Charisma and Leadership

Charismaand

Leadership

by Bill J. McCarley

May 1986 (original writing)

PREFACE

In the past couple of years, I attended several workshops and found leaders who are inspirational and attracted people to them due to their unique traits. Marshall Thurber is intense and dedicated in his presentation. Tony Robbins inspired me to "Walk on Fire" with his extremely high energy and hypnotic language. Tom Crum is centered, balanced, and spiritual in his Aiki training. Each one is different and yet each possesses something special. Marshall Thurber also introduced me to Buckminster Fuller through writings, audio recordings, and video recordings. Bucky was also special and beloved by thousands of people. I am indebted to these master teachers for what I have learned from them.

I wanted to know more about what these people possessed and believed it was possible for me to develop more of that magnetic quality. Thus began my interest in the area of charisma. I wanted to be more charismatic, to determine how charismatic traits could be developed, and to teach other people to be more charismatic leaders.

I began working on myself using video and basic practice. Then I met Marci Lynne, a "singing and charisma" coach, and through work with her, I discovered several important exercises and concepts that allowed me to significantly change myself. I am greatly indebted to her.

I am also indebted to my wife Linda and our two daughters Shaela and Tamra. They have shown great patience with me as I experimented with new ideas and behaviors. They have also supported me tremendously during my work on this report.

Editorial Note: In preparing this report, it was necessary for me to make a decision about how to handle the usage of masculine or feminine pronouns. While most of the leaders in the world are men, I also recognize that many are women. The majority of the writers on this topic use masculine pronouns and for continuity, I chose to do the same. I hope that no one will be offended by my decision.

© Bill J. McCarley 1986, 2009 Page 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION2. CHARISMA CONCEPTS FROM THE PAST

THE WORKS OF WEBERThe Three Types of AuthorityThe Definition of CharismaThe Nature and Impact of CharismaThe Routinization of CharismaThe Issue of SuccessionCharismatic Education

THE INTERPRETATIONS OF WEBEREdward Shils

The Need for OrderSources of PowerDeference to Power

Martin SpencerThomas E. DowRobert C. TuckerCarl J. FriedrichJoseph Bensman and Michael GivantPsychoanalytical ViewsAnn Ruth Willner

Charismatic LeadershipIdentifying Charismatic LeadersContexts and CausesPersonal Qualities

SUMMARY3. POWER AND LEADERSHIP

POWER BASESLEADERSHIPCHARISMA, POWER, AND LEADERSHIP

4. LEADER'S TRAITS AND BEHAVIORSPERSONALITY TRAITSRELATIONSHIP PATTERNSACTIONS AND BEHAVIORSSUMMARY


5. DEVELOPMENT OF CHARISMA IN LEADERSHIPTAXONOMY OF SKILLS

Adaptive SkillsFunctional SkillsSummary

PATHS FOR DEVELOPMENTCharismatic Education ElementsCurrently Available Methodologies

BELIEFS AND ATTITUDESBIBLIOGRAPHY

VITA


CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION

Life on this planet seems tough all over. People are starving by the millions; countries are looking for ways to survive economically; some countries are spending countless billions on weapons which could completely destroy life; businesses are struggling to be successful; farmers are going broke trying to provide the most important man-produced products; people everywhere are trying to maintain some semblance of dignity in their lives while others concentrate on how to stop the government from taking their material possessions; and on and on and on.

It is easy to follow all these events because we are in the Information Age. You can read the newspapers and countless magazines and books. You can listen to the radio or watch the newscasts on television. You can listen to almost anyone and hear about the tragedies happening everywhere. It is clearly a time when the world situation impresses upon us the need for a new form of leadership which is effective and caring and which can be admired by the people who will need to follow the leaders.

In times like these, leaders need to prepare themselves to serve their society or businesses in new and innovative ways. All of us have experienced leaders who have a special gift for empowering people. The term "charisma" is frequently used to describe these leaders. The prominent German social scientist Max Weber set forth many of the concepts and ideas about charisma, charismatic leadership, and charismatic authority. In Economy_and_Society, Weber (1968) discusses the great power of charisma during times of suffering and conflict and compares it to the force of "reason."

In traditionalist periods, charisma is the great revolutionary force. The likewise revolutionary force of "reason" works from without: by altering the situations of life and hence its problems, finally in this way changing men's attitudes toward them; or it intellectualizes the individual. Charisma on the other hand, may effect a subjective or internal reorientation born out of suffering, conflicts, or enthusiasm. It may then result in a radical alteration of the central attitudes and directions of action with a completely new orientation of all attitudes toward the different problems of the "world." (p. 245)

This makes today's era a time of great opportunity for both social (political) and business leadership to make radical changes that can improve the plight of humankind.


One way to exploit this opportunity is through the exploration of the concept of charisma and how it relates to effective leadership. A foundation can be set for establishing programs for charisma development through discussion of the following important areas.

1. The background information on charisma that was primarily pioneered by Max Weber and expounded on by many others.

2. Information on power and leadership with keys to maximizing leadership success.

3. Key personality traits, relationship patterns, and actions that make effective charismatic leaders.

4. An effective framework for charismatic skills development.

This paper offers important ties of the sociological and political writings about charisma, charismatic leadership, and charismatic authority to the emerging need for truly effective, transformational leaders. It also establishes possible strategies for leaders to use in developing more charismatic qualities.

James MacGregor Burns' book Leadership and the book Leaders by Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus were especially influential in the development of the ideas in this paper. These authors hold an important perspective that is imperative for the success of life. In the prologue in Leadership, Burns (1978) states that effective leadership should be judged "by social change measured by intent and by the satisfaction of human needs and expectations" and "that leadership is nothing if not linked to collective purpose" (p. 3).

The purpose of leadership and the importance of charisma in leadership relates to the need for leaders to provide a vision for the future that raises the level of satisfaction and human dignity for all people and to work with their followers to achieve the vision while empowering all the people.

One person who was effectively directed along the path of serving all human life was R. Buckminster Fuller. At one point in his life, he vowed to devote his energy to serving humanity as a whole. He was dedicated to the elevation of all humans to never before realized levels of satisfaction and dignity. If the political and business leaders in the world today would follow his lead and take one medium-sized step in the direction of serving all of humanity, the impact on the world would be profound. Hopefully, the ideas presented in this paper will nudge and encourage managers and leaders to take a step toward enrolling themselves and others in a vision of increased world effectiveness.


CHAPTER 2CHARISMA CONCEPTS FROM THE PAST

The majority of the writings on charisma reference the works of Max Weber as translated from its original German. Many writers, including Shils (1965), Tucker (1968), Spencer (1973), Dow (1969), Friedrich (1961), Bensman and Givant (1975), Willner (1984), and others, have interpreted and analyzed Weber's works. In some areas there is agreement about his concepts while in others there is not.

THE WORKS OF WEBER

Max Weber was a German social scientist and did most of his work in the early 1900's. There have been several translations of Weber's works. The most complete English translation is that of Economy and Society by Roth and Wittich (1968). It is a major sociological work and includes Weber's theories about charisma, charismatic leadership, and charismatic authority. In his introduction to Economy and Society, Guenther Roth (1968) spoke highly of Weber's work.

This work is the sum of Max Weber's scholarly vision of society. It has become a constitutive part of the sociological imagination as it is understood today. Economy and Society was the first strictly empirical comparison of social structure and normative order in world-historical depth. (p. xxvii)

Weber's ideas on social action and sociological typology, on instrumental and substantive rationality, on formal and material justice, on bureaucracy and charisma, on religious beliefs and economic conduct, have been gradually assimilated by social scientists -- by way of accurate reception, imaginative adaptation and, not too infrequently, inventive misinterpretation. (p. xxvii)

Weber's theories and ideas about charisma fit into an overall framework embracing the evolution of societies. As such, it is important to examine how Weber fits charisma into other types of authority and how he defines the charisma phenomenon.

The Three Types of Authority

In organized societies, a structure exists which allows a group to function. There is usually a leader or group of leaders who have gained domination (authority) "by custom, by affectual ties, by a purely material complex of interests, or by ideal (wertrationale) motives. The quality of these motives largely determines the type of


domination" (Weber, 1968, p. 212-213). An examination of the ways that people are dominated leads to his three pure types of authority (legitimate domination).

There are three pure types of legitimate domination. The validity of the claims to legitimacy may be based on:

1. Rational grounds -- resting on the belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands (legal authority).

2. Traditional grounds -- resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them (traditional authority); or finally,

3. Charismatic grounds -- resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him (charismatic authority). (Weber, 1968, p. 215)

Legal authority relates to systems that have a hierarchical structure in which the higher levels are considered to be superior to each lower level. A set of rules, laws, and policies establishes the order. The success of this type of authority depends on the willingness of all the people to abide by the rules. Most world governments and businesses are set in this type of system.

In the case of traditional authority, legitimacy of power is claimed due to age-old rules and are based primarily on the personal loyalty generated through a common upbringing. Generally, obedience is due to maintaining tradition and not to establishing rules. There is more of a master/comrade or master/subject relationship between leaders and followers. This type of authority is associated with the earlier forms of tribal rule where the chief or king carried supreme authority.

Charismatic authority is based on the follower's perception that a leader is extraordinary in some way. The charismatic person's extraordinary nature inspires awe and devotion. Revolutions are often born from this type of authority.

In their pure form, these three types of authority provide a structural foundation for studying authority and leadership.

The Definition of Charisma

In Economy and Society, Weber (1968) defined charisma in the following way:


The term "charisma" will be applied to a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he is considered extraordinary and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are such as are not accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a "leader". (p. 241)

Referencing almost any dictionary will provide a definition that matches Weber's original definition. He goes on to qualify what type of people would fall under this definition:

...this particular kind of quality is thought of as resting on magical powers, whether of prophets, persons with a reputation for therapeutic wisdom, leaders in the hunt, or heroes in war. (p. 241)

In the remaining pages of Weber's chapter "Charismatic Authority and Charismatic Community" (p. 241-245), he discusses several ideas that have been interpreted by many to be additions to his initial definition. These ideas provide additional insight into what constitutes the validity of charisma and were best summed by Willner (1984) in her book The Spellbinders:

1. The charismatic leader may be inspired by a calling or mission and summon others to "obey and follow him by virtue of his mission";

2. Recognition by the followers or disciples comes about through a "proof" or "sign," originally "a miracle";

3. Recognition arises out of "enthusiasm" or out of "despair and hope" in times of distress;

4. Charismatic authority is exercised through a personal staff of the "charismatically elect" among the disciples rather than an administrative staff chosen and working in accordance with formal regulations and routine procedures;

5. The charismatic community lacks a judicial system of formal rules and precedents and adjudicates according to the revelation, inspiration, or will of the charismatic leader;

6. Charismatic authority rejects rational economic conduct in favor of support through gifts, "booty," and extortion;

7. The charismatic leader and followers live a communal emotionally close relationship, dissociated from routine occupations and normal family life;


8. For charisma to endure, the leader should continue to "prove" his powers or benefit his followers;

9. Charismatic authority tends to transform and reorient values in new directions and is in this sense revolutionary;

10.Charismatic authority is transitory and unstable, tending to become "routinized" or transformed into one or some combination of the other types of authority. (p. 202-203)

Many scholars, including Shils (1965), Tucker (1968), Dow (1969), Spencer (1973), Bensman and Givant (1975), and Willner (1984), have different opinions about whether these additional ideas form a total conceptual definition for charisma. Willner provides strong evidence that these additional ideas are not part of Weber's conceptual definition but simply add information about how he viewed the charisma phenomenon.

For the purpose of clarity, the following definitions are given for charisma, charismatic leadership, and charismatic authority.

For charisma, the original definition from Weber (1968) as previously quoted will be used; "The term "charisma" will be applied to a certain quality of an individual personality...(p. 241)." Charisma is therefore associated with the traits of the individual.

For charismatic leadership, the following definition offered by Willner (1984) is best:

Charismatic leadership can therefore be defined briefly as a relationship between a leader and a group of followers that has the following properties:

1. The leader is perceived as somehow superhuman by the followers.2. The followers blindly believe the leader's statements.3. The followers unconditionally comply with the leader's directives for action.4. The followers give the leader unqualified emotional commitment. (p. 8)

The key in this definition is that leadership is born out of the "relationship" that exists between the followers and the charismatic person.

Charismatic authority is a "system" level concept and exists when the majority of the people in a system follow a leader based primarily on the charisma of that individual. The leader has the power to completely change any previous basis for


authority and structure (Willner, 1984). The leader's will becomes the "will of the people" and the direction for the system.

In Weber's writings, it was charismatic authority and the charisma phenomenon with which he was primarily concerned. Unfortunately, these terms have been frequently interchanged creating much of the confusion about what Weber meant.

Use of the single word "charisma" in place of the term "the charisma phenomenon" creates additional confusion. The charisma phenomenon can be summarized in the following way:

1. An individual will demonstrate extraordinary traits and be driven by a calling or mission. (charisma)

2. Through some proving process, the charismatic person will begin to develop a group of followers who will continue to follow him as long as he continues to prove his right to lead. (charismatic leadership)

3. The followers, due to their perceptions of his greatness, will be "filled with awe and adoration" and will follow unconditionally.

4. When enough people begin to follow the leader, the entire system is converted to a charismatic authority based system. The system becomes whatever the charismatic leader wills it to be. A revolution has taken place. (charismatic authority)

5. As described by Weber (1968), an additional step beyond the revolution takes place in the form of "the routinization of charisma" (p. 1121)

The Nature and Impact of Charisma

In this century, there have been many leaders who have been classified as charismatic. Some, like Franklin Roosevelt and John Kennedy, served as heads of government and used a legitimate authority base with additional powers from charismatic leadership. Others, like Ghandi and Castro, followed the charisma process of first being a person of charisma, then developing a following, then leading a revolution until a majority of the people were following the leader thereby establishing charismatic-authority, and finally moving into Weber's concept of routinization of charisma. These men and others like them were perceived more-or-less as being "good." There were others, though, who were clearly regarded in history as being "bad." The names of Hitler and Mussolini register in most people's minds as charismatic and "evil." On a smaller scale, James Jones is recognized as the charismatic "religious" leader who commanded his followers to kill their children and kill themselves.


Many lives were saved and many lives were taken based on the will of these leaders and others like them. The question of whether the nature of charisma is "good" or "evil" frequently comes to mind. Weber (1968) clearly states: "The term "charisma" in this context must be used in a completely value-free sense" (p. 1112). Like many of the tools of man that can be used for good or evil based on the will of the user, charisma too can be used for good or for evil by the possessor. However, this does not make charisma itself good or evil.

Charismatic leaders display a determination in fulfilling their dream or mission. They frequently appear to be driven by a force not necessarily within themselves. This force convinces the leader of his "right" to lead. As Weber (1968) states:

Charisma is self-determined and sets its own limits. Its bearer seizes the task for which he is destined and demands that others obey and follow by virtue of his mission. If those to whom he feels sent do not recognize him, his claim collapses; if they recognize it, he is their master as long as he "proves" himself. However, he does not derive his election; rather, it is their duty to recognize his charisma. (p. 1113)

In this passage, Weber brings out another factor of charismatic leadership and authority. The leader must prove him/herself as deserving his right to lead. Weber (1968) made several additional statements about this requirement:

…for pure charisma does not recognize any legitimacy other than one which flows from personal strength proven time and again. ... He gains and retains it solely by proving his powers in practice. He must work miracles, if he wants to be a prophet. He must perform heroic deeds, if he wants to be a warlord. ... the genuinely charismatic ruler, who is responsible to the ruled - responsible, that is, to prove that he himself is indeed the master willed by God. (p. 1114)

Since the leader must constantly prove him/herself, charismatic leadership and authority is inherently unstable.

As long as the charismatic person proves himself, the followers recognize his right to rule. They are in awe of his "supernatural" power and devote themselves to him personally. In these circumstances, they follow unconditionally and adopt the will of the leader as the way of order. As a result, the leader possesses the power to completely modify any previous way of life as the followers adopt his will and values as their own.


...The power of charisma rests upon the belief in revelation and heroes, upon the conviction that certain manifestations -- whether they be of religious, ethical, artistic, scientific, political or other kind -- are important and valuable; it rests upon "heroism" of an ascetic, military, judicial, magical or whichever kind. Charismatic belief revolutionizes men "from within" and shapes material and social conditions according to its revolutionary will. (Weber, 1968, p. 1116)

By its nature, the charisma phenomenon is highly revolutionary. The history and the direction of the world as we know it has been radically changed many times by the influence of the revolutionary, charismatic leader.

The Routinization of Charisma

As stated previously, the charisma phenomenon creates a system that is basically unstable because it tends to ignore more traditional forms of organization, especially economically. Typically, there is a need for making the system more stable. Weber (1968) states:

Thus the pure type of charismatic rulership is in a very specific sense unstable, and all its modifications have basically one and the same cause: The desire to transform charisma and charismatic blessing from a unique, transitory gift of grace of extraordinary time and persons into a permanent possession of everyday life. This is desired usually by the master, always by the disciples, and most of all by his charismatic subjects. Inevitably, however, this changes the nature of the charismatic structure. (p. 1121)

There is a high motivation within the disciples and followers to create stability in everyday life. They want to continue living under the "ideal" association with the movement and want to stabilize their material positions. Two clear cases of charismatic movements that led to more stable forms of rule were the revolutions led by Ghandi in India and Castro in Cuba.

The Issue of Succession

Another part of the theory associated with "the routinization of charisma" is the need for rules of succession. If the new system is going to continue, some method of establishing succession must be generated.

For charismatic leadership, too, if it wants to transform itself into a perennial institution, the first basic problem is that of finding a successor to the prophet,


hero, teacher or party leader. This problem inescapably channels charisma into the direction of legal regulation and tradition. (Weber, 1968, p. 1123)

This issue must be addressed because no person lives forever. Weber's theories were generated by his review of history, and he identified some of the ways in which succession was handled.

First, the leader himself could designate his successor. The people would be particularly receptive to this method since they follow the leader unconditionally. The leader would surely know who was best qualified.

If this does not happen, then the inner circle of disciples could appoint the next leader. In this case, their choice should be well received since they were appointed by the charismatic leader himself and were his closest confidants. Even today this method is used to elect a new pope. A congress of cardinals is called and that body of individuals is responsible for choosing the new church ruler. They are all considered touched by God therefore their decision must be God's will.

Using the inner circle as an electorate sets a beginning precedent for a new recognition of charisma. Over time and evolution, a trend toward majority election can take place. This dilutes the original concept of pure charisma and it becomes depersonalized.

Through the "depersonalization of charisma" other forms of succession occur. "The most frequent case of depersonalization of charisma is the belief in its transferability through blood ties" (Weber, 1968, p. 1136). A belief in transferability was very acceptable at one time. Obviously, if the original charismatic leader is "gifted" then surely his offspring would also be "gifted." The successor in this case may not have any of the traits that made the charismatic leader what he was. However, charisma was bestowed through birth. Clearly at this point, the charisma was no longer associated with the person but with lineage. Recent network coverage of the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales to the United States provides a current example of this phenomenon. Everywhere they went, people "in awe and adoration" came to see them. This popularity and the interest of the public actually has very little to do with Charles and Diana as individuals.

Through another evolutionary process of depersonalization, the office of the ruler is considered charismatic. Weber (1968) referred to this as "office charisma" (p. 1139). In this case, the lineage of charisma is through the office itself. Whoever holds the office is in a state of grace.


...an institution: as permanent structures and traditions replace the belief in the revelation and heroism of charismatic personalities, charisma become part of an established social structure. (p. 1139)

The charisma of office -- the belief in the specific state of grace of a social institution -- is by no means limited to the churches and even less to primitive conditions. Under modern conditions, too, it finds politically relevant expression in the attitudes of the subjects to the state. (p. 1140)

An example of this can be seen in the United States and other countries. The holders of the office of President and many of the important positions in government are viewed by the people as being powerful, gifted people or they would not have ascended to the position of power. This is also true in many large corporations. People within the organizations are frequently "in awe" of the top executives.

Charismatic Education

In another process of becoming the successor, the new leader may have undergone trials of some type to prove that he was indeed the appropriate new leader. Frequently, some form of specialized training was used to groom the novice for leadership. This constitutes a new and important form of transmission of charisma. Weber (1968) states:

Once charismatic qualification has become an impersonal quality, which can be transmitted through various and at first purely magic means, it has begun its transformation from a personal gift that can be tested and proven but not transmitted and acquired, into a capacity that, in principle, can be taught and learned. (p. 1143)

Weber makes several key points about the nature of charismatic education in the following statements:

...since heroic and magical capacities are regarded as inborn; only if they are latent can they be activated through a regeneration of the whole personality. Therefore, the real purpose of charismatic education is regeneration, hence the development of the charismatic quality... (p. 1143)

However, genuine charismatic education is the radical opposite of specialized professional training as it is espoused by bureaucracy. (p. 1144)


He who does not pass the heroic trials of the warrior's training remains a "woman", just as he who cannot be awakened to the supernatural remains a "layman." (p. 1144)

The training of the priest, rainmaker, medicine man, shaman, dervish, monk, sacred singer and dancer, scribe and jurist as well as the training of the knight and warrior assumes many forms, but remains ultimately similar. Different is merely the relative impact of the various educational groups. (p. 1144)

Charismatic education can be defined as a process of "regeneration of the whole personality" through "radical" training methods designed so that the individual can be "awakened to the supernatural."

THE INTERPRETATIONS OF WEBER

Several writers have reviewed, interpreted, and modified Weber's theories and ideas. All basically use Weber's work as a starting point of agreement or departure. In this section, several different views on the topic of charisma are presented. While some appear similar, each offers different distinctions about the various aspects of charisma, charismatic leadership, charismatic authority, and the charisma phenomenon. Each writer's views are presented separately so that the reader can better sense the differences and can form his own opinion about this topic.

Edward Shils

In his paper "Charisma, Order, and Status", Edward Shils (1965) gives an indication of his direction in an introductory paragraph.

In trying to analyze charismatic authority more systematically than Weber was able to do, I have concluded that he was dealing with one particular variant of the charismatic propensity, which has more far-reaching, more permeative manifestations than his analysis hitherto led us to believe. (p. 199)

His aim as stated by himself was "to see the charismatic phenomenon in a more comprehensive perspective" (p. 200). His focus was more on secularized societies as a whole.

Early in the paper, he redefined charisma to be "awe-arousing centrality."


The charismatic quality of an individual as perceived by others, or himself, lies in what is thought to be his connection with (including possession by or embodiment of) some very central feature of man's existence and the cosmos in which he lives. The centrality, coupled with intensity, makes it extraordinary. ... That central power has often, in the case of man's existence, been conceived of as God, the ruling power or creator of the universe, or some divine or other transcendent power controlling or markedly influencing human life and the cosmos within which it exists. The central power might be a fundamental principle or principles, a law or laws governing the universe, the underlying and driving force of the universe. (p. 201)

This passage forms the foundation for Shils' belief that there is some central power within Universe that is connected to all human life. As such, all human beings have the capacity to be charismatic. However, most human beings never attain a high enough level of intensity of contact with this central power to become charismatic.

He does imply that a person, through certain actions, can increase the intensity of connectiveness and therefore become charismatic.

The person who through sensitivity, cultivated or disciplined by practice and experience, by rationally controlled observation and analysis, by intuitive penetration, or by artistic disclosure, reaches or is believed to have attained contact with that "vital layer" of reality is, by virtue of that contact, a charismatic person. (p. 201)

This passage from Shils provides further direction for potential methods for development of charisma.

In the remaining sections of the paper, Shils shifts his emphasis to the follower. The questions that he seems to be answering are: What makes people follow? How is it related to the centrality and intensity definition of charisma? How are institutions charismatic? His key concepts for dealing with these questions are associated with the people's need for order, with the sources of power, and with the people's deference to power.

The Need for Order

For Shils, there is a fundamental human need for order. People need things to fit into some pattern that is predictable. Weber talks about this concept in one of the later stages of a charismatic movement that ultimately leads to routinization. Shils implies


that the need for order drives the people to follow the charismatic person in the first place. The charismatic leader's vision usually provides an order that is desirable by the populace. Shils states that: "The need for order and the fascination of disorder persist, and the charismatic propensity is a function of the need for order" (p. 203). The great need for order provides a foundation for power to exist.

Sources of Power

Shils ties the role of power to his definition of charisma and to the need for order when he states:

Great power announces itself by its power over order; it discovers order, creates order, maintains it, or destroys it. Power is indeed the central, order-related event. (p. 205)

The disposition to attribute charisma is intimately related to the need for order. The attribution of charismatic qualities occurs in the presence of order-creating, order-disclosing, order-discovering power as such; it is a response to great ordering power. (p. 204)

With power so central to the concept of charisma, Shils recognizes the attribution of charisma to organizations as well as to individuals. This ties somewhat to the general concept of Weber's "institutional charisma" or "charisma of office." Shils states, "corporate bodies -- secular, economic, governmental, military, and political -- come to possess charismatic qualities simply by virtue of the tremendous power concentrated in them" (p. 207). Using this frame of reference, any entity, whether human or not, which possesses great power will have charismatic qualities attributed to it. This is evident in people's tendency towards deference when they are in awe of powerful people and organizations.

Deference to Power

People willingly defer to sources of power that they hold in high esteem. It is here that Shils makes the distinction between coercive power and charismatic power. People or organizations that force their own ideas about order on the people do not satisfy the need-for-order of the people and are perceived as coercive. If power is used to satisfy the people's need-for-order, then the people willingly defer to the source of power and it is attributed with charismatic qualities. This is also true with power for which people are in awe.


The properties that appear to be relevant to the assessment of the deference-worthiness of a role or an action are wealth, income, occupation, the power to order by command, prohibition and control over resources, style of life, standard of living, education, primordial connections, including kinship, with persons possessing these properties, and the power to protect or benefit the community or life itself. (p. 209)

Shils also makes a key distinction about the importance and scope of personal qualities and their association with charisma through deference.

Personal and organismic qualities such as humor, generosity, gentleness, physical strength, and beauty are significant in the distribution of deference in face-to-face relationships, but they are not taken into account when the "objectively existent" status system, the "serious" status system, is regarded. They are regarded as irrelevant, and given man's charismatic propensity, they are irrelevant because they are not closely involved in the charismatic order. They have scarcely any connection with the ultimate determinants of cosmic order or the ultimate grounds of power and justice.

Here it is clear that Shils' ideas about charisma are limited to macro level discussions. At the individual personality level, there is no room for ideas or statements about charisma.

Martin E. Spencer

In his article, "What is Charisma?", Spencer (1973) discusses charisma in classic Weberian terms and in the more popular sense associated with personality traits in leaders. He is concerned with answering two basic questions: "What is charisma?" and "what makes the charismatic leader charismatic?" (p. 342).

In his analysis of what charisma is, Spencer simply describes supernatural charisma and secular charisma. In both cases, his central concept is that the essence of charisma is an "attitude of awe" (p. 342). In differentiating supernatural from secular, he defines supernatural charisma as "an attitude of awe directed at persons or objects and conceptualized as a magical essence or divine gift that can be acquired, lost objectivated, and transferred." (p. 344). He uses Shils' concepts "in seeing the source of secular charisma in the manifestations of power and order" (p. 345).

Spencer states that, "The secular charismatic leader, in becoming a leader exhibits mastery or representation, or both" (p. 345). Two distinctive and independent


dimensions of charisma are established in the ability to create order through mastery and the ability to create satisfying order through representation. "In the case of mastery the sentiments of the followers towards the leader are characterized by awe: in representation these sentiments run in the direction of enthusiasm." (p. 347). Simply stated, a leader is considered charismatic if he exhibits mastery that creates order and generates an attitude of awe or if he exhibits representation that creates satisfying order and generates enthusiasm. The amount of charisma attributed to the leader would increase substantially if the leader exhibited both mastery and representation.

In answer to the debate about whether charisma should be viewed as a psychological phenomenon or as a sociological phenomenon and whether or not a leader is charismatic, Spencer makes these closing statements in his summary.

Charisma was therefore regarded as neither psychological nor sociological; neither the property of a person nor of a situation. Personal skills and the situational tensions might facilitate the development of charisma but the charisma itself is an affectual relationship between leader and followers developing as the historical product of the interaction between person and situation. The answer to the oft-repeated question: 'How shall we recognize when a leader is charismatic?', is therefore simply: Find the leader towards whom these sentiments (awe and enthusiasm) are directed. (p. 352)

Thomas E. Dow

Dow (1969) focuses on the charismatic phenomenon as an independent form of authority that can be theoretically and empirically isolated. The phenomenon is seen as a relationship between the leader and the follower that is primarily based on the leader's qualities and vision. He states:

Basically, it involves a distinct social relationship between leader and follower, in which the leader presents a revolutionary idea, a transcendent image or ideal which goes beyond the immediate, the proximate, or the reasonable; while the follower accepts this course of action not because of its rational likelihood of success -- such a rational premise is in all instances missing -- but because of an affective belief in the extraordinary qualities of the leader. ( p. 315)

The charismatic phenomenon is considered to be possible not only in the past but also in the present and the future. It can exist in small group dynamics as well as in the larger more complex sociological context.


Robert C. Tucker

Tucker (1968) imposes several key limits in his discussions of true charisma. He states that "To speak of charismatic leaders, then, is to speak of charismatic movements; the two phenomena are inseparable" (p. 738). His first key restriction is that a movement for change is required for the leader to be called charismatic. A movement can become charismatic in either of two ways. First, the leader himself can express a vision which evokes a following, therefore, beginning a movement. Second, a group of people who begin a movement that becomes charismatic when a leader joins the cause and begins to direct it.

Another key component for the charismatic phenomenon is the necessity for the presence of a distressful situation. Tucker states:

The first determinant of charismatic response is situational; the state of acute distress predisposes people to perceive as extraordinarily qualified and to follow with enthusiastic loyalty a leadership offering salvation from distress. (p. 743)

Charismatic leadership is specifically salvationist or messianic in nature. Herein lies its distinctiveness in relation to such broader and more nebulous categories as "inspired leadership" or "heroic leadership." (p. 743)

Without the distress component that solicits a savior, the leader cannot be called charismatic.

Finally, Tucker addresses the extraordinary qualities that a leader who is charismatic possesses. These are "a peculiar sense of mission," "a bouyant confidence in the rightness and goodness of the aims that he proclaims," and "a stubborn self-confidence and faith in the movement's prospects of victory and success" (p. 749).

He summarizes his basic beliefs when he states that leaders "offer to followers and potential followers not simply and solely their extraordinary selves as instruments of leadership, but also a formula or set of formulas for salvation" (p. 751).

Carl J. Friedrich

Friedrich (1961) wrote an article entitled "Political Leadership and Charismatic Power" in which he was very critical of Weber's typology.


Friedrich discusses the relationship of leadership to power and rule. He states:

Before the typology of leadership can be usefully discussed, power must be related to rule, and thus a basis constructed for clarifying the difference between leadership and rulership, between power and rule. (p. 9)

To understand his criticism of Weber, it is important to understand his definitions. He generally comes from the frame of reference of the followers. This is evident in his statement that "Power, it would seem, is that relation among men that manifests itself in the behavior of the following" (p. 5). He states that "power is to some extent a possession p(1), and to some extent a relation p(2)" (p. 5). Basically, leaders possess power when their relationship with a group of followers is such that the followers do what the leaders tell them to do. They may follow through coercion or consent. He defines rule as being "institutionalized political power" (p. 9), and government as being "the institutionalized pattern of rule" (p. 10).

Friedrich goes into more detail by identifying three primary roles of leadership as being "initiating, maintaining, and protecting leadership to which correspond characteristic behaviors of the followership: imitating, obeying, and acclaiming" (p. 21). He makes several statements to clarify these roles.

The initiator or innovator...strikes out along novel lines of political action that "inspire" those following him into imitating his action, associating themselves with him. (p. 21)

Maintaining leadership upholds the established order of things...This kind of leadership is more specifically based on "authority" (p. 21)

Protecting leadership provides security...Protecting leadership elicits acclaim in the following who willing grant, as a result of their delight at being protected (p. 21)

Friedrich makes several statements that clearly show his criticism of Weber and his ideas.

First, the typology confuses the phenomenon of power and leadership with those of rule and rulership, to use our terms. Second, the introduction of the concepts of authority and legitimacy as Weber understands them, tends to exaggerate the psychological aspect of systems of rule or patterns of government. (p. 12)


Weber himself is forced by the weight of empirical evidence and the implications of the concept of charisma to try to escape from numerous confusions to which his typology gives rise by eventually introducing the notion of "routinized" charisma that is an involved way of speaking of stabilized charismatic power. (p. 13)

...routine and charisma are contradictory terms...Weber was plunged into these confusions by his pre-occupation with rule, rather than leadership, -- having not clearly differentiated the two, -- and they have continued to plague analysis in the field. (p. 22)

Weber was inclined to substitute a crude kind of social psychologizing for a study of the political phenomenon to which he addressed himself. (p. 16)

On the basis of empirical evidence I assert that there is a decisive difference between different kinds of inspirational leadership either an ideological or a demagogic type. Thus, Weber's typology is basically unsound and should be discarded. (p. 16)

Friedrich's final position on charisma is that it can only be associated with religion and religious movements.

As far as charismatic leadership and power are concerned, their grounding in a faith in God or gods makes them an important category with broad application in the history of rulership and government, especially in early times. Such charismatic power is a kind of power which originates in the belief, shared by leaders and followers, that the leader is invested with the divine favor or grace and therefore presupposes a religious conviction that there exist a divine being which can dispense such favor or grace. (p. 16-17)

Charismatic leadership has its psychological dimension of inspiring confidence, and it has this side in common with many other kinds of leadership. But it is distinguished from them by its close tie to religion. (p. 19)

Joseph Bensman and Michael Givant

In their article, "Charisma and Modernity: The Use and Abuse of a Concept", Bensman and Givant (1975) describe their reasons for believing that a "vulgarization of the term charisma" (p. 570) has taken place. This has happened because "From


time to time a relatively esoteric academic field and/or its concepts becomes highly popular among lay audiences, and its vocabulary enters the common language." (p. 570).

The primary focus is placed on the premise that the term charisma can only be used when associated with supernatural powers or a divine gift of grace. As such, there is no room for rational planning of image or projection of image or vision. They imply that true charisma is a thing of the past due to the advent and use of mass communication technology. They make this clear in their statement that "a central characteristic of all these techniques is that they are planned and thus represent formal rationality." (p. 606). Since they represent formal rationality, they cannot be charismatic.

Another premise put forth is that "the concept of genuine charisma, as used by Weber, referred to actual personal relationships between a leader and his Followers." (p. 603). They go on to state:

The mass media substitute symbolic social relationships for actual ones. To the extent that the evocation of charisma is the result of rational calculation, and that planning may create the image of warm, sincere, emotional or "genuine" personality, it violates the original criterion that charisma is irrational or nonrational. (p. 603-604)

They suggest that all these issues can be resolved by establishing a new term for modern charisma so that it does not contaminate the genuine charisma. The new word would be pseudocharisma.

Pseudocharisma simply means the employment of the means, the imagery, the appearance of charismatic leadership as a rational device by which rationally calculated leadership groups attempt to achieve or maintain power. (p. 612).

Psychoanalytical Views

Several authors, including McIntoch (1970), Schiffer (1973), and Hummel (1975), examine Weber's concepts from the point of view of Freudian psychoanalytic theory. All come from the follower's frame of reference and discuss the concept of projection.

Schiffer believes that the leader is a creation of the people through the process of projection of self onto the leader. He defines projection as being "a psychic process in


which the individual perceives his own psychological machinations as originating from outside himself." (p. 15).

McIntoch makes a similar point when he designates charisma as being "the force of the externalized unconscious, that is, unconscious tendencies which slip into awareness in the guise of an external force." (p. 902). He goes on to state the importance of such a force. "In the social and political realm, there is no power to match that of the leader who is able to evoke and harness the unconscious resources of his followers" (p. 903).

Hummel states, "Freudian analysis establishes charisma as a special type of love relationship" (p. 759). He examines the followers of three cases: pre-Exile Judaic prophets, Jesus, and Hitler. He concludes with a psychologically based definition of charisma:

Charisma is an authority relationship initiated by at least one individual (potential follower) who suffers object loss, agonizes in mourning and eventually melancholia, and resolves his suffering and agony by subconsciously projecting his own love onto another individual (potential leader) from whom he then perceives his own love returning in the form of an uncanny attraction. (p. 769)

Ann Ruth Willner

Ann Ruth Willner (1984), in her book The Spellbinders, presents the most coherent, well-rounded approach to charisma. She uses Weber's theories as her primary foundation and builds on them effectively. She defines the concept of charismatic leadership, discusses how to identify charismatic leaders, analyzes the context that causes charismatic leadership, describes personal qualities which generate the awe and adoration of followers, and outlines some of the political strategies which aid charisma.

Charismatic Leadership

Charismatic leadership as a subtype of leadership differs from general leadership within four dimensions associated with the followers' responses. First, in the "leader-image" dimension, "followers believe their leader to have superhuman qualities or to possess to an extraordinary degree the qualities highly esteemed in their culture" (p. 6). Second, in the "idea-acceptance" dimension, "followers believe statements made and ideas advanced by their leader simply because it is he who has made the statement


or advanced the idea" (p. 6). Third, in the "compliance" dimension, "followers abdicate choice and judgment to the leader" (p. 7). Finally, in the "emotional" dimension, "followers respond to their leader with devotion, awe, reverence, and blind faith, in short, with emotions close to religious worship" (p. 7).

Identifying Charismatic Leaders

By using the primary four dimensions in the definition of charismatic leadership, three distinct categories can be established for recognizing charismatic leaders.

The first, referring to what I have called the "leader-image" dimension, consists of beliefs that identify the leader with realms beyond human...(p. 19)

The second category of indicator denotes unconditional acceptance of the personal authority of the leader... relates to the "idea-acceptance" dimension and ...refers to the "compliance" dimension...(p. 19)

The third category includes all those indicators denoting complete emotional commitment to the leader and, by extension, to his vision or to the order he has created. (p. 19)

Through examination of evidence, any leader who fulfills all the dimensions in these three categories is considered charismatic. In her book, seven cases were discussed to support her ideas: "Castro, Ghandi, Hitler, Mussolini, Roosevelt, and Sukarno. The seventh and most recent case is that of Khomeini" (p. 33). Her list of probable charismatics include "Ataturk, Lenin, Mao, Magsaysay, Nasser, Nkrumah, Peron, Toure, and U Nu" (p. 34). In her list of marginals (quasi-charismatics) or misnomers she includes Nehru, Mao, Lenin, John F. Kennedy, DeGaulle, Nasser, McCarthy, McGovern, and Churchill.

Contexts and Causes

Generally, there has been a relative consensus about the situational elements required to generate the charisma phenomenon. The formula is "represented as: crisis distress leader + doctrine charisma" (p. 51). This does not allow for the situation in which the leader himself is responsible for beginning the process. The formula is then altered to be "leader + doctrine crisis distress leader + doctrine charisma" (p. 52). Analysis of several situations lead to the following:


It appears, therefore, that the conventional formula falls short of adequately explaining the generation of political charisma. Crisis may be highly conducive to it but is neither necessary nor a sufficient cause. Psychological propensities in people that disorient them or render them otherwise susceptible to a felt need for a strong leader are also conducive factors but may not be necessary and are not sufficient. An impressive doctrine, message, or mission may be most conducive but is similarly neither necessary nor sufficient to catalyze charisma. (p. 59-60)

If the doctrine, crisis, and distress are eliminated from the formula then only the leader element remains.

It therefore seems that the prime precipitant of political charisma must be the element of the leader himself or of his leadership. Some attributes or actions of the leader, some combination of attributes and actions, and/or some mode of presenting these to the public serve to catalyze charismatic perceptions. (p. 60)

Through an analysis of the seven identified charismatic political leaders, Willner establishes four catalytic factors that were common to all of them.

The first factor is the assimilation of a leader to one or more of the dominant myths of his society and culture. The second is the performance of what appears to be an extraordinary or heroic feat. The third is the projection of the possession of qualities with an uncanny or a powerful aura. Finally, there is outstanding rhetorical ability. (p. 61)

Personal Qualities

Several personal attributes can be identified which help generate awe and adoration. These include "an extraordinary amount of determination" (p. 140), "perceptions of extraordinary energy or vitality" (p. 141), "composure or presence of mind carried to the extreme" especially "under conditions of stress, challenge, or danger, where most men would be expected to be thrown off balance" (p. 142), "intellect or learning" (p. 144), "extreme confidence linked to determination or will in the face of seemingly impossible obstacles or the self-confidence linked to the conviction that one is destiny's child chosen to accomplish what others perceive as an impossible mission" (p. 146), "eyes of a certain quality" (p. 149), and "rhetorical eloquence" (p. 151).

Additional keys to the use of rhetoric are given in terms of style of speech. This includes "the use of figurative language, such as simile and metaphor" (p. 152) in such


ways as to "verbally tap selected cultural symbols and elicit the emotions aroused by them" (p. 152), "the level of language used" (p. 152), and "rhetorical devices related to sound, such as rhythm, repetition, alliteration, and balance" (p. 152).

SUMMARY

Clearly there are diverse opinions about charisma and the charisma phenomenon. After all, people's minds are complex structures. When relationships between people begin to develop, the level of complexity increases significantly. No one person can hope to completely explain what happens when a group of people become so filled with awe and adoration that they will do anything that they are told to do by a leader. How can anyone explain the type of human behavior that caused parents to poison their children and themselves at the command of James Jones or Hitler's incredible genocide of the Jews during World War II?

In his work, Weber was trying to explain the charisma phenomenon based on his view of historical incidents. It seemed that by doing so he might be able to help humankind further itself. Some of the other authors in this field write as if they understand and know it all while others use a more subdued approach. Just maybe each of them is correct in their ideas and that collectively an even better understanding of charisma can be obtained.

There were three distinct approaches in the writings. First, there is the frame of reference that charisma surfaced based on the situation. Second is the concept that the followers were responsible for the charisma phenomenon. Finally, there is the opinion

that the leader was the source of charisma and responsible for the movement. All three seem to be necessary for truly impactful charismatic changes. If the situation

had been satisfying for everyone, the followers and the leader would not be motivated to change. If the populace in general had stronger personal attributes, they would be less likely to look for a leader who was perceived as being above them. If the issues

of situation and followers did not exist, there would be only leaders.


CHAPTER 3POWER AND LEADERSHIP

The literature on charisma has been based on social and political movements and researchers have used sociology and psychology as the primary disciplines with which to explore charisma. The areas of leadership and power have developed an important relationship with the business world. There seems to be little tie between the study of charisma and the study of power and leadership in the business context. This chapter will briefly discuss the concepts of power and leadership as applied in business and will emphasize ways in which charisma can be integrated into the business arena.

POWER BASES

The words power, influence, and authority have frequently become interchangeable. In Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, one of the meanings for power is "the ability to control others; authority; sway; influence" (p. 1116). The result may be that clear distinctions no longer exist between the concepts and the words. R. Buckminster Fuller (1981) referred to the word as being "the first industrial tool" and as such its advent "greatly expedited the development of humanity's information on how to cope with life's challenges" (p. 240).

Distinctions must be made between the words power, influence, and authority. Power is the ability to control others. This control can be based negatively or positively. Influence is the ability to affect others. The key distinction between these two ideas is that with influence there is still an element of choice involved while with power there is no perceived choice. Authority is the formalization of power.

In work done by French and Raven (1959), Raven and Kruglanski (1975), Hersey, Blanchard, and Natemeyer (1979), several bases of power have been identified.

COERCIVE POWER is based on fear. A leader high in coercive power is seen as inducing compliance because failure to comply will lead to punishment such as undesirable work assignments, reprimands or dismissal.

CONNECTION POWER is based on the leader's "connections" with influential or important persons inside or outside the organization. A leader high in connection power induces compliance from others because they aim at gaining the favor or avoiding the disfavor of the powerful connection.


EXPERT POWER is based on the leader's possession of expertise, skill, and knowledge, which, through respect, influence others. A leader high in expert power is seen as possessing the expertise to facilitate the work behavior of others. This respect leads to compliance with the leader's wishes.

INFORMATION POWER is based on the leader's possession of or access to information that is perceived as valuable to others. This power base influences others because they need this information or want to be "in on things."

LEGITIMATE POWER is based on the position held by the leader. Normally, the higher the position, the higher the legitimate power tends to be. A leader high in legitimate power induces compliance or influences others because they feel that this person has the right, by virtue of position in the organization, to expect that suggestions will be followed.

REFERENT POWER is based on the leader's personality traits. A leader high in referent power is generally liked and admired by others because of personality. This liking for, admiration for, and identification with the leader influences others.

REWARD POWER is based in the leader's ability to provide rewards for other people. They believe that their compliance will lead to gaining positive incentives such as pay, promotion, or recognition. (p. 1)

In the original work by French and Raven (1959), an additional source was discussed. It was REPRESENTATIVE POWER that was described as being "based on followers democratically delegating power to the leader for the purpose of representing their interests and making decisions on their behalf" (p. 137). The later adaptation appears to have included this source within its legitimate power source.

Some of these sources of power are based more in the concept of influence while others are more related to power. Coercive, legitimate, and reward power are more aligned with the ability to control while connection, expert, information, and referent are more affective.

LEADERSHIP

One of the best definitions of leadership is that of Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus (1985) in their book Leaders:


Decades of academic analysis have given us more than 350 definitions of leadership. Literally thousands of empirical investigations of leaders have been conducted in the last seventy-five years alone, but no clear and unequivocal understanding exists as to what distinguishes leaders from non-leaders, and perhaps more important, what distinguishes effective leaders from ineffective leaders and effective organizations from ineffective organizations. (p. 4)

Over the years, three primary contexts have been espoused for leadership (Hampton, Summer, and Webber, 1982). First, it was believed that the personality traits of leaders were the main ingredient in effectiveness. This theory did not prove to be totally accurate. A second approach purported that the effectiveness came from the leader's behaviors and actions. Once again, this did not prove to be totally accurate. A third notion emerged whereby the situation caused a leader to be effective. Several models still popular today evolved from the situational frame of reference. Each approach and model has provided more information and understanding but none are complete.

CHARISMA, POWER, AND LEADERSHIP

My specific focus is to tie the positions of legal-rational authority in most organizations to the referent (charisma) power base. Generally, most management positions are granted authority (formalized power) and are based primarily on legitimate power (the right to control). This seldom means that managers are leaders unless they can influence (ability to affect). Charismatic leadership is based primarily on the ability of the leader to influence the followers. Through this ability, the leader may be able to develop legitimate power and authority.

In organizations where legitimate power already exists, the effectiveness of that power can be greatly enhanced if the person also possesses a high amount of referent power, charisma. It is the combination of these two that may allow managers to become great leaders. Lee Iacocca is a prime example of this type of manager/leader. James MacGregor Burns (1979) defines this as transforming leadership. He describes the transforming leader as follows:

The transforming leader recognizes and exploits an existing need or demand of a potential follower. But, beyond that, the transforming leader looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower. The result of transforming leadership is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents. (p. 4)


One way in which managers in both the private and public sectors may be able to become more effective leaders is to expand their legitimate power base to include charisma. Effective leaders seem to possess certain traits that set them apart from others and seem to exhibit different behaviors. As a result of being extraordinary,

people seem to want to follow these type leaders.


CHAPTER 4LEADER'S TRAITS AND BEHAVIORS

While it is clear that the ability of a leader to accomplish tasks through others is a product of the relationship that exists between the leader and the follower, it seems that the relationship is formed easier and stronger when a leader possesses extraordinary traits and interacts with the followers in certain ways. This chapter discusses some of the personality traits and some of the actions that research and common sense have shown to be essential for successful leaders. The information comes from study and research done under the names of "charisma" or "leadership."

PERSONALITY TRAITS

The first set of traits is associated with the individual's basic self. This set of traits is often referred to as personality. Four sources of research were used to analyze what traits were most important. Two were from the field of study of leadership and two were from the field of study of charisma. The following two tables show the traits from the four sources. The traits have been grouped into the common categories that seem most significant.


Table 1

Common Leader Traits from the Study of Leadership

Common Categories R. Stogdill. Handbook of Leadership, 1974.

L.Bittle. Leadership, 1984.

Self-confidence Self-confidence Self-confidence

Energy Energy

Self-control / Composure

Emotional Balance, control Objectivity and balance

Commitment / Determination

Achievement drive, desire to excelDrive for responsibilityTask orientation (interest in work)

Enthusiasm and optimismCreativity and initiativePerseverance

Intelligence / Knowledge

KnowledgeOriginality, creativity

Education and scholarship, knowledge, IntelligenceCreativity and initiativeGood judgment, common sense

Fluency / Style of Speech

Fluency of Speech

Relationship Patterns Sociability, interpersonal skillsParticipation in social exchange

Other traits Ascendance, dominance Attractiveness of personality ascendance, dominancePhysical stature, athletic ability


Table 2

Common Leader Traits from the Study of Charisma

Common Categories A. Willner. The Spellbinders, 1984

L. Hall. Dissertation, 1983.

Self-confidence Supreme self-confidence Self-confidence

Energy Exceedingly high energy Energy and alertness

Self-control / Composure

Extreme composure and self-control

Commitment / Determination

Extraordinary determination Strength of convictionHonesty, trust, reliability

Intelligence / Knowledge

Intellect and knowledge CreativityUse of logic and intuitionIntelligenceA wholistic perspective

Fluency / Style of Speech

Style of language

Relationship Patterns Awareness of other through concern, empathy, sensitivity, nurturance

Other traits Eyes of a certain qualityExtraordinary charm

Physical appearanceAttitude and beliefs on ethics, power, and spiritual concerns


From these lists of traits, a composite list can be drawn. The key traits are those which when placed on a continuum, inspire respect and regard on one end and generate awe and devotion on the other end. As the intensity of the attributes increases along the continuum, the person would move from being seen as possessing the personality of a highly regarded person, then an inspirational person, then finally a highly charismatic person. These traits when coupled with additional skills and behaviors form the basis for effective leaders and charismatic leaders.

The key personality traits are as follows:

Self-confidence Energy Self-control and Composure Commitment and Determination Intelligence and Knowledge Fluency and Style of Speech

The two general areas which are not included but which are prevalent in the above lists are descriptions associated with physical characteristics and general traits associated with relating to other persons. Interpersonal relationship traits are not included since they require separate consideration. There does not seem to be any clear pattern of physical characteristics so these attributes are excluded. The one area of outward appearance that may be important is that of dress and grooming. The use of a military uniform by Hitler, Mussolini, and others seems to have impact. The homespun loincloth worn by Ghandi appeared important. However, there was no research found about the importance of dress.

RELATIONSHIP PATTERNS

Essential to a leader's effectiveness are his skills in relating to other people. Bennis and Nanus (1985) phrased it excellently when they stated that "leaders induced (stemming from their own self-regard) positive other-regard" (p. 62). In their study of ninety leaders, they found five key skills that dealt primarily with relating to others.

1. The ability to accept people as they are, not as you would like them to be...2. The capacity to approach relationships and problems in terms of the present

rather than the past...3. The ability to treat those who are close to you with the same courteous attention

that you extend to strangers and casual acquaintances...4. The ability to trust others, even if the risk seems great...


5. The ability to do without constant approval and recognition from others... (p. 66-67)

Burns (1974), Bennis and Nanus (1985), and Marshall Thurber (1986) have all stated that truly effective, transformational leaders work to empower the people who follow them. They have stated that a leader should be concerned with the development of the followers into leaders. This provides the crucial context of caring about and supporting people in elevating themselves to new levels. This overall frame of reference establishes the key patterns of relationship between the leader and the followers.

ACTIONS AND BEHAVIORS

The important actions and behaviors of leaders stem from the vision they have about the future. The vision is crucial for establishing operational contexts and direction. If the vision is clearly held and communicated, the followers have the opportunity to align with the leader not only because they may like him but also because he has provided a direction that can be followed. Vision creates direction and purpose and, as Marshall Thurber (1986) stated in a recent speech, "vision creates a vacuum." Leaders have been characterized as having the ability to pull people instead of push them. Those who understand a vacuum know that it creates a pulling in the direction of the vacuum. In the case of a leader who clearly communicates his vision, the vacuum is the brightness of the future.

One of the key actions then is effective communication of the vision. The purpose of the communication is to create meaning for the people and enroll them in the vision. One cannot effectively communicate vision by sending out a memo or making one speech. It requires continually emphasizing the importance of the vision. It requires the frequency of interaction described by Robert Axelrod (1984). It is the type of communication of John F. Kennedy when he said "...ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country..." and Martin Luther King's "I HAVE A DREAM..."

Burns, Bennis and Nanus, and Thurber all talk about the importance of empowering others. This is another set of crucial behaviors. Marshall Thurber discussed some of the ways this can be accomplished. First, the leader must be willing to give up control and allow the process of co-creation of the path to the future. Second, the leader must ask and listen instead of telling the followers what to do. Included in this is the developmental process of expecting more than one answer to any question. By


generating more than one answer, the person must demonstrate the ability to think through the question and as such will be more committed to the answer.

Finally, there must be room for mistakes. This was also found to be key in the research done by Bennis and Nanus (1985). R. Buckminster Fuller spoke often of the extreme importance of allowing and encouraging mistakes as a key to learning.

By cosmic designing wisdom we are all born naked, helpless for months, and though superbly equipped cerebrally, utterly lacking in experience, ergo utterly ignorant...whatever humans have learned had to be learned as a consequence only of trial-and-error experience. Humans have learned only through mistakes...the billions of humans in history have had to make quadrillions of mistakes... (1983, p. 216)

He goes on to discuss how powerful leadership in the educational system could empower both students and teachers through the use of measuring mistakes and learning from them.

At present, teachers, professors, and their helpers go over the students' examinations, looking for errors. They usually ratio the percentage of error to the percentage of correctly remembered concepts to which the students have been exposed. I suggest that the teaching world alter this practice and adopt the requirement that all students periodically submit a written account of all the mistakes they have made, not only regarding the course subject, but in their self-disciplining during the term, while also recording what they have learned from the recognition that they have made the mistakes; the reports should summarize what it is they have learned, not only in their courses, but on their own intuition and initiative. I suggest, then, that the faculty be marked as well as the students on a basis of their effectiveness in helping the students learn anything important about any subject - doing so by nature's prescribed trial and error leverage. The more mistakes the students discover, the higher their grade. (p. 219-220)

Fuller clearly believes in the concept of empowerment and in holding the leaders accountable for their ability to provide a system which empowers.

The last key behavior is that of acknowledgment. Almost all humans have a fundamental need to be recognized for their actions and for their being. Another term that is used for this is "stroking." This process can take many forms, a good morning, a thank you, financial rewards, formal recognition ceremonies, celebrations and


parties, etc. Another practice that relates to this concept is MBWA, Management by Walking Around, which provides a form of acknowledgement for the workers (Peters and Waterman, 1982). Acknowledgement is essential.

SUMMARY

The following table summarizes the traits, relationship patterns, and behaviors of effective and transformational leaders who display charisma.

Table 3Key Characteristics for Charismatic Leaders

TRAITS RELATIONSHIP PATTERNS

BEHAVIORS

Self-confidence Acceptance of others Acknowledgement of othersEnergy Courteous attentionSelf-control and Composure

Orientation toward present time

Having a vision

Fluency and Style of Speech

Effective communication of vision

Commitment and Determination

Trust Empowerment of others through co-creation and tolerance for mistakes

Intelligence and Knowledge

Caring and support

The world is in dire need of real leaders not just managers. In 1985, Harry Gray, Chairman and CEO of United Technologies, placed a full-page message published in the Wall Street Journal that illustrates this.


LET'S GET People don't want

RID OF to be managed.

MANAGEMENT They want to be led. Whoever heard of a world manager? World leader, yes. Educational leader. Political leader. Religious leader. Scout leader. Community leader. Labor leader. Business leader. They lead. They don't manage. The carrot always wins over the stick. Ask your horse. You can lead your horse to water, but you can't manage him to drink. If you want to manage somebody, manage yourself. Do that well and you'll be ready to stop managing. And start leading.


CHAPTER 5DEVELOPMENT OF CHARISMA IN LEADERSHIP

Weber (1968) discussed the concept of charismatic education in an historical context. He described the training programs that existed for warriors, shaman, priests, medicine men, and elite others. He stated:

Thus charismatic qualification can become an object of education, even though at first not in the form of rational or empirical instruction, since heroic and magical capacities are regarded as inborn; only if they are latent can they be activated through a regeneration of the whole personality. Therefore, the real purpose of charismatic education is regeneration, hence the development of the charismatic quality. (p. 1143)

Shils (1965) believed that every person was endowed with some level of charismatic quality and that it could be cultivated. He noted Weber's writings about charismatic education and stated that they were "capable of a broader application that he himself made" (p. 212). Burns (1978) in his discussion of teaching transformational leadership further emphasized the need for leaders to be whole persons. He stated, "If they are to be effective in helping to mobilize and elevate their constituencies, leaders must be whole persons, persons with fully functioning capacities for thinking and feeling" (p. 448-449).

Weber went on to describe the typical elements of charismatic education as had been used throughout history.

The elements of charismatic education are: Isolation from the familiar environment and from family ties (among primitive tribes the novices -- epheboi -- move into the forests); invariably entrance into an exclusive educational community; complete transformation of personal conduct; asceticism; physical and psychic exercises of the most diverse forms to awaken the capacity for ecstasy and regeneration; continuous testing of the level of charismatic perfection through shock, torture and mutilation (circumcision may have originated primarily as a part of such ascetic practices); finally, graduated ceremonious reception into the circle of those who have proven their charisma. (p. 1143)

A marvelous example of a training like that can be found in the controversial books by Carlos Castaneda. In several volumes, he describes his apprenticeship to the sorcerer


Don Juan. Many of the above elements are described in Carlos's ordeals with Don Juan.

If a training program for leaders were devised with all the above elements included, enrollment would probably be low. However, the general context may be useful in devising the type of unusual training that would provide effective charismatic education for leaders.

TAXONOMY OF SKILLS

An excellent starting framework for discussing charismatic leadership development can be found in a paper by Ronald R. Short (1982). He discusses the taxonomy of skills as developed by Sidney Fine. Basically, there are three levels of skills associated with tasks or jobs. "Work content" skills are only associated with the specific task. An example of this would be nail hammering. Hammering a nail would be the specific task, and the ability to do so would be the "work content" skill. This skill level is extremely specific and as such will not be addressed further. "Functional skills" are useful across many tasks and in different environments. A good example of this would be the skill of effective problem solving. On the third level, "adaptive skills", are the "perceptual, emotional, and behavioral tendencies" (p. 4). These are learned as small children. The adaptive skills form the very foundation of the personality and as such support success or failure, competence or incompetence, charismatic qualities or being average.

Figure 1.

Using this framework and the information in the previous chapter, initial groundwork can be laid for discussing ways in which functional and adaptive skills for charisma in


leadership can be developed. The three categories of personality traits, relationship patterns, and actions and behaviors each have segments that can be divided into functional and/or adaptive skills. Dividing the segments into these two skill categories will support an operational framework for addressing development methodologies.

Adaptive Skills

These skills are the lowest level on the pyramid and form the foundation for the person. As a child, the person develops their own set of personality traits, relationship patterns, and primary behavior patterns.

The key adaptive skill traits associated with charisma in leadership are energy, self-confidence, self-control and composure, and commitment and determination.

The primary context in which a person relates to others is also set during childhood. The key relationship patterns are based on his acceptance of others as they are; in his ability to trust others; in his orientation in the present, future, or past; in his overall willingness and approach to forming and maintaining relationships.

The actions and behaviors as identified in the last chapter based in the adaptive skills include allowing mistakes and establishing vision. Beginning in early childhood and continuing throughout formal education, a person is taught to identify mistakes either as failures or as ways to learning. The emphasis on one or the other frequently has profound influence on the person's own perceived self-worth and self-confidence. The ability to develop a vision for the future is also profoundly affected. A person who is encouraged to dream about the future will be much better equipped to establish a vision than someone who is continually reminded of the past.

Functional Skills

This set of skills is less attached to personality per se and in some ways more a part of cognitive learning. Nonetheless, functional skills are still influenced by the person's basic adaptive skills.

The key traits at this level are intelligence and knowledge, fluency and speech, and commitment and determination. Commitment and determination is listed here as well as with the adaptive skills. This trait, while begun at an adaptive level, can be greatly influenced throughout a person's development.


The area of relationship patterns is already one of the most addressed in traditional management development programs. The whole range of interpersonal communication skills are in the category of adaptive skills. Also of prime importance is a person's presentation skills that focus on communications with groups of people while interpersonal skills usually focus on one-to-one interactions. The skills of listening and asking fall into this area of development.

The action and behavior category focus on vision and allowing mistakes. The foundation for these is established in the adaptive skills, but the ability to translate into action falls within the functional skill area.

Summary

The following tables summarize the traits, relationship patterns, and behaviors as designated within the adaptive and functional skill areas.

Table 4Adaptive Skills Level Characteristics


BEHAVIORS

Self-confidence Acceptance of others Acknowledgement of others

Energy Caring and support Having visionSelf-control and Composure

Orientation toward time Tolerance for mistakes


Trust


Table 5Functional Skills Level Characteristics


BEHAVIORS


Communication Skills Developing a vision

Fluency and Style of Speech

Presentation Skills Communications of the vision

Intelligence and Knowledge

Interpersonal Skills Empowerment through co-creation and allowing mistakesAcknowledgement of others

PATHS FOR DEVELOPMENT

Weber's list of elements for charismatic education provides several possibilities for present day usage. The general context of a need for regeneration of the whole and the transformation of personal conduct fit well with the concepts of working on both adaptive and functional skills.

Charismatic Education Elements

Each of the elements listed by Weber can be examined to determine if the element should be included within a program for development of charisma in leadership.

Isolation from family and the current environment was the first element discussed by Weber. This element should be included in a program as much as possible. Becoming completely immersed in a development program increases the use of energy, commitment, determination, and self-discipline and makes the process more effective. Many of the current personal and management development programs take this approach by conducting programs at resort areas that last for a week.

Transformation of personal conduct is definitely one of the long-range goals and essential to the program. The required level of transformation would clearly depend on where the individual started relative to the desired outcome.

Asceticism is defined as being the practices of rigorous self-discipline and self-denial usually for the attainment of a higher spiritual state. This was a key element as the origins of charisma were spiritual in nature. The appropriate use of self-discipline and


in some cases self-denial would be important in the program. Self-discipline is closely associated with the traits of self-control, composure, commitment, and determination. As such self-discipline plays a vital role in the developmental process as well as possessing the perceived traits. Use of self-denial would be tied primarily to support of the development of self-discipline.

Diverse physical and psychic exercises are also key elements especially as described by Weber for the purpose of regeneration. The design of such exercises is critical for achieving the desired affect.

Some form of testing is needed. However, the use of torture and mutilation is not recommended. Some effective uses of shock to the existing system of beliefs could be extremely functional.

The two elements associated with entrance into select groups would not be essential to the program. However, if a mapped-out program were developed through which many different individuals would be passing, some sort of recognition would provide a level of prestige and networking capacity that would be very functional.

Currently Available Methodologies

To my knowledge, there is no integrated program available to systematically develop all the facets presented in this paper. Through effective selection of existing programs, an individual can undertake a personal plan of development of charismatic traits and skills.

The majority of the adaptive skills category can be best approached through the field of psychology. The better a person understands himself and others, the more effective he becomes in his state of being and in working on changes for himself. The more he knows about the psychology of man, theoretically, the more he can impact his own development. However, no one can be totally objective about himself. Therefore, a program of counseling and therapy is recommended as well as educational and training approaches. Training programs that are therapeutic in nature are especially useful. Therapy based programs generally target the "regeneration of the whole personality" and "transformation of personal conduct." They encourage integration of both thinking and feeling. The full range of relationship patterns is also developed both at the adaptive skill level and to some extent at the functional skill level.

The Outward Bound programs are designed to affect the leadership abilities of the participants. The programs are wilderness based meeting the element for isolation.


They focus on the physical and psychic exercises element and on the testing element through belief system shocks like climbing mountains or other survival situations. The self-discipline element exists as well as the transformation of personal conduct element. I have not personally participated in this program. However, a descriptive article in Management Review by Rod Willis (1985) discusses the goals of the program as well as a description of events.

Another program that provides experiences similar to the Outward Bound program is a Ropes Course. The course has several sections that require effective team interactions. The other key sections of the course are activities done on ropes strung between trees or other high places. The participants traverse the rope elements at heights of 30 to 70 feet above the ground. A definite shift in perspective happens at this event. A more detailed description of a ropes course can be found in the next chapter.

In the area of more traditional training, many programs exist which are designed to improve the functional skills around relationship patterns. Some of the workshops available include interpersonal skills, communication skills, presentation skills, active listening, etc. These are presented by numerous training firms and are standard practice within most major corporations. This is but one small piece of what is needed to generate charisma in leadership and is not within the framework of charismatic-education- elements.

Formal education classes also serve to groom some of the functional level skills especially in the traits of intelligence and knowledge as well as commitment and determination. This type of program does not fall under any of the charismatic-education-elements described by Weber except maybe the two that are not key, association with an elite education community and ceremonious reception into a group of graduates.

Many athletic disciplines and other self-discipline type activities provide excellent opportunities for development if approached in highly disciplined ways. All of the charismatic-education-elements exist within any world-class athlete's training program. However, unless it is a team sport, the relationship patterns are basically ignored.

Effective drama/acting classes can be extremely effective especially in the areas of adaptive skill development and presentation of self.


A model of communication and personal change that provides a key framework is Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP). This deserves special mention because there are fundamental concepts within NLP that can be used for undertaking personal change at many of the levels described as being part of a program in development of charisma in leadership. A brief discussion of how this relates can be found in the next chapter.

BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES

Until now, not much has been said about belief systems and attitudes and their relationship to charisma development. Each of the categories of traits, relationship patterns, and actions/behaviors is impacted by the person's beliefs and attitudes about each segment within the categories. The one belief that should be examined in this section is a person's belief in limits. Beliefs in their own limits or beliefs in other people's limits create blocks to making major accomplishments. Many of the world's most charismatic leaders exhibited a belief that no limits existed or should be imposed on them or their vision. In his workshop "Fear into Power: The Firewalk Experience", Tony Robbins says, "Belief in Limits Creates Limited People."


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VITA

Bill J. McCarley was born in Pecos, Texas, on December 14, 1948, the son of Latrell Seward Truelove and Billy James Truelove. He was later adopted by Billy Dale McCarley; his mother's second husband. He graduated from H. M. King High School, Kingsville, Texas in 1966 and entered Texas A & I University during the following term. He completed his Bachelor of Business Administration Degree there in August 1971. Shortly after graduation, he entered the U. S. Air Force. During his three and one-half years in service, he was stationed in Colorado and in Germany. After completion of his tour of duty, he again entered Texas A & I University to pursue a Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering. He earned that degree in May 1977 and began working at the university as an administrative computer programmer and as a Computer Science instructor. After one year, he moved to Austin, Texas to work for Texas Instruments' Data Systems Group. While employed there, he worked in management positions for four of the five years. In December 1983, he left Texas Instruments to start his own organizational consulting company, co-evolution. In January 1984, he entered a graduate program in Human Resource Development at The University of Texas at Austin. His Master of Arts Degree was awarded in May 1986.

Business Address: co-evolution, inc.2111 Dickson • Suite 24Austin, Texas 78704(512) 750-5428


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