponderance of cross-cultural management research adopts a culture-
specific approach when examining two leadership and management behaviors across
leaders, we adopt that perspective as our theoretical position. Any difference between the
culture-specific position, however, might represent a range of universalistic positions from
simple to variform or functional.
We begin by modeling the general relationships we seek to investigate. Then, based on
a variety of disparate research, we develop hypothesized relationships among some key
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variables in our model. From there, we empirically test the hypothesized relationships
among a large sample of managers from a global MNC. Finally, the implications of the
results for our model and practice are discussed.
A cross-cultural model of management skills and outcomes
To guide our investigation, we have developed a broad model of the relationship between
management skills and outcomes in a cross-cultural setting. This model was derived from
the general convergence–divergence debate that highlights the potentially key position of
culture in examining this functional relationship. The model is also based on general
contingency theories (e.g. Woodward 1958; Lawrence and Lorsch 1967) indicating the
influence of other environmental (e.g. economic, industrial) and organizational (e.g. size,
age, technology) factors that may influence the management skills–outcomes
relationship. The model was further specified by drawing on more recent cross-cultural
studies examining various aspects of the management skills–outcomes relationship. One
such model is the culture-based model of work motivation developed by Erez and Earley
(1993). In this model, management practices influence worker motivation that in turn
affects outcomes. In recent adaptations of the model, Chen and Aryee (2007) found
support for culture’s moderating effects between the management practice of delegation
and both employee self-concept and work outcomes. Hui, Au and Fock (2004) used a
simpler model and found support for the moderating influence of culture on the
empowerment–job satisfaction relationship. Thus in these models, culture directly affects
perceptions of management practices and indirectly affects the extent to which such
practices motivate the individual. Furthermore, the models link management to outcomes
and reflect that the context including culture, affects this relationship. Below we first
describe the general relationships depicted in our model and then define the key variables
of interest, namely culture, management skills, and outcomes.
The model shown in Figure 1 depicts culture as having effects directly (dotted arrows)
on organizational context, management practices, and outcomes. In addition, culture’s
functional or moderating effect is depicted by a thin dotted arrow directed toward the thick
white block arrow linking context to management skills/behaviors and by a thin solid
black arrow directed toward the thick black block arrow linking skills to outcomes. In this
model, the thick black arrow between skills and outcomes and the thin solid black arrow
between culture and the latter relationship reveal the focus of this study. The other
relationships will be somewhat controlled for either through sample selection or
Organizational&
environmentalcontext
Culture
Outcomes
- attitudes- work group effectiveness
Managerial- skills/ behaviors- attributes
- styles
Figure 1. General model of the relationships between culture, managerial skills, and outcomes.
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statistically. Our general proposition is that management practices affect a variety of
outcomes both attitudinal and work-centered, and that this relationship may vary across
cultures due to value differences that may be more or less accepting of certain
management practices or behaviors.
Culture is difficult to describe (Kwok and Tadesse 2006) as it has many levels, such as
observable behaviors and unobservable values and assumptions (Schein 1990). This
makes culture a difficult construct to measure. In this study, we define culture as the
pattern of shared values, attitudes, and beliefs, often shared by a particular group of
people, which affect their behavior (e.g. Hofstede 2001; House et al. 2004). Essentially,
two dominant means of assessing culture have been employed in management literature:
culture-centered and personality-centered approaches (Clark 1990; Lenartowicz and Roth
1999). Culture-centered approaches use qualitative anthropological approaches to
describe a single culture in terms of its ethnology, religion, customs, etc. This approach
is suitable when studying a single culture. Personality-centered assessments use
quantitative measures. Some of these can be proxies, such as nationality or place of birth.
Another personality-centered method is the use of value inferences based on either
primary or secondary measures. By focusing on specific dimensions or measures of
culture, we may begin to answer ‘why’ there are cultural differences that may lead us to
some specific recommendations for international management development and practice.
For this study, we selected two value-based, secondary measures of culture because they
represent well-defined, empirically based measures that have been systematically assessed
within a wide variety of cultures. The first set selected was that developed by Hofstede
(2001). Although these dimensions have been controversial, ‘ . . . they have provided a
broad framework that has inspired much IB research’ (Leung et al. 2005, p. 365). Others
(Schwartz 1994; Smith, Peterson and Schwartz 2002) have subsequently identified other
dimensions. However, these studies have yielded convergent results lending support to the
validity of Hofstede’s dimensions (Leung et al. 2005), and as a result, the latter have enjoyed
wide use in cross-cultural research (e.g. Kwok and Tadesse 2006). Hofstede assessed
culture primarily along four distinct values: power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
individualism, and masculinity. Power distance refers to the social stratification within a
society such that higher status individuals/groups are accorded more power and authority by
those of lower status. Uncertainty avoidance refers to a society’s fear of unknown or
ambiguous situations. Individualism refers to the identity of self as based either solely on the
individual or on the individual as part of a group or collective. Masculinity refers to a
society’s preference for competition and outcomes (masculine values) as opposed to
cooperation and process (feminine values). These values are supplemented by the more
recent GLOBE study of values and leadership (House et al. 2004). At least two of the values
are novel and independent of Hofstede’s dimensions and appear to be relevant to leadership
(Leung et al. 2005): humane and performance orientations. Humane orientation is the value
concerned with improving the human condition. Performance orientation is the extent to
which a society fosters and rewards improvement and excellence. A third value, future
orientation, is similar to Hofstede’s (2001) long-term orientation, but the GLOBE study
contains more country data on this value, hence, its use in this study. Future orientation
refers to whether a society uses a short- or long-term perspective. Thus, in this study, culture
was assessed using seven quantitative value dimensions.
Cultural values and assumptions influence preferences for behaviors in general
(Hofstede 2001) and leader behaviors or styles in particular (Dorfman et al. 1997; House
et al. 2004; Javidan and Carl 2005). Thus, we would expect cultural variation in the
efficacy of the use of certain managerial skills. We focus on two sets of managerial skills:
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interactive and controlling skills. Interactive skills include abilities such as communicat-
ing goals (what and why), planning and problem solving, soliciting suggestions, coaching,
training, supporting, providing feedback, delegating, and expressing appreciation or
complimenting good work. These skills are associated with ‘people’ behaviors or
participative leadership styles. Controlling skills include abilities such as keeping on
schedule and meeting deadlines, applying appropriate control to details, and applying
appropriate pressure to ensure that goals are met. These skills are associated with more
directive and task-oriented leadership styles.
Leader effectiveness has been assessed by examining a leader’s impact on affects, such
as attitudes and motivation (e.g. Shipper and Davy 2002; Hui et al. 2004) as well as on
subordinate or work group performance (e.g. Black and Porter 1991). Both of these
outcomes are incorporated in our model to assess the more comprehensive impact of
effective management practice across cultures.
Cultural values, management skills, and outcomes: hypothesized relationships
In this section, we develop some general hypotheses concerning the effects cultural values
may have on the relationship between different management skills and different types of
outcomes. First, we focus on the impact managerial skills have on attitudes in a cross-cultural
setting. Erez and Earley (1993) have noted that cultural values play an important role in
determining the impact of management practice on our motives and concept of self-worth.
A recent study (Fischer and Masell 2009) found some direct relationships between power
distance and collectivism for two types of commitment by employees. One would also
expect that different managerial skills are likely to have differential effects on affects such as
job attitudes in countries possessing different cultural values.
Interactive management skills are similar to participative leadership styles; the
latter have been found to be positively associated with job satisfaction in general
(e.g. Yukl 2002). Cross-culturally, participative leader behaviors (e.g. use of interactive
skills) have been found to be positively associated with job satisfaction and decision
commitment in cultures with low power distance (Cascio 1974; Smith and Peterson 1988;
Hui et al. 2004), low uncertainty avoidance, and feminine values (Rubenowitz, Norrgren
and Tannenbaum 1983). Humane-, performance- and future-oriented values have been
found to be positively associated with team-oriented and participative styles (House et al.
2004) both of which are similar to interactive management skills. Moreover, humane
orientation is believed to be positively associated with people as opposed to task behaviors
(Leung et al. 2005). Thus, we offer the following hypothesis:
H1: Interactive management skills are more strongly related to positive job attitudes in
cultures exhibiting:
(a) lower power distance
(b) lower uncertainty avoidance
(c) lower masculine values
(d) higher humane-oriented values
(e) higher performance-oriented values
(f) higher future-oriented values.
Task-oriented leader behaviors similar to the controlling skills have been found to elicit
different outcomes in cross-cultural studies (Bennett 1977; Bass and Burger 1979;
White and Trevor 1983; Javidan, Dorfman, de Luque and House 2006). Leaders who seek to
dominate or exert control over others are likely to be found in societies favoring high power
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distance values (Den Hartog et al. 1999; Shin, Morgeson and Campion 2007). Moreover, a
stronger managerial emphasis on tasks versus relationship behaviors has been found to be
associated with both individualist and masculine values (Hofstede 2001). Managerial task
orientations, control of uncertainties, and general administrative competence, all similar to
controlling skills, have been found to be positively associated with higher uncertainty
avoidance across cultures (Hofstede 2001; House et al. 2004). The link between controlling
skills and affects in cross-cultural settings can be observed by the findings that the use of
close supervision (Williams, Whyte and Green 1966) and centralized decision making
(Birnbaum and Wong 1985) have been found to be positively related to job satisfaction.
Performance orientation values are believed to be positively associated with task behaviors
(Leung et al. 2005) and have been found to be more strongly related to controlling leader
behaviors than either humane or future orientation values (House et al. 2004). Thus,
H2: Controlling management skills are more strongly related to positive job attitudes in
cultures exhibiting:
(a) higher power distance
(b) higher uncertainty avoidance
(c) individualist values
(d) higher performance orientation values.
We now turn our attention to examining some possible cross-cultural relationships
between managerial skills and workgroup effectiveness. The literature on leadership has
established that appropriate leader behaviors affect subordinate performance or
workgroup outcomes (e.g. Bass 1997; Yukl 2002; Judge, Piccolo and Ilies 2004;
Shipper et al. 2007) and often varies across cultures (e.g. Black and Porter 1991;
House et al. 2004). In this study we focus on whether cultural variations cause differential
relationships between managerial skills and work group effectiveness.
With respect to interactive management skills, Welsh, Luthans and Sommer (1993)
found that participative leader behaviors were associated with lower performance for
Russian managers who possessed moderate levels of both power distance and uncertainty
avoidance. Consideration leader behaviors were found to be positively associated with
leader effectiveness in the US, but negatively associated with effectiveness among Mideast
managers who reflect high power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and collectivist values
(Scandura, Von Glinow and Lowe 1999). Recently, managers’ self-awareness of interactive
skills was found to be positively associated with managerial outcomes within Western
cultures but negatively associated with outcomes in a Far Eastern culture, the latter
exhibiting higher power distance and collectivism than the Western cultures
(Shipper, Kincaid, Rotondo and Hoffman 2003). Although the effect of humane,
performance, and future orientation values has not been examined in the context of leader
behaviors and work effectiveness, we draw on our earlier discussion of these values to argue
that the values more closely related to certain managerial skills are more likely to have a
positive interaction effect on effectiveness. Thus, the following hypothesis emerges:
H3: Interactive management skills are more strongly related to positive workgroup
effectiveness in cultures exhibiting:
(a) lower power distance
(b) lower uncertainty avoidance
(c) individualist values
(d) higher humane orientation values
(e) higher performance orientation values.
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Task-oriented behaviors have also been linked to subordinate performance in single
culture studies (e.g. Judge et al. 2004). Cross-culturally, Black and Porter (1991) examined
the impact on performance of using the same leader behaviors in both the US and in Hong
Kong. The US managers’ consideration (interactive) and initiating structure (controlling)
behaviors were positively correlated with subordinate performance when working with US
subordinates. The same behaviors used by either US managers or Chinese managers with
Chinese subordinates were generally not correlated with subordinate performance.
The results indicated that, regardless of the cultural background of the managers, the
selected leader behaviors did not appear to be relevant to subordinate performance in Hong
Kong. US and China have opposite profiles on power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and
individualism. In another study (Scandura et al. 1999), the use of controlling skills to initiate
structure by managers were not related to subordinate performance when used by US
managers, but were positively related to performance among Jordanian and Saudi Arabian
managers. More recently, Shipper et al. (2003) found that self-awareness of pressuring skills
was positively associated with behaviors for managers from Malaysia, a culture high on
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and collectivism, but not among US managers who
have a contrasting profile on these values. Similar to our reasoning above, as performance
orientation was found to be more strongly related to controlling type of leader behaviors
(House et al. 2004), we posit that they will moderate the relationship between controlling
skills and work effectiveness. Hence, we offer the following:
H4: Controlling management skills are more strongly related to positive workgroup
effectiveness in cultures exhibiting:
(a) higher power distance
(b) higher uncertainty avoidance
(c) collective values
(d) higher performance orientation values.
Methods
Sample
The original sample consisted of 16,795 managers who were participating in an ongoing
management development program in a large multinational firm in the technology sector.
The firm is known for having an open and egalitarian culture. For example, it has an ESOP,
and the employees own approximately 10% of the company. Due to missing cultural data,
only 13,480 managers were included in the study. On average, each manager’s skills were
evaluated by 3.63 subordinates. Thus, each manager also represents a work group. Fifty
cultures were represented by these managers.
When cultural values based on Hofstede’s (2001) typology were used in the study,
only 39 of 50 cultures could be included in our analyses. Similarly, when cultural values
based on House et al. (2004) typology were used, only 40 cultures could be investigated.
When the work of Hofstede’s (2001) and House et al. (2004) typologies were used together
in this study, only 37 cultures could be used due to the limited overlap. Thus, the number
of cultures in a specific analysis varies depending on the cultural typology used.
Design and procedures
The design of this study is based on survey research and archival value data. The translated
instruments employed in this study had been in use for some time prior to this study. They
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were developed by translation professionals according to normal translation and back-
translation procedures and extensively pretested prior to this study. The benefits of well-
translated instruments far outweigh the negatives. Respondents tend to respond reliably
when using their native language as opposed to a second language (Marin, Triandis,
Betancourt and Kashima 1983), and the use of summated scales reduces language bias
(Prince and Mombor 1967). Finally, translation errors tend to be randomized as the
number of language versions increase (Hofstede 2001).
For this study, primary data were electronically collected via the internet as part of an
ongoing management development program. Data from the first administration of the
Survey of Management Practices (Form LB), a 360 questionnaire, were used in this study.
The procedure used for collecting the data involved the use of a secure server and
passwords for each respondent to protect anonymity. The process was explained to all
respondents involved. For this study, each manager’s direct reports were used to assess the
manager’s skills and job attitudes. Data from each manager’s superior were used to assess
the manager’s performance, that is, workgroup effectiveness (four items). The response
rate of the direct reports was 63% while that for the superiors was 68%.
The managerial skills data was assessed using a structured questionnaire, The Survey
of Management Practices (Form LB) to collect observations (Wilson and Wilson 1991). It
was chosen for its comprehensive nature and psychometric soundness (Morrison, McCall
and DeVries 1978; Van Velsor and Leslie 1991; Clark, Clark and Campbell 1992;
Shipper 1995; Leslie and Fleenor 1998; Shipper and White 1999; Shipper and Davy 2002).
The questionnaire consists of 71 items of which 56 were used in this study. Forty-eight of
these items were selected because they constitute the scales for managerial skills found in
the Managerial Task Cycle model (Wilson, O’Hare and Shipper 1990). Eight additional
items from the Survey of Management Practices were used to measure outcomes. These
measures are addressed in detail later. Specific skills used in this study – interactive and
controlling – were taken from prior research. These measures were developed through
cluster analysis and have been found to be stable (Shipper and Wilson 1992; Shipper et al.
2003, 2007; Shipper 2004).
Prior studies have examined the questionnaire and found its test/retest reliability,
internal consistency, interrater reliability, construct validity, and criterion validity to be
acceptable (Wilson 1975, 1978; Shipper 1995; Rosti and Shipper 1998; Shipper and White
1999; Shipper and Davy 2002). For example, all of the scales within the instrument have
been reported in prior studies to exceed Nunnally’s (1978) criteria of 0.70 for reliability.
In addition, the structure of the questionnaire has been found to be stable within and across
cultures (Shipper et al. 2003; Shipper 2004). Furthermore, the instrument has been used in
other cross-cultural studies of managerial skills (Offermann and Hellmann 1997;
Shipper et al. 2003; Shipper 2004) and is available in several languages including Arabic,
Bahasa Malaysian, Chinese, English, French, German, Hebrew, Mandarin Simplified,
Polish, Russian, Spanish, and Tagalog.
Outcomes were also assessed via the Survey of Management Practices. To assess
employees’ job attitudes, four additional items that constitute an affective commitment
scale were asked of the subordinates. Affective commitment is the strength of an
individual’s involvement (Meyer, Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin and Jackson 1989) and has
been identified as one of the most commonly used concepts of employees’ affective
reactions in organizational studies (Brooke, Russell and Price 1988; Mathieu and Farh
1991). A typical item on this scale is, ‘I try hard to do my work well’.
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To mitigate the problem of common source variance, the managers’ superiors were
used as the source to assess work-unit effectiveness. This scale is comprised of four items.
A typical item asks if the managers’ group ‘works well’.
As customary, the means, standard deviations, and correlations for all variables are
reported in Table 1. In addition, each scale was analyzed again for reliability using
Cronbach’s alpha. All scales had levels of reliability acceptable for experimental research
(a $ 0.60; Nunnally 1967). Since the level of analysis is the manager, each aggregated
scale was analyzed to ensure its suitability using the Interclass Correlation Coefficient
(ICC1; Lim and Ployhart 2004). Prior research has used ICC’s ranging from 0.12 (James
1982) to 0.22 (Lim and Ployhart 2004) to justify aggregation. Thus, given that the ICC’s
for the scales in this study reported in Table 2 fell within or exceeded this range,
aggregating the direct reports’ data to assess the manager’s skills and job attitudes appears
to be statistically justified.
To assess culture, we used two-country level indices of values drawn from secondary
sources. Data on the values of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and
masculinity were drawn from Hofstede’s (2001) work for each country in our sample.
These indices range from 0 to 115. The measures for humane, performance, and future
orientation values were drawn from the GLOBE research of House et al. (2004) for each
country in our sample. These are also country level data assessed on a seven-point scale
and adjusted for response bias. Given that the different measures for cultural values were
assessed using different scales, the seven variables were all standardized prior to the
analysis.
Finally, certain controls were employed to account for rival hypotheses. Referring
back to Figure 1, the organizational and environmental context is controlled by examining
data from a single firm within a single industry. The direct effects of culture on skills and
outcomes are accounted for statistically by the methods used for data analysis.
Analysis
To test each hypothesis, the data were analyzed using analysis of variance. Analysis of
variance was considered to be the appropriate statistical technique over linear regression
because other researchers have found nonlinear relationships among cultural values,
managerial skills, and employees’ attitudes and outcomes (Hoffman and Shipper 2006).
When interaction terms were significant, interaction diagrams were drawn for ease of
interpretation.
To prepare the data for analysis of variance, the respondents on the scales representing
the independent variables (i.e. culture and management skills) were each divided into the
low, middle, and high thirds. Thirds were considered to be more appropriate divisions than
halves given the size of the sample and the possibility of nonlinear relationships.
The dependent variables for this study were the managers’ job attitudes and workgroup
effectiveness as described previously.
Findings
In performing cross-cultural research such as this, four fundamental questions arise. First,
for each sub-hypothesis is the overall statistical model significant? Second, are the main
effects within the model statistically significant? Third, is the interaction effect
statistically significant? Fourth, when the interaction term is significant, does the
interpretation of the results including the interaction term differ? The first three questions
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 9
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icha
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ust 2
011
Tab
le1
.M
ean
s,st
and
ard
dev
iati
on
san
dP
ears
on
corr
elat
ion
so
fv
aria
ble
s.
Mea
n,
Std
.D
ev1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
.1
0.
11
.1
2.
1.S
ub
ord
inat
es’
rate
din
tera
ctiv
esk
ills
0.0
2R
10
.47
0*
*0
.61
4*
*0
.17
1*
*2
0.0
15
0.0
26
**
0.0
01
20
.04
8*
*2
0.0
20
*2
0.0
17
20
.04
6*
*2
0.0
19
*
0.9
5n
16
,70
61
6,6
77
16
,66
21
0,4
43
13
,28
01
3,1
70
13
,28
01
3,2
80
13
,25
41
3,2
54
13
,25
41
3,2
54
2.
Su
bo
rdin
ates
’ra
ted
con
tro
llin
gsk
ills
0.0
1R
0.4
70
**
10
.35
2*
*0
.00
90
.21
8*
*0
.04
6*
*2
0.2
85
**2
0.1
32
**2
0.2
20
**2
0.1
06
**
0.0
79
**
20
.22
8*
*
1.0
2n
16
,67
71
6,7
47
16
,67
61
0,4
58
13
,31
61
3,2
06
13
,31
61
3,3
16
13
,28
81
3,2
88
13
,28
81
3,2
88
3.
Co
mm
itm
ent
5.6
6R
0.6
14
**
0.3
52
**
10
.19
7*
*2
0.0
89
**
0.0
37
**
0.0
84
**
20
.04
8*
*0
.04
8*
*0
.00
82
0.0
94
**
0.0
55
**
0.6
1n
16
,66
21
6,6
76
16
,72
01
0,4
67
13
,30
21
3,1
92
13
,30
21
3,3
02
13
,27
31
3,2
73
13
,27
31
3,2
73
4.
Su
per
ior
rate
def
fect
iven
ess
5.2
6R
0.1
71
**
0.0
09
0.1
97
**
12
0.1
49
**
0.0
08
0.1
84
**
0.0
26
*0
.12
8*
*0
.02
6*
20
.09
2*
*0
.14
3*
*
0.8
3n
10
,44
31
0,4
58
10
,46
71
0,4
92
90
16
89
38
90
16
90
16
90
30
90
30
90
30
90
30
5.
Po
wer
dis
tan
ce4
6.9
9R
20
.01
50
.21
8*
*2
0.0
89
**2
0.1
49
**
12
0.2
32
**2
0.7
66
**2
0.2
44
**2
0.6
32
**
0.1
06
**
0.8
27
**
20
.23
2*
*
21
.93
n1
3,2
80
13
,31
61
3,3
02
90
16
13
,35
61
3,2
45
13
,35
61
3,3
56
13
,05
31
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,0
53
6.
Un
cert
ain
tyav
oid
ance
47
.29
R0
.02
6*
*0
.04
6*
*0
.03
7*
*0
.00
82
0.2
32
**
12
0.1
59
**2
0.2
26
**2
0.1
40
**2
0.0
53
**2
0.3
61
**2
0.5
37
**
11
.90
n1
3,1
70
13
,20
61
3,1
92
89
38
13
,24
51
3,2
45
13
,24
51
3,2
45
12
,94
21
2,9
42
12
,94
21
2,9
42
7.
Ind
ivid
ual
ism
77
.52
R0
.00
12
0.2
85
**
0.0
84
**
0.1
84
**
20
.76
6*
*2
0.1
59
**
10
.46
3*
*0
.66
0*
*0
.13
1*
*2
0.5
11
**
0.7
30
**
24
.12
13
,28
01
3,3
16
13
,30
29
01
61
3,3
56
13
,24
51
3,3
56
13
,35
61
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,0
53
13
,05
38
.M
ascu
lin
ev
alu
es6
0.0
4R
20
.04
8*
*2
0.1
32
**2
0.0
48
**
0.0
26
*2
0.2
44
**2
0.2
26
**
0.4
63
**
10
.28
3*
*2
0.1
13
**
0.0
74
**
0.3
43
**
8.5
6n
13
,28
01
3,3
16
13
,30
29
01
61
3,3
56
13
,45
13
,35
61
3,3
56
13
,05
31
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,0
53
9.
Hu
man
eo
rien
ted
val
ues
5.4
7R
20
.02
0*
20
.22
0*
*0
.04
8*
*0
.12
8*
*2
0.6
32
**2
0.1
40
**
0.6
60
**
0.2
83
**
12
0.0
55
**2
0.2
35
**
0.3
63
**
0.1
0n
13
,25
41
3,2
88
13
,27
39
03
01
3,0
53
12
,94
21
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,3
26
13
,32
61
3,3
26
13
,32
61
0.
Co
llec
tiv
ism
val
ues
5.7
4R
20
.01
72
0.1
06
**
0.0
08
0.0
26
*0
.10
6*
*2
0.0
53
**
0.1
31
**
20
.11
3*
*2
0.0
55
**
10
.34
6*
*0
.47
9*
*
0.1
3n
13
,25
41
3,2
88
13
,27
39
03
01
3,0
53
12
,94
21
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,3
26
13
,32
61
3,3
26
13
,32
61
1.
Fu
ture
ori
ente
dv
alu
es5
.36
R2
0.0
46
**
0.0
79
**
20
.09
4*
*2
0.0
92
**
0.8
27
**
20
.36
1*
*2
0.5
11
**
0.0
74
**
20
.23
5*
*0
.34
6*
*1
0.0
84
**
0.1
9n
13
,25
41
3,2
88
13
,27
39
03
01
3,0
53
12
,94
21
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,3
26
13
,32
61
3,3
26
13
,32
61
2.
Per
form
ance
ori
ente
dv
alu
es6
.06
R2
0.0
19
*2
0.2
28
**
0.0
55
**
0.1
43
**
20
.23
2*
*2
0.5
37
**
0.7
30
**
0.3
43
**
0.3
63
**
0.4
79
**
0.0
84
**
1
0.1
5n
13
,25
41
3,2
88
13
,27
39
03
01
3,0
53
12
,94
21
3,0
53
13
,05
31
3,3
26
13
,32
61
3,3
26
13
,32
6
No
te:
*C
orr
elat
ion
issi
gn
ifica
nt
atth
e0
.05
lev
el(t
wo
-tai
led
).*
*C
orr
elat
ion
issi
gn
ifica
nt
atth
e0
.01
lev
el(t
wo
-tai
led
).
R.C. Hoffman and F.M. Shipper10
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Salis
bury
Uni
vers
ity],
[R
icha
rd H
offm
an]
at 0
8:56
26
Aug
ust 2
011
are easy to answer because they are based on mathematics. For the fourth question, any
difference in interpretation of the results can be revealed by an inspection of the interaction
diagrams. Our results are interpreted in light of these parameters. As can be seen in Table 3,
the overall statistical models for each sub-hypothesis and all but one main effect are
statistically significant. The amount of variance explained in the models testing
Hypothesis 1 compare favorably to that explained by either transformational leadership
(Judge and Picollo 2004) or consideration (Judge et al. 2004) in meta-analytical studies
when the dependent variable is followers’ attitude. The amount of variance explained in
the models testing Hypothesis 2 exceeds the explanation provided by either Management
by Exception Active or Passive reported in a meta-analytical study when the dependent
variable is the followers’ attitude (Judge and Picollo 2004). For the models testing
Hypothesis 3, the amount of variance explained was similar to the amount explained by
either transformational leadership (Judge and Picollo 2004) or consideration (Judge et al.
2004) in meta-analytical studies when the dependent variable is the leader’s job
performance. The amount of variance explained in the models testing Hypothesis 4 is
similar to that explained by either Management by Exception Active or Passive reported in
a meta-analytical study regardless of the dependent variable (Judge and Picollo 2004).
Since the overall statistical models are comparable to those in other studies and the main
effects are all significant, the following discussion of findings focus on the tests of the
interaction terms that are the unique contribution of this study.
Overall, there was some support for the first hypothesis concerning the interaction
effects of cultural values on the relationship between interactive skills and job attitudes.
Table 3 reveals highly significant results at 0.001 level for both the interactive skills’ and
cultural values’ main effects across all values examined. Hypothesis H1a, regarding the
interactive effect of power distance with interactive skills on job commitment, was
partially supported. The top left panel of Figure 2 reveals that interactive management
skills were more strongly related to commitment at low to moderate levels of the value
when interactive skills were low to moderate but not when the manager exhibited high
levels of interactive skills. The findings for uncertainty avoidance values were the opposite
of what was predicted (see upper right panel of Figure 2). The skills–commitment
relationship was higher at moderate to higher levels of uncertainty avoidance when skill
levels were low to moderate, contrary to sub-Hypothesis 1b. Regarding H1c, the sub-
hypothesis was not supported. There appeared to be a significant cultural interaction at
high and moderate levels of the masculine values when managers exhibit low to moderate
Table 2. Psychometric properties of scales.
Cronbach’s Alpha (a) ICC1
Scale n n
1. Interactive skills 0.94 0.1659,706 16,719
2. Controlling skills 0.60 0.2660,346 16,703
3. Commitment 0.79 0.3157,880 16.744
4. Workgroup effectiveness 0.9014,916 N/A
Note: N/A, not applicable.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 11
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ust 2
011
Tab
le3
.R
esu
lts
fro
mA
NO
VA
for
Hy
po
thes
es1
–4
.
Ind
epen
den
tva
ria
ble
sa
nd
sig
nifi
can
ceM
od
el
Hyp
oth
esis
Su
b-h
ypo
thes
isD
epen
den
tva
ria
ble
Ski
lls
Ma
inef
fect
sig
nifi
can
ceet
a2
Cu
ltu
ral
valu
e
Ma
inef
fect
sig
nifi
can
ceet
a2
Inte
ract
ion
sig
nifi
can
ceet
a2
Sig
nifi
can
cer2
1.
a(n
¼1
3,2
49
)*C
om
mit
men
tIn
tera
ctiv
er#
0.0
01
Po
wer
dis
tan
cer#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.2
30
.01
.0
.01
0.3
3b
(n¼
13
,14
0)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Inte
ract
ive
r#
0.0
01
Un
cert
ain
tyav
oid
ance
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.2
10
.01
.0
.01
0.3
3c
(n¼
13
,24
9)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Inte
ract
ive
r#
0.0
01
Mas
culi
ne
val
ues
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.2
40
.01
.0
.01
0.3
3d
(n¼
13
,22
3)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Inte
ract
ive
r#
0.0
01
Hu
man
eo
rien
ted
val
ues
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.1
30
.01
.0
.01
0.3
4e
(n¼
13
,22
3)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Inte
ract
ive
r#
0.0
01
Per
form
ance
ori
ente
dv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.0
40
.01
.0
.01
0.3
3f
(n¼
13
,22
3)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Inte
ract
ive
r#
0.0
01
Fu
ture
ori
ente
dv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.2
40
.01
.0
.01
0.3
42
.a
(n¼
13
,26
6)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Co
ntr
oll
ing
r#
0.0
01
Po
wer
dis
tan
cer#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.0
90
.04
0.0
10
.13
b(n
¼1
3,1
57
)C
om
mit
men
tC
on
tro
llin
gr#
0.0
01
Un
cert
ain
tyav
oid
ance
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.0
70
.04
.0
.01
0.1
2c
(n¼
13
,26
6)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Co
ntr
oll
ing
r#
0.0
01
Ind
ivid
ual
isti
cv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.1
00
.03
.0
.01
0.1
2d
(n¼
13
,23
9)
Co
mm
itm
ent
Co
ntr
oll
ing
r#
0.0
01
Per
form
ance
ori
ente
dv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
01
0.0
10
.04
.0
.01
0.1
33
.a
(n¼
89
71
)E
ffec
tiv
enes
sIn
tera
ctiv
er#
0.0
01
Po
wer
dis
tan
cer#
0.0
01
r#
0.0
50
r#
0.0
01
0.0
20
.04
.0
.01
0.0
6b
(n¼
88
95
)E
ffec
tiv
enes
sIn
tera
ctiv
er#
0.0
01
Un
cert
ain
tyav
oid
ance
r#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
0.0
20
.04
.0
.01
0.0
6c
(n¼
89
72
)E
ffec
tiv
enes
sIn
tera
ctiv
er#
0.0
01
Ind
ivid
ual
isti
cv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
0.0
20
.03
.0
.01
0.0
6d
(n¼
89
89
)E
ffec
tiv
enes
sIn
tera
ctiv
er#
0.0
01
Hu
man
eo
rien
ted
val
ues
r#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
0.0
10
.04
.0
.01
0.0
6
R.C. Hoffman and F.M. Shipper12
Dow
nloa
ded
by [
Salis
bury
Uni
vers
ity],
[R
icha
rd H
offm
an]
at 0
8:56
26
Aug
ust 2
011
Tab
le3
–co
nti
nu
ed
Ind
epen
den
tva
ria
ble
sa
nd
sig
nifi
can
ceM
od
el
Hyp
oth
esis
Su
b-h
ypo
thes
isD
epen
den
tva
ria
ble
Ski
lls
Ma
inef
fect
sig
nifi
can
ceet
a2
Cu
ltu
ral
valu
e
Ma
inef
fect
sig
nifi
can
ceet
a2
Inte
ract
ion
sig
nifi
can
ceet
a2
Sig
nifi
can
cer2
e(n
¼8
98
9)
Eff
ecti
ven
ess
Inte
ract
ive
r#
0.0
01
Per
form
ance
ori
ente
dv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
.0
.01
0.0
4.
0.0
10
.06
4.
a(n
¼8
98
8)
Eff
ecti
ven
ess
Co
ntr
oll
ing
r#
0.0
01
Po
wer
dis
tan
cer#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
.0
.01
0.0
4.
0.0
10
.04
b(n
¼8
91
1)
Eff
ecti
ven
ess
Co
ntr
oll
ing
r#
0.0
01
Un
cert
ain
tyav
oid
ance
r#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
.0
.01
0.0
4.
0.0
10
.04
c(n
¼9
00
4)
Eff
ecti
ven
ess
Co
ntr
oll
ing
r#
0.0
01
Co
llec
tiv
ev
alu
esr#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
.0
.01
0.0
4.
0.0
10
.04
d(n
¼9
00
4)
Eff
ecti
ven
ess
Co
ntr
oll
ing
N/S
Per
form
ance
ori
ente
dv
alu
esr#
0.0
01
N/S
r#
0.0
01
.0
.01
0.0
4.
0.0
10
.04
No
te:
*N
um
ber
of
emp
loyee
sp
rov
idin
gd
ata
for
any
eval
uat
ion
sin
the
tab
leca
nb
eap
pro
xim
ated
by
mult
iply
ing
the
nu
mb
ero
fm
anag
ers
rep
rese
nte
din
this
colu
mn
(n)
tim
esth
eav
erag
eo
f3
.63
emplo
yee
s.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management 13
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ity],
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icha
rd H
offm
an]
at 0
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Aug
ust 2
011
skills. There appeared to be no significant difference at high and low levels, as
hypothesized, for the value across all levels of the skills (see lower left panel of Figure 2).
For Hypotheses H1d, interactive skills were more strongly related to job commitment
when humane values are higher, but again only at low to moderate levels of interactive
skills, partially supporting the sub-hypothesis. Examining Figure 3 for performance-
oriented values (H1e), we saw a similar pattern, wherein, higher levels of humane values
moderated the skills–commitment relationship only when managers exhibited low to
moderate levels of interactive skills. There was no cultural interaction for this value at
higher levels of interactive skills (see Figure 3, left panel.). Thus, H1e was partially
supported. H1f, regarding future-oriented values, was not supported. The cultural
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Low POV Moderate POV High POV Low FOV Moderate FOV High FOV
Lowinteractive
skills
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Lowinteractive
skills
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Figure 3. Interaction diagrams for Hypotheses 1e–f.Notes: POV, performance oriented values; FOV, future oriented values.
Com
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6
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Lowinteractive
skills
Low PD Low UAModerate PD Moderate UA High UA
Low HOV Moderate HOV High HOV
High PD
Low MV Moderate MV High MV
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Lowinteractive
skills
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Lowinteractive
skills
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Lowinteractive
skills
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Figure 2. Interaction diagrams for Hypotheses 1a–d.Notes: PD, power distance; UA, uncertainty avoidance, MV, masculinity values; HOV, humaneoriented values.
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interaction occurred at low–moderate skill levels of future values, the opposite of what
was predicted (see Figure 3, right panel.). Overall, only partial support was found for the
predicted interaction effects for three of the six sub-hypotheses concerning interactive
skills and job attitudes/commitment.
Hypothesis 2 focused on the relationship between controlling skills and job attitudes.
Again the results, displayed in Table 3, reveal that the main effects for both skills and
values were highly significant. Furthermore, the interactions with each value were all
highly significant at the 0.001 level suggesting some support for the overall hypothesis.
No support was found for Hypothesis H2a, as controlling skills were more strongly
related to job commitment at low to moderate (vs. high levels predicted) levels of power
distance at least when controlling skills were low to moderate. The pattern depicted in the
upper left panel of Figure 4 is contrary to the prediction. Mixed support was found for
sub-Hypothesis 2b as controlling skills were more strongly related to commitment at
moderate-high levels of uncertainty avoidance when skills were at low to moderate levels
(see Figure 4, upper right panel). Hypothesis 2c was not supported because controlling
skills appeared to be more strongly related to commitment at low-moderate rather than at
higher levels of individualistic values, contrary to the sub-hypothesis (Figure 4, lower left
panel). Finally, controlling skills were more strongly related to job commitment at
moderate–high levels of performance values at least when skill levels are low to
moderate, providing some support for sub-Hypothesis 2d (see Figure 4, lower right panel).
Overall, the results revealed partial support for Hypothesis 2 as the direction of the
interactions predicted were only suggested in half of the relationships hypothesized.
Furthermore, as in the first hypothesis, the cultural interactions were valid only when the
managers exhibited low to moderate levels of controlling skills; whereas, the cultural
interactions seemed to be negligible when managers were perceived to use higher levels of
controlling skills.
Com
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5.5
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4.5 Com
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5.5
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4.5
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Com
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6
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Low PD Moderate PD High PD Low UA Moderate UA High UA
Low POV Moderate POV High POVLow MV Moderate MV High MV
Lowcontrolling
skills
Moderatecontrolling
skills
Highcontrolling
skills
Lowcontrolling
skills
Moderatecontrolling
skills
Highcontrolling
skills
Lowcontrolling
skills
Moderatecontrolling
skills
Highcontrolling
skills
Lowcontrolling
skills
Moderatecontrolling
skills
Highcontrolling
skills
Figure 4. Interaction diagrams for Hypotheses 2a–d.Notes: PD, power distance; UA, uncertainty avoidance; IV, individualistic values; POV,performance oriented values.
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The results for the third hypothesis revealed significant main effects for interactive
skills and cultural values on workgroup effectiveness. However, only one of five interaction
terms were significant, suggesting little support for the hypothesis. The interaction term for
power distance was significant at the 0.05 level. However, as Figure 5 indicates, interactive
skills were more strongly related to effectiveness at moderate rather than low levels of
power distance, contrary to sub-Hypothesis 3a. Hypotheses 3b–e, concerning the separate
interaction of the four other values (uncertainty avoidance, individualism, humane, and
performance) with interactive skills and effectiveness, were not supported, as indicated by
the nonsignificant interaction terms in Table 3.
No support was found for the fourth hypothesis that examined the interaction effect of
cultural values on the relationship between controlling skills and workgroup effectiveness.
The main effects for both skills and values on effectiveness were found to be significant in
all cases except one. None of the interaction terms for the separate values (H4a–d) were
significant (see Table 3).
Overall, our results revealed that the variables examined are important predictors of
job commitment and workgroup effectiveness. Although as expected, management skills
have a direct effect on these two outcomes; the cultural values also appear to have
significant direct effects on job commitment and effectiveness. Finally, culture does
appear to moderate the relationship between skills and attitudes and effectiveness in 58%
of the equations examined although not always in the predicted direction. The moderating
effects are predominant for the skills–commitment relationship as opposed to the
skills–effectiveness relationship.
Discussion
While there is evidence that effective use of managerial skills does vary across cultures,
there is a paucity of evidence explaining the specific source(s) of that variance. An
important finding of this study was that the relationships among management skills,
cultural values, and outcomes such as job attitudes and workgroup effectiveness are more
complex than expected.
Perhaps the most significant finding regarding the interaction of cultural values on the
relationship between managerial skills and commitment/effectiveness was that using the
appropriate interactive and controlling skills mattered more to subordinate outcomes than
did cultural values. In nearly over half of the cases, the skills–outcome relationship was
truly affected by the level of cultural values. In all of these cases, cultural values enhanced
the outcomes primarily when managers exhibited lower levels of skills. At high level of
Com
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5.5
5
4.5
Low PD Moderate PD High PD
Lowinteractive
skills
Moderateinteractive
skills
Highinteractive
skills
Figure 5. Interaction diagrams for Hypothesis 3a.Notes: PD, power distance.
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skills, culture did not seem to matter much. In addition, cultural interactions appeared to be
more important when examining the managerial skills–attitude relationship than the
skills–effectiveness relationship. In the former case, all of the values investigated had
some interactive effect even if it was not in the hypothesized direction. In the
skills–effectiveness relationship, culture had an interactive effect in only one (of nine) of
the relationships examined. These results reveal a more complex relationship between
management practice and outcomes in a cross-cultural context. The overall findings
appear to be more in line with a variform functional view of the convergence/divergence
framework. Thus, culture’s moderating effect on the skills–effectiveness relationship
depends on the skill level of the manager. For some outcomes – workgroup effectiveness
– the results almost appear to follow the simple universal view that culture has little effect
on the relationship. For other outcomes – job attitudes – a divergent view (cultural
variations exist) is supported when managers exhibit low levels of managerial skills while
a convergent view (no cultural variation) is more evident when managers exhibit higher
skill levels.
The relatively modest moderating effect of culture on the skills–effectiveness
relationship may indicate that (1) certain cultures share similar values and, hence,
expectations (e.g. Lenartowicz and Johnson 2002) or (2) certain managerial skills are
universal as recent researchers (Javidan and Carl 2005; Javidan et al. 2006) have observed.
Being communicative and planning are cited as two universal skills in the latter study, and
these form part of the interactive skills examined in our study. If universal skills are
properly implemented, they may lead to desired outcomes in most cultures. Another factor
to be considered is that most managers (93%) were native to the culture in which they
worked so they were likely to possess values consistent with those of their subordinates.
Thus, there was little within country variance in values which may account for the modest
moderating effect of cultural values observed here.
Furthermore, although we were seeking interactions among managerial skills and
cultural values on outcomes, we also found that all of the cultural values examined had a
direct effect (albeit modest) on attitudes and effectiveness for both types of managerial
skills. These findings regarding the impact of specific cultural variables suggest that
cross-cultural research should move beyond examining culture using coarse-grained
categorical measures of culture and focus on specific cultural dimensions at least with
respect to management research.
Thus, it would be erroneous to conclude that culture does not matter. Its importance
depends on the particular level of managerial skill involved as well as the particular
outcome examined. In some of these cases, culture matters very much; in others not
so much.
Limitations
As with any study, there are some obvious limitations. First, we have not examined all the
skills that might be included in a model of management. The skills examined here do not
include some of the skills that have been described as transformational in nature
(Bass 1997). Yet, recent research has questioned whether the addition of those skills has
increased our understanding of management (Judge et al. 2004). Another limitation of this
study is that the primary statistical techniques used do not account for all possible
nonlinear relationships. At least one cross-cultural study has found complex curvilinear
relationships between managerial skills and managerial performance (Shipper 2004).
Third, the study is limited to the cultures examined. Although 50 cultures were examined
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in different aspects of this study, only one Arabic culture and no African cultures were
included.
In some cases, we observed that the cultural values did not show much variation
among certain values, which could have affected our findings regarding the interactions.
Finally, all of the managers in this study work for a single multinational company. Thus,
the influences of the selection, promotion practices, and organization’s culture on this
study cannot be determined. Furthermore, the multinational firm studied has an open and
egalitarian culture. Whether the results would be the same in a multi-firm study or a firm
with a more traditional culture cannot be answered without further research. Some studies
have found that corporate culture is not strong enough to mask results due to the inherent
cultural values of the locale (e.g. Hofstede 2001) while others have found the contrary to
be true for selected managerial practices (Gerhart and Fang 2005; Tellis, Prabhu and
Chandy 2009). In this study, this issue is somewhat mitigated by having studied these
relationships among managers and their subordinates within one multinational firm.
This study is limited, also, by its methodology. In the present study, only two-way
interactions were investigated because it is difficult to display and interpret three- and
four-way interactions (Morgan and Sonquist 1963). Thus, because of the exploratory
nature of this study, the researchers limited themselves to a two-way interactions.
Implications for management practice
Despite the limitations previously discussed, we can offer some suggestions for practice
emanating from this study. Managers who exhibit high levels of appropriate interactive
and controlling skills have less concern about adapting their management practices to the
values of the local culture. However, managers who exhibit lower level skills need to be
more aware of the cultural values of the locale in which they are working. Specifically, job
attitudes/commitments are enhanced for managers with weak interactive skills if they
exhibit values of lower power distance and higher humane and performance-oriented
values. Job attitudes will be enhanced for managers with weaker controlling skills if they
exhibit higher uncertainty avoidance and performance oriented values. Certainty may be
provided by managers who at least empathize with their subordinates’ need to avoid
uncertainty even if they cannot reduce uncertainty through effective use of controlling
skills. Managers can increase certainty by both acknowledging their subordinates’ need for
it and by rewarding and encouraging subordinate behaviors that may contribute to
reducing uncertainty. Understanding what the problem is often leads to a partial solution.
Managers seeking to improve workgroup effectiveness should also have high levels of
both interactive and controlling skills. Without having the requisite interactive skills,
workgroup effectiveness might be improved if managers exhibit moderate levels of power
distance. Cultural values appear to be of little use in making up for poor skills to enhance
workgroup effectiveness. It is important to note that values in and of themselves do have a
direct impact on both job attitudes and workgroup effectiveness. One might conclude that
having an environment with the appropriate cultural values may in and of itself help
enhance job attitudes and effectiveness and, therefore, assist the manager to achieve
greater outcomes from subordinates.
For managers assigned to other cultures and those assigned to develop such managers,
these findings provide additional support of past research that has questioned the notion
that, to do well, an expatriate must develop the dominant managerial skill profile of the
local culture (Hoffman and Shipper 2006; Shipper et al. 2007). Some researchers would
argue that the dominant managerial profile even within the US would not be a good one to
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emulate to do well (e.g. Hogan, Curphy and Hogan 1994; Shipper and Dillard 2000). In
contrast, one could argue from the findings of this study that managers must develop both
good interactive and controlling skills to be ‘effective’ in most cultures.
Implications for future research
Initially, our results indicate that we need to modify our model depicted in Figure 1 to
account for different levels of proficiency exhibited in a managerial skill as well as the
specific relationship of these skills to different types of outcomes: affects versus behaviors.
Future research will do well to examine specific dimensions of culture when studying the
efficacy of management practices across cultures. This might be in the form of using the
values in this study to examine the same or different sets of skills among other national
samples to either confirm or extend its findings. Furthermore, future research might
examine other values (e.g. Lenartowicz and Johnson 2002) or measures of culture to assess
these same skills and their impact on outcomes. Studies should incorporate different
outcome measures; the strong main effect of culture on different outcomes suggests that
outcomes vary with different levels of cultural values. Thus, future research might
investigate which outcomes appear to be more certain when certain cultural values are
prevalent.
Furthermore, future studies may want to consider other forms of analysis, such as
simultaneous equations modeling. In such a study, various managerial skills as well as
multiple cultural values and dependent variables could be considered concurrently.
Moreover, future research should also investigate the interaction of culture with other
aspects of the global context, such as the economic level of society as suggested by the
crossvergence school of thought. Studies incorporating some of these suggestions should
lead to a better understanding of the different ways culture and other variables may affect
the efficacy of managerial skills in different global settings. Such research could improve
the development of more globally-oriented leaders for multinational firms.
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