11. I I
I I I
‘I I 1
‘I
‘I ‘I I 1 I I I 1 I I
ER47Sb
MATERIALS MANUAL
Fot Use With TRW Space Radidor-Codemser Design ond
Performance &lysis Computer Progmms
February 1966
T M EQUWMEHT UBORATORfES A DIVISION OF T R W INC. CLEVELAbJD. OHfO 44117
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19660013060 2018-07-14T00:16:41+00:00Z
1. I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I
1.
Text
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
TABI;E OF CONTENTS
Page No.
lWE3ODUCTION . 1
s l m 4 m Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. TEXT
1.0 Power Systems Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.0 Thermo-Physical Properties of Working Fluids . . . 7
3.0 Construction Materials Properties . . . . . . . . . 8
4.0 Radiator Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.0 Reconmendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
11. TABLES Table No.
Results of Power System Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Properties of Organic Working Fluids
Thermo-Physical Properties of Working Fluids . . . . . . 3
Thenno-Physical Pruperties of Radiator Materials . . . . 4
Materials Compatibility With Working Fluids
Radiator Fin and Tube Material Compatibility . . . . . . 6
2 . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 5(a)-5(b)
Radiator Emittance Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7(a) -7 (g)
111. FIGURES Figure No.
Water Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Mercurypruperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18
Potassium Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-28
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
111. FIGURES (continued) Figure No.
Rubidium Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-37
Organic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-49
Radiator Materials Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-58
Esnissivity Coating Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Effect of Coating Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
IV. REFERENCES
IIU!RODUC!FION
The purpose of t h i s manual is t o provide a caupact reference f o r the thermo- L--
physical properties rec@red i n the design of space radiator-condensers.
e f f o r t w a s performed as part of the Space Radistor-Condenser Design and Per-
This x ” _ _ - - _- .
formance computer m- un&r contract m g-UB4 with the NASA - Space- c r a f t Center. It is intended that this manual supplement these computer programs
by providing, i n one report, the fluid and construction materials pruperties
required as inputs.
SUMMARY
~ ~ E H T l l b o R A T o l w E s
1 I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I i
Section 1.0 presents the results of a power system survey undertaken t o assess - t he u t i l i za t ion of worirhg fluids and materials on actual and proposed space
e l ec t r i c parer systems emplaying direct condenser-radiators.
Section 2.0 contains data on f ive working fluids.
a survey of their current use in actual direct condensing systems or contemplated
future systems.
Their selection is based on
Section 3.0 contains the properties of candidate radiator materids.
other than those i n current o r proposed use have been included t o extend the
u s e m e s s of t h e ccmptlter prograin as bonding and joining technology advances.
Materials fabrication compatibility and working f lu id compatibility are indicated
t o a id i n the selection of suitable radiator-condenser materials f o r a given
application.
Materials
Section 4.0 presents the emittance coatings which wou ld be suitable f o r extended
service i n space-vacuum conditions. Solar and thermal absorptivity values are
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included where available f r o m the literature.
with substrates, methods of application, and service temperature limitations are
tabulated to aid i n the proper coating selection for t h e intended application.
Coating bonding compatibility
Section 5.0 presents some of the areas which, upon searching the literature,
were found t o be i n need of further study.
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1.0 POWER SYSTEM SURVEY
A survey of space e lec t r ica l power systems employing direct condenser-radiators
presently being investigated and those considered as primary or candidate systems
f o r spacecraft applications is suarmarized in Table 1. Only those systems which
have received serious dievelcpxmtal attention or extensive study were included.
Since t h e only sources ut i l ized in t h i s survey were exoteric company and
government reports, some systems may have inadvertently been overlooked. With
these q d i f i c a t i o n s , t he f lu ids selected are: mercury, potassium, water,
rubidium and the organics, Dowtherm-A, ortho-xylene and ethylbenzene.
1.1 Mercuq
During the last decade, mercury rose as the most prominent Rankine cycle working
f lu id for e lec t r i ca l generation space application.
reactor powered SNAP 2 and SNAP 8, and the solar powered Sunflower accelerated
mercury t o the foref’ront as a space system working fluid.
intended mission spelled the end of t h e SNAP 1 (SPUD) system.
or iginal ly space oriented, has been redirected t o a study-type system test
program due t o lack of specific application.
similar fate, being relegated t o a component development program as emphasis
shifted from high t o l o w output parer generation systems.
solar powered Sunflower system ha6 been bypassed f o r lack of a mission and waning
in te res t in solar powered mercury systems.
s t i l l remains 88 one of t h e more prominent working f lu ids f o r R a n k i n e cycle power
plants with outputs ranging from 3 t o 300 KW.
The S W 1 (SPUD), the thermal
The cancellation of the
The SNAP 2 system,
The S W 8 program suffered a
The highly successful
Regardless of these events, mercury
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Radiator materials in direct mercury radiator-condensers varied depending on
intended application.
stainless steel throughout.
considered:
tubes and copper fins.
of 347 stainless steel tubes and UOO-0 (non-structurel) aluminum fins.
the SNAP 8 di rec t radiator-condenser designs u t i l i zed Haynes Alloy No. 25 tubing
and aluminum fins.
The SNAP 1 (SPUD) radiator w a s fabricated from 316
Two types of SNAP 2 radiator-condensers w e r e
Hqynes Alloy No. 25 tubing and aluminum fins and 17.7 molybdenum
The Sunflower system used a radiator-condenser composed
One of
1.2 Potassium
Potassium found application 86 a working f l u i d i n the SPUR/SNAP 50 system which
has also been reduced t o component development. The use of potassium i s s t i l l
very at t ract ive for future space applications pending fast reactor revival and
t he avai labi l i ty of container materials suitable f o r 10,OOO hours or more
service at the higher temperatures seen in these systems. In 1965, T R W prepared
a potassium Rankine cycle test capsule t o evaluate the boiling and condensing
properties of potassium i n space. A failure of t he boost vehicle during launch
led t o an abrupt conclusion t o the experiment. Another test capsule i s being
b u i l t t o repeat the experiment, indicating a continuing interest i n potassium
as a cycle working fluid.
The radiator materids proposed for t h e SPUR/SNAP 50 direct condenser were 316
stainless steel tubing and 316 stainless steel clad copper f ins . The T R W heat
t ransfer test capsule radiator-condenser u t i l i zed 316 stainless steel tubing w i t h
copper f i n s brazed t o the tubing (88).
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1 I 1 1 1 1 I I 1
a
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1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 . 3 Water
A steam system w a s investigated u t i l i z ing the SmAp 8 reactor by ASTRA, Inc. (73).
The proposed systems utilized nuclear and solar heat sources.
were i n i t i a l l y considered to be aluminum (tube and f in s ) with beryllium as the
ut,biate inaterial.
studies in this e a .
Radiator-condensers
---.I. mT & &"her c q & e s hme q m s ~ r e d internally funded
1.4 Rubidium
The i n i t i a l working fluid of the ASTEC p r o m (Advanced Solar Turbo Electric
Concept) was rubidium. The program wa8 redirected before reaching the system stage.
A radiator-condenser test segnent (tubes and fins) was fabricated from Inconel.
B e r y l l i u m tubes and fins would have been the ultimate radiator-condenser materials.
Rubidium is not considered to be a lurely working f l u i d f o r the space applications
presently under investigation.
1.5 Organics
Interest i n organic f lu ids f o r space power agplications has developed ragidly i n
t h e last f i v e yesrs.
program f o r the Navy and Air Force fo r a 1.5 KY solar power plant using Dowtherm-A.
No details are available as to the mSterials being considered.
t h a t Dowtherm-A is the most favorable working f lu id f o r an isotope-heated system
as a pa r t of the Manned Mars Mission Study (75).
a contract t o build a system f o r a U t i - t u b e Orbital Rankine Experiment (77)
using Dowthem-A as t he working fluid.
be 347 stainless steel.
Sundstrand (74) i s currently involved i n a development
T R W has concluded
TRW has recently been awarded
Tubes and headers f o r t h i s system w i l l
Mns will be 5083 &luminum. Various Binary systems
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proposed included ortho-xylene or ethylbenzene as t h e bottom cycle fluid.
Aluminum tubes and f i n s were proposed i n most cases.
A comparison of various organic working f lu ids and t h e i r properties is shown i n
Table 2.
as the most promising f o r space systems, based on favorable ccmbinations of t h e i r
v q o r pressure/temperature relationships, freezing point, corrosive nature, and
thermal s tabi l i ty .
From t h i s chart , ethylbenzene, ortho-xylene and Dowtherm-A were chosen
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IRlkr E Q U I ~ W LAboRATiolwES
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2.0 ~ - P H ! l S S C A L FFtOFEEiTm OF WORWOG
!be therm-physical properties of eight prima,ry and candidate working f lu ids
have been prepared as a m c t i o n of te!xperature. These include ___I^ wate.e.-mex~ury, - cc_
rubidium, potassium and three organics (ortho-xylene, ethylbenzene and I)owthexm-A). -./- . ~ - - - e .--_._ , l _ .
The working ffuids, t he i r respective properties and a mfemi3e figiire inmiber for I -
- # .*- - _" "- - _.
each property are summarized in Table 3.
The properties compiled f o r each working f lu id are those necessary as inputs t o
the computer programs and are as follows: molecular w e i g h t , heat of vaporization,
specific heat, specific heat r a t i o , density, absolute viscosity, liquid-vapor
m a c e tension, t h e m conductivity and vapor pressure. These appear on
Hgures 1 through 49.
freezing point, c r i t i c a l temperature, c r i t i c a l pressure, specific heat r a t io and,
Single valued quantities are given for m o ~ e c d a r weight,
i n some cases, specific heat. A l l data is presented in the units required by the
design and performance analysis radiator cosnputer programs.
In most instances, the information is the result of the l a t e s t t e s t data avd lab le
in the literature, but in some cases, most notably rubidium, the curves represent
calculated values since no t e s t data could be found.
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3.0 CONSTRUCTION MMERULS PROPERTIES
3.1
Seven properties were selected and tabulated for each of the candidate radiator
materiaLs. These properties include density, tension moudules of e las t ic i ty ,
thermal conductivity, specific heat, themel expansion, yield strength ( .2$),
and melting temperature. Only the density, tension modulus of e la s t i c i ty and
thermal conductivity a r e required as inputs t o the computer program, but thermal
expansion was included t o assess fin/tube compatibility, yield strength and
melting temperature t o establish service limits, and specific heat t o facilitate
transient study. A cross-reference between each candidate material and the
respective property curves is given in Table 4 including figure number and the
reference numbers.
as a function of temperature in the referenced figures.
value is contained direct ly in Table 4.
temperature are found on Figures 50 through 58.
uni t s required by the design and performance analysis radiator computer programs.
Tube, Header and Fin Thermo-Physical Properties
Where important and available, t h e information is presented
Otherwise, a single
Materials properties as a f h c t i o n of
AU data i s presented i n t h e
Some of the properties listed vary widely depending on the form of the material,
i.e., sheet or bar, heat-treated or wheat-treated, etc. This is especially t rue
of the yield strength. In each case, the form most representative of t ha t usable
i n condenser-radiators w a s listed or, i n some cases, a range i f more than one
form i s applicable.
3.2 Materials Compatibility with Working Fluids
A literature search w a s conducted t o obtain materials/working f lu id compatibility
infonuation. The working f lu ids considered were those found t o be candidate
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1, I i I 1 l I i 1 I 1 I I I 1 I I I I
fluids for space systems as a result of the system survey (section LO), namely,
n~rcury, water, rubidium, p o t s s s i ~ l and selected organics.
considered included, but were not limited to, those candidate materies of
section 2.0.
The materials
Tables 5(a) and 5(b) are a sumarary of the informstion.
The temperatures on this table represent (a) the test temperature at vfi ich l i t t l e
or no corrosion (loss or gaAn i n weight) was detected, (b) acceptable corrosion
temperature limit e x t n ~ o l a t e d frau test data at lower temperatures, o r (c)
temperature limits based on tests of similar fluids.
duration is less than lo00 hours, more than 10,OOO hours, or i n same cases as
noted.
condenser operating temperature for that fluid is higher than the service tempera-
ture of the material or (3) the canbination of fluid and container materid is
i l logical.
In each case, the test
Where no data is presented either (1) none could be faund, (2) the normal
3.2.1 Water
The temperatures given i n Tables 5(a) and 5(b) are based on t h e results of both
s t a t i c and dynamic tests.
The static corrosion rates were determined as a byproduct of autoclave tests
conducted at temperatures below 500 F.
purposes as crevice corrosion andbearing combination studies i n connection with
water-cooled reactor systems.
0 The tests were perfonned f o r such
Dynamic testing was carried aut at temperatures between 500 and 6009 which i s
the normal operating range of water-cooled reactors.
t o 30 f p s .
Velocities ranged from 1/60
The dynamic corrosion rates of materials studies a t 500% is increased
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between 5 and 20 t w e e when tested at 6009 (17).
The effects of water velocity on the corrosion rate of 300 series s ta inless
s t e e l are delineated i n reference (19).
solution velocity was established af'ter 400 test hours.
1 5 times tha t amount as velocit ies were t r ip led and quadrupled f o r t h e same
number of hours tested.
A weight loss of 10 mg/cm2 at 10 f't/sec
The rate increased 3 t o
Studies (18) on high purity water corrosion indicated tha t t h e use of water w i t h
a pH above 10 caused the corrosion rate of mild steel t o decrease with exposure
t i m e . The corrosion of aluminum and i ts allays above took the form of
serious intergranular attack.
temperature range t o about 60o0F (19).
condition) may not be feasible i n fuel c e l l radiators using hydrogen and €$O
mixtures.
Decreasing the pH t o 2 could extend t h e uperating
However, regulation of pH t o 2 (acidic
Aluminum alloys containing nickel, iron, titanium, si l icon, beryllium and zirconium
tend t o displace the cathodic reaction from the aluminum surface and make the
alloys less sensitive t o corrosion.
also found t o be beneficial.
The addition of hydrogen t o the water w a s
A considerable increase of corrosion i n flawing as against s t a t i c water w a s noted
by researchers (19) and increasing the r a t i o of area of aluminum exposed t o
volume of water was found t o reduce dynamic corrosion.
Beryllium and i t s alloys showed good resistance t o corrosion below 200'F (about
one mil penetration per year). Above t h i s temperature the corrosion rate increased
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I rapidly and became more unpredictable (19).
Magnesium alloys had high corrosion rates (0.1 -/day) at 300% (19).
use should be restr ic ted below 150% for long duration operation.
Their
mamie eomsia i s%-tit~ies 011 cvmez-zickel ( T Q - ~ Q ) micat& %hat ~ Y W corrosion
rates could be maintained a t 200% with 30 i p s w a t e r velocity.
rate could be maintained by the addition of hydmgen into the water.
rates at 500% and 30 f p s without the presence of hydrogen increase about 200
t i m e s compared t o the 200% rate of 34 mg/in2-yr.
at 7 throughout the t e s t s (17).
rapidly with increasing water velocity and temperature.
was immediately available on the refractory metals.
A t 500% the same
Corrosion
The water pH was maintained
The corrosion rate of copper tubing increases
No w a t e r corrosion data
3.2.2 Mercury
The temperatures indicated i n Tables 5(a) and 5(b) axe a result of extensive
mercury materials compatibility work done at TRW (30,31,32).
and circulation loops operating between 700 and U00% provided the basis f o r
most corrosion temperature limitations.
on selected materials by NASA-Lewis.
have provided endurance tes t ing data f o r boiling systems i n the SNAP 8 temperature
Refluxing capsules
These tests were corroborated t o 130O0F
Studies at Brookhaven National Laboratory
range and higher (86).
3.2.3 Rubidium
Materials c q a t i b i l i t y data with rubidium include beryllium, cobalt alloys,
nickel alloys, some refractories, s ta inless steels and vanadium. Testing duration
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
has been i n the 1000 hour range.
resu l t of the nonaal condensing temperature range associated with rubidium cycles
( 1000-l~OO°F).
only those materials that can s t ructural ly withstand the temperature range.
Refluxing l iquid vapor capsules and some dynamic loop t es t ing provided the bulk
of information available i n the l i terature .
"he temperature range investigated is a d i rec t
Compatibility studies have generally been aimed at screening
3.2.4 Potassium
Refluxing capsules and dynamic loop tests of 1000 hours or less dominate the
current investigations and provide the basis f o r the corrosion temperature limits
shown i n Table 5.
velocity potassium at 4 in/sec indicated corrosion r a t e s of about 0.12 mils per
year (14).
Dynamic 5000 hours 316 stainless s t ee l loop tests with low
3.2.5 Hydrocarbons
3.2.5.1 Dowtherm-A
Corrosion data f o r Dowtherm i s limited. The f lu id i s not corrosive and does not
scale w i t h standard materials of construction. The materials containing temper-
atures i n Table 5 are considered t o be standard. The refractory metals show no
compatibility temperatures but probably are campatible t o the operating limits
of Dowtherm-A.
When contaminated with water, Dowtherm reacts t o form highly corrosive hydrocholoric
acid.
subject t o corrosion by the acid should be used with caution.
I n t h i s respect, where contamination wi th water is possible, materials
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3.2.5.2 Ortho-xylene and Ethylbenzene
Over lo00 hours of tes t ing indicated tha t 300 series stainless steel was not
attacked when suspended i n l imid ortho-xylene at 55OoF.
at 180% on 347 stainless steel, 406 stainless steel, 1010 carbon steel, pure
Low temperature tests
aiuminum, aiuminum alloys, kconel, ' J W m &!lay (Ti - 6Al. = 4V) md 9-e~ 25
showed no evidence of' attack (24). Capsule tes ts of 304 stainless steel and
1010 carbon steel at about 700% f o r almost lo00 hours indicated no effects on
either material (25).
and ethylbenzene are actual3.y f o r biphenyl and isoproplybiphenyl.
tut ion w a s made because of the similari ty i n t h e i r corrosion characteristics and
the ava i lab i l i ty of data.
The remainder of the corrosion data listed f o r ortho-xylene
This substi-
Extensive static corrosion tests (26) w e r e made with biphenyl at 500% f o r 4500
hours and 750%' f o r 4700 hours. W s t of the general material categories listed
on Tables 5(a) and 5(b) w e r e covered by the tests. Dynmic corrosion rates were
available f o r isoproplybiphenyl at veloci t ies frm 0 t o 27 f'ps. Corrosion rates
increased by a factor of 20 at 27 f p s Over s t a t i c corrosion rates f o r 300 series
stainless.
3.3 "ube and H e a d e r Material Meteoroid Protection Capability
Meteoroid col l is ion represents the greatest potent ia l hazard t o f l u i d radiators
i n space.
theories used t o predict amor thickness requiremen ts.
based on material properties (modules of e las t ic i ty , hardness and density) as
well as some evaluation of meteoroid flux.
by NASA-Lewis u t i l i ze s the modulus of e l a s t i c i ty and density of the armor.
D a t a from unmanned ear th orbit ing satellites has reinforced ear ly
Correlations are presently
The correlation currently advocated
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This approach is used by TRW t o determine the meteoroid armor thickness i n t h e
radiator design programs.
The following expression is a form of t h a t result ing fram the work by Loeff'ler,
Lieblein, Clough of NASA-Lewis and Whipple, Cook and other6 at Hamard ( 8 4 ) :
where ta = armor thickness, inches
A = vulnerable area, ft2 (taken as the inside tube area)
P(o) = probability of no meteoroid penetrations
f = armor density, lb/in.
E = modulus of e l a s t i c i ty of armor, p s i
= mission t i m e , days
The properties of density ( p ) and modulus of e l a s t i c i ty (E) f o r all radiator
materials are referenced i n Table 4. h o r w e i g h t i s proportional t o the term
p 5/6 E - l / 3 ,
Recent hypervelocity impact investigations of advanced armor and/or fin materials
such as beryllium and pyrolytic graphite have indicated tha t these materials
exhibit br i t t le characteristics which make them unsuitable as space radiator
s t r u c t u r d members (115). In t h i s respect, t h e present approach advanced by
NASA t o determine meteoroid armor should be used with rest raint .
have t o be modified t o account for the very b r i t t l e radiator materials which
of fer very attractive, but p06Sibly erroneous, w e i g h t advantages over more
conventional materials such as aluminum and steel under the present method of
The theory w i l l
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m o r determination.
3.4 Compatibility of Radiator Fin Materials t o Tube Materials
Table 6 lists cambinations of possible space radiator tube and f i n materials.
These have been ccmpared fram the standpoint of bonding and joining techniques,
thermal expansion limitations and susceptibil i ty t o galvanic corrosion.
tube material. canbinations masked with a dash (-) indicate tha t the combination
is either not applicable, not feasible, o r no information is available on the
union .
The f i n
3.4.1 Bonding and Joining Techniques
The method(s) by which fin materials can be fastened t o tube materials is highly
dependent on the types of material involved and the radiator operating tempera-
ture.
manual. Bowever, the major techniques are delineated below.
A detailed discussion of each possible method is beyond the scope of this
1. Welding
a) hellarc
b) arc
c ) electron beam
2. Brszing
a) torch
b) f’urnace
3. Mechanical
a ) casting
b) clamping and crimping (interference joints)
c) pressure lamination
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d) extrusions
4. chemical
Another important aspect of joining dissimilar fin-tube materials is the
consideration of thermal resistance (82, 83).
mechanical techniques have been employed.
w a l l and a f i n converts the mechanism of heat transmission from highly e f f ic ien t
conduction t o radiation.
t o f i n increases t h e condensing temperature.
"his i s especially important when
The presence of a gap between a tube
An increase i n t h i s thermal resistance from tube w a l l
3.4.2 Thermal Expansion Limitations
Large differences i n thermal expansion coefficients between tube and f i n radiator
materials subjected t o l u g e temperature variations require special attention.
The use of these combinations is normally not recommended from a pract ical or an
economic standpoint.
can be m a d e by building up layers of different thermal expansion materials, main-
taining the difference i n thermal expansion coefficients small between adjacent
layers.
of temperature exre compared i n Figures 57 and 58.
If a requirement f o r such combinations exis ts , t h e bond
Thermal. expansion coefficients f o r vmious radiator material as a f'unction
3.4.3 Galvanic Corrosion
Direct contact between dissimilar metals such as copper and aluminum or aluminum
and steel axe susceptible t o galvanic corrosion (35).
t o be one of these environments.
of radiators of these types without adequate protection should be avoided.
Galvanic corrosion norma,lly takes the form of severe pit t ing.
S a l t water is considered
Ekcessive exposure (usually during ground tes t ing)
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1 . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I C I I I
TRWEQUIPMENT LABORATORSES
4.0 RADIATOR COATINGS
Radiator coatings prwide protection f o r the substrate m e t a l from vacuum
conditions of space as w e l l as providing control of the thexmd. radiative and
absorptive properties of' t he surface. An effective radiator coating must have
a high Lnfra-red or YnernwL &%tame md, b the case ef' a Im teqeratxre
radiator, low solar absorptance. Coatings meeting these requirements have been
developed and, i n many cases, extensively tested under sjmulated vacuum
conditions of space.
A l i t e r a t u r e survey w a s conductedto determine the most effective coatings, their
applicable temperature range, the methods of application, t he substrates Wli-
cable, and the tes t ing duration. The results of this survey are shown i n Tables
7 ( 4 throw3h 7(g).
4.1 W t t a n c e
"he tabulation of t o t a l hemispherical emittance values i n Tables 7(a) through
7(g) includes only those coatings o r surfaces with values greater than -7 as
determined at test temperatures above 30O0F f o r a minimum of 20 hours in a
simulated space environmerrt.
The results of' extensive emittance coating studies by Pratt and Whitney Aircrm
(54) are reproduced in Figure 59.
Temperature.)
temperature s t a b i l i t y under vacuum conditions we shown.
program, temperatures w e r e measured on the netal substrates. "his eliminated the
need f o r temperature drop and opaqueness corrections and allows direct use of the
(Total Hemispherical Emittance versus
O n l y those coatings possessing high emittances and good high
In the above tes t ing
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emittances i n radiator design.
4.2 Absorptivity
There are two types of thermal radiati n i n space. The first is solar, e ther
di rec t or reflected f m planets (albedo), w i t h a wave length of 0.2 t o 3.0
microns. The second i s infra-red or thermal being emitted from planets and
other astronomical bodies wi th a wave length of 5 t o 50 microns.
wave length difference, almost all surfaces have difference absorptances t o the
two types of radiation.
Due t o t h i s
Thermal absorptance i s taken as being equal t o thermal emittance and is usually
high as a result of a desire f o r a high t h e n d . emittance.
on the other hand, is somewhat independent of thermal emittance and a balance
between high thermal emittance and low solar absorptance can be obtained and is
desirable, especially fo r a low temperature radiator.
solar absorptivity is a f'unction of the temperature leve l of the radiator and the
intensi ty of t h e incident solar energy. Solar absorptivity values have been
determined i n the laboratory f o r various structural materials and coatings.
These have been included as par t of Tables 7(a) through 7(g).
Solar absorptance,
The importance of the
4.3 Comparison Parameter ( OC s/ H)
The r a t i o of solar absorptivity t o t o t a l hemispherical emittance ( 4 s/ H) is
an important parameter f o r comparing the performance characterist ics of various
radiator materials.
Since the ideal is unattainable i n real i ty , materiaJ.8 with 6; s/ E than . 3 are considered acceptable (66).
The ideal radiator surface would have an 6 s/ c H = 0.
r a t io s less
Values f o r ( s/ e H) are shown i n
I I I 1 I 1 I I I I I I I I I I
- 18 -
~RWEQUIPMENT LABORATORIES 1 . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Tables 7(a) through 7(g) f o r sane coatings and surfaces.
4.4 Coating Thickness
Thickness plays an bpor tan t r o l e i n determiningthe emissivity and solar
absorptivity characterist ics of a coating.
low absorptivity inorganic paints (66) indicated t h a t about 3 t o 5 m i l s coating
thickness was required t o cover metallic surfaces.
solar absorptivity (6,) and the solar absorptivity-emittance r a t i o ( d;s/ E H)
reached a mininnUn value with a 5 m i l o r greater coating thickness (Figure 60).
Multiple coats of 1 t o 2 mils bu i l t up t o 5 mils gave indications of having
Studies made with high emissivity,
The study also found t h a t
superior bonding properties than a single 5 mil coat.
4.5 Coatings and Substrates
4.5.1 Coatings
Coatings are classified as single a ides , multiple oxides, non-oxides, stably
oxided al loys and paints.
part of Tables 7(a) through 7 ( g ) .
The high emittance members of each group are shown as
4.5.1.1 Single Oxides
The single oxides coatings screened by P.W.A. (54) are l isted below.
hemispherical. emittance values are shown f o r temperatures ranging from 300%
minimum t o 22OOoF maxinrum.
Tote3
Single Oxides
1. Aluminum Oxide
2. Ceric Oxide
3. Chromic Oxide
T o t d Hemispherical Emittance
.69 - .63
-75 - 965
4.
5 -
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
, I I 1 I I I I
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
11.
Cobalt Oxide (COO
Manganese Oxide ( M n q
Nickel Oxide ( N i O 1 Silicon Dioxide (Si021
Titania (Ti2031
Zirconium Oxide (zro2)
Stannic Oxide ( snO2 1
"Titania Base" Powder
.88 - .go -75 - -85
.45 - .82
-87 - .70
.92 - .85
8 7 7 - e82
-83 - e 8 8
.88 - .86
4.5.1.2 Multiple Oxides
The multiple oxide coatings screened by P.W.A. (54) axe l i s t ed below. Total
hemispherical emittance values are shown f o r temperatures ranging from 300%
minimum t o 2200% maximum.
Multiple Oxides Tot& Hemispherical Emittance
1. Silicates - Zirconium Si l icate .83 - .51 2. Spinels
a) Ma@;nesium Aluminate (MgO - Al 0 ) .00 - .60 2 3
b) 4oqd Nickel Chrome Spinel
60% Silicon Dioxide .88 - -82
3. Titanates
a) Barium Titanate (BaTi03) .75 - .64
b) Calcium Titanate (CaO Ti 02) .81 - e92
c) Iron - Titanium Oxide .85 - .07
d) Iron - Titanium-Aluminum Oxide .83 - -88
4. Zirconates - calcium Zirconate .62 - -56
- 20 -
Minirmrm and maxirmrm values of t o t a l hemispherical emittance are indicated for
a31 substrates tested regardless of substrate o r coating thickness.
4 . 5 . 1.3 Non-Oxides
The non-oxide coatings screened by P.W.A. (54) are listed below.
hemispherical emittance values are shown below f o r tmperatures ranging f’rosl
30O0F minfrmrm t o 2200°F maximum.
Total
Non-Oxides Total Hemispherical Emittance
1. Borides
a) Crys tmine Boron .70 - .00
b) Boron and Si l i ca -78 - -79
c) Molybdenum Diboride -42 - -64
d) Tantalum Bride 049 - -59
.43 - .60 e ) Zirconium Boride
2. Carbides
a ) Acetylene Black i n Xylol
b) Boron Wbide
.72 - .92
.76 - .8o c ) G r a p h i t e Varnish -56 - e62
d) Hafhium Carbide .52 - .62
e ) Molybdenum Carbide -42 - -49
.80 - .g2
.05 - .07
.4J+ - .59
f) Silicon Carbide
g) Silicon Carbide and Silicon Dioxide
h ) Tantalum Carbide
i ) Titanium Carbide .42 - .62
j ) V a n a d i u m Carbide .48 - .60
- 21 -
3. Fluorides - Calcium Fluoride
4. Nitrides - Boron Nitride i n Synar
060 - e47
-02 - .69
4.5.1.4
Some oxidized metals and t h e i r alloys exhibit t o t a l hemispherical emittance
values above .7.
range making an oxided metal surface unfavorable f o r use i n low temperature
r adiat or-condensers .
Stably Oxided Metals and Alloys
Unfortunately, t h e i r solar absorptivity values are i n the same
In high temperature (above 12OOOF) radiator-condenser applications ( systems
condensing potassium o r rubidium vapor), the effects of higher solar absorp-
t i v i t i e s are not as pronounced and the use of oxided metal surfaces may be
warranted.
Oxided metal surfaces require heating t o high temperatures t o accomplish the
oxidation process.
are 1 b 0 F with similar levels fo r Inconel, Inconel X and Haynes Alloy 25.
I
Typical oxidizing temperatures required f o r stainless steels
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES 'I i I I I 1 I 1 I I I I I I 1 I I I 1
The stably oxided metals surfaces screened by P.W.A. (54) are listed below.
Total hemispherical emittance values are shown f o r 300'F and 2200'F.
Total Metallic and Oxidized Metallic Surfaces Hemi spherical Wtt anc e
1. Columbium and Oxidized Columbium
2.
3. Cupric Oxide
4. Molybdenum
5. Oxidized Nichrme
Columbium - I$ Zirconium U o y
- 22 -
.26 - .69
.ii - .30
e 8 6 - .46
.20 - .34
.73 - .82
1. ~RWEQUIPWEHT LABORATORIES
1 II I I I I 1 I I I I I I 1 I I I I
6. Lithiated and Oxidized Nickel
7. Oxidized AISI-310 Stainless Steel
8. Tantalum
9. Rrngsten
io. ciirixi&-~ Black
11. Platinum Black
-63 - .%
.47 - .84
4.5.1.5 Paints
Organic Enamels
High emittance organic enamels are a t t rac t ive from the standpoint t h a t they are
eas i ly applied and can be applied to any substrate.
Organic enamels w e r e found t o be u n f i t f o r long duration space applications since
most of t he coatings exhibit Wpreciable vapor pressures i n a vacuum a t room
temperature (68). The ef fec t is even more pronounced at elevated taperatures.
The lowest temperatures expected would be about 200°F i n the indirect fue l cell
radiator.
A t best, organic paints may be used where short duration thermal control appli-
cations (weeks-months) are required below 575OF.
and absorptivit ies are shown in Table 7(f) and 7(g).
Typical paints, their emittance
Water Glass Enamels
Si l ica te base paints are also known as water glass enamels.
inorganic coatings indicates that alkali-metal silicates, pigmented with
refractory silicate materials, were found t o possess l o w absorptivity-emissivity
r a t io s and high emissivities (66).
Ektensive tes t ing of
These coatings have the ahvantage of appli-
- 23 -
cation by standard spray, dip or brush techniques.
can be accomplished by low temperature curing cycles between 200 t o 4W°F.
coatings are f lexible and ductile, have excellent t h e m s t ab i l i t y characterist ics
under 95OoF and are resis tant t o thermal shocks.
on aluminum and magnesium based substrates which makes them excellent candidates
f o r low temperature water o r organic radiator-condensers.
properties of inorganic coatings are included i n Tables 7(a) through 7(d).
Stabilization of the coating
The
These coatings have been applied
Typical radiative
4.5.2 Substrate Materials
High temperature coatings (above 1200'F) have been successfully bonded t o a wide
range of substrates.
columbium-l$ zirconium, nickel, columbium and molybdenum.
such as beryllium and copper can accept some coatings applicable t o 310 stainless
steel (49) due t o the slmilarity i n expension coefficients.
These include aluminum (1010, 6061) 31.0 stainless steel,
Substrate materials
Where large differences i n thermal expansion coefficients exis t between substrate
and desired coating, the difference can be reduced by W t i p l e layering of
several coatings.
Low temperature organic and silicone coatings (below 1000°F) can be bonded t o
most materials w i t h adequate surface preparation.
s t ra tes can be coated with inorganic pigmented, a l k a l i m e t a l . s i l i ca t e vehicle
coatings .
Magnesium and aluminum sub-
4.6 Application Methods
4.6.1 Themd Spraying
H i g h emittance coatings may be applied t o radiator surfaces by t h e plasma-twc
- 24 -
TR W EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES ,I 1 I I I I 1 I I I 1 I I 1 1 I I I I
and the Rokide thema3 spraying processes.
The plasma-arc spraying process uses an e lec t r ic arc t o heat and ionize a vehicle
gas.
material i n powder form.
the union and the combination impinges on the radiator surface.
(argon, nitrogen) are generally used i n the plasma-arc spreying process.
The ionized gas is then combined with a second gas carrying the coating
The coating material powder is melted or softened by
Inert gases
The major advantage of the plasma-erc spraying technique is t h e ab i l i t y t o protect
the coated material f r o m an oxidizing atmosphere.
maintained below 40O0F while controlling coating thickness, f i n i s h and density.
The substrate material can be
The Rokide spraying process uses an ignited IIllxture of cambustible gases and a
so l id rod of coating material.
i n to t h e flame and is carried by the gas stream t o the surface t o be coated.
This process yields a more porous coating than t h e plasma-arc process because of
the lower gas veloci t ies and temperatures used.
The coating material rod vaporizes as it is fed
Plasma-arc and Rokide techniques are applicable t o stainless s teels , aluminum
alloys, refractory metals and their alloys, beryllium, copper alloys and cobalt
8llOy.s.
The Rokide process re-s t h e use of a coating rod material t ha t matches the
thermal expansion characterist ics of the substrate material f o r high temperature
applications.
4.6.2 Slurries
Coating materia3 may be applied in slurry form.
- 25 -
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES *I I
A slurry i s a finely divided coating material suspended i n a l iquid binder.
It may be appl ied to the radiator surf'ace by spraying, brushing or dipping.
The coating i s air- and oven-dried t o remove vola t i le liquid.
technique finds application where substrate materials cannot withstand the
extreme temperatures of thermal spraying.
are l is ted below:
The slurry
The more promising slurries considered
slurry
Aluminum phosphate
syn=
xylol
curing w erature
500 t o 800°F
500%
Room temperature
4 6 3 Electrodeposition
Electroplating i s another method of applying a high emissivity coating t o a
radiator surface. The method i s extremely useful i n controlling the thickness
of the desired coating.
solutions include chromium, copper, nickel and platinum. Titanium, refractory
metals and duminum tiwe electroplated from fused-salt electrolytes.
solutions can also be used t o electroplate aluminum.
Metals and alloys that can be electroplated from aqueous
Organic
Electrodeposition h a s ma,ny advantages.
be deposited at near zero stress.
by applications of br ight copper and nickel.
controlled from a few millionths of an inch t o 100 mils.
Thermally stable pure metal coatings can
Surface defects and roughness may be leveled
!The thickness of a coating may be
Electroplating finds extensive use in plating chromium black and platinum black
on beryllium, stainless s tee ls and nickel. ChraaniWn black can be applied t o any
- 26 -
I I B I I 1 I I I I I 1 I 1 I I I
c
surface that can be plated with nickel or chromium.
4-6.4 Vapor Phase Deposition
Surface catalysis, thermal decomposition or reduction of a coating's vo la t i le
compound are used t o produce both metallic and non-metallic deposits on metal
substrates (69).
of aluminM, chromium and nickel. pyrolytic graphites can be produced by thermal
decomposition of methane and acetylene on a heated surface at temperatures between
1832 t o 459% (69).
p p o l y t i c grqhite coatings applicable only t o l a w thermal expansion substrates.
The high t o t a l solar absorptances (70) ranging from .85 t o .gl of graphite i n
general make them applicable only t o high temperature potassium or rubidim radi-
ator condensers.
Therma;L decomposition of metal organic compounds produce deposits
The deposition temperatures required make high emittance
The major application of vapor phase deposition f o r space radiator-condensers is
limited.
substrate and a high emittance - low solar absorptance coating when electroplating
is impractical.
coating, and has a high deposition rate ( t o 20 mils per hour) (69).
It may be used 86 an intermediate layer of material between a m e t a l
The technique produces good coverage of the surface, a pore-free
4.6.5 Other C o a t i n g Methods
Chemical deposition, vacuum mete,llizin@; and painting are also techniques f o r
coating materials. Chemical deposition finds application where the use of anodes
and currents are not feasible.
bmersion o r displacement type
vacuum metallizing consists of
Platinum black is coated on beryllium by an
coating process.
evaporating the coating m e t a l and condensing it on
- 27 -
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
the surface t o be coated.
and t h e coating thickness i s generally less than 1 mi l th i ck .
not considered practica,l f o r large radiators and at t h e present t i m e i s re lat ively
undeveloped,
The process 1s accomplished i n a vacuum environment
The process is
Organic and inorganic coatings using volat i le vehicles can be applied by t h e
conventional painting methods of brush, dip or spraying.
temperature or in an oven at temperatures up t o 400% depending on t h e type of
coating being applied.
Curing is done at room
- 28 -
I I I I I I I 1 II 1 I I 1 8 1 I I u I
~I I I I
I I ~I ‘I I II I I I I I
,I
5.0 REc0MMEMlATIoNs
Based on the readily available data in the literature, the following areas of
work appear t o wama,nt -her attention t o more rel iably and accurately design
and analyze condenser-radiators for space power systems:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Low temperature ( 3009) emittance coating testing. Most of this
work has been i n t h e higher temperature ranges, and as a result some
coatings unacceptable at high temperatures that may be acceptable at
fuel c e l l temperature levels, f o r instance, have been neglected.
Atmospheric testing of emittance coatings.
will be ground operated prior t o f l i gh t , the effect of this operation
Since almost B;u radiators
is iMportant.
Compatibility of f i n materials, tube materials and emittance coatings.
Information on a wider range of combinations, including beryllium, i s
needed.
Meteoroid protection capability.
protection thickness that accounts f o r the duc t i l i ty of amor materid
i n addition t o density and elastic nodulus.
Develup an expression f o r amor
- 29 -
1. i I 1 I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I 1 I
1. I I 1 I i I i I I 1 I I I 1 I 1 1 i
E3 I- v) w c I- I (3 - -1 LL
a I-
c
PL z! - a
VI a w m
Z
U Z
5 w
w LL W Y w LL w
2
Z - v) LL w m
Z 3
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
m .- -0
0 P 2 0' U 4 0
i - 0 c s E b
Y
Y
0 c L
C
I I I I I I I
I
I 1. i 1 1 1 I 1 I I; I I I I 1 1 I I I I
w PI
I- 2
w o: v) v) w oc 0.
2 3 w n z w I-
TR W EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES I-
-h - - -v
3 8 N y 9.0
$ 3 N N
%3 2.9 . .
Y U
84 . . 2." Y Y
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nh cs 00s 0.0. N r 4 . .
A
Q) h-
T 7 z z $8 z z
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vu
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A z 2 z Q, v) v
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-
.I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I
I . I I I I I I I I I I f I I I I I I I
~ W E Q U I m E N T ~ ~ ~
TABLE 5A MATERIALS COMPATIBILITY WITH WORKING FLUIDS
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESIS ARE REFERENCE NUMBERS.
TEMPERATURES SHOWN INDICATE NO OR LOW AMOUNTS OF CORROSION.
(a) MORE TESTING REQUIRED TO CHECK OUT LONG TERM CORROSION EFFECTS.
(WC) N O T COMPATIBLE (VERY HIGH CORROSION RATE OR DISSOLVES)
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
TABLE 5B MATERIALS COMPATIBILITY WITH WORKING FLUIDS
NUMBERS IN PARENTHESIS ARE REFERENCE NUMBERS.
TEMPERATURES SHOWN INDICATE NO OR LOW AMOUNTS OF CORROSION.
I I I i I i I I I
I
I I I
I I I
1 I
f
I
t
i
1 . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
I . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I R
2 W W 8
v) 0 - 0 . : 591
Y 0 0 : I?
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a 1 I- - 00 - I-
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2 2 Z
I-
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v)
0 z - t s E
W U z U
L W
P 1 a 2 U h' w 2
2
J w z - a v)
W
5 P Y
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Y)
Y a W
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TR
f ' I
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Y : m
5 2 I 9 I U
I Il I I~ I I I I I I I I 1 I II I 1 I 1
1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I D
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES I 1 I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 I I
111.
Figures
LIQUID WATER DENSITY (59)
70
60
50
40 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF FIGURE 1
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
L L 0 m s I-
I m
2 w I U LL U
- W CL v,
1.4
1 . 3
1.2
1 . 1
1 .o
0
WATER LIQUID SPECIFIC HEAT
4 0 1 00 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 2
WATER HEAT OF EVAPORIZATION (59)
I, 7RWrourpvEnruwwm~Es
i I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500 0 1 00 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 3
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
.40
.39
.38
.37
.36
.35
.34
.33
.32 0
WATER LIQUID T H ER MAL C 0 N DUCT I V I TY
I I L
100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - OF 500 600
FIGURE 4
.I I I 1 I I I I I 1 I I I I I I 1 I I
1.3
1.2
1 . 1
1 .o
.9
- 8
.7
-6
.5
.4
.3
.2
. 1
0 0 100
LIQUID WATER VISCOSITY (ABSOLUTE)
--EMT LA80RA-a
I I 1 I 1 I I U I I I I I I I I I I
200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600
FIGURE 5
TR W EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
I- s 1
I
Z 0
Z - v,
W I- W v 6
3 LL ni
v,
.006
.005
.004
.003
.002
.001
0 0
WATER SURFACE TENSION (LIQUID - VAPOR)
(97)
100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600
FIGURE 6
,I 1 I I I I I I 1 I I I I I 1 I I I I
1. 1 I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I 1 I I I
LL 0 m
3 m
i I-
I
5 I v LL v n
- w v,
2 .o
1.8
1.6
.4
.2
.o
.8
.6
.4
0 100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE -OF
500 600
FIGURE 7
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
cv 0
X
LL 0
I- L L oi
-
r \
m
> > V 3 n Z 0 V
2 I
I- - - I-
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3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3 .O
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2 .o
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1 .o
.8 0
WATER VAPOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600
FIGURE 8
.I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
IktlwEQ&UPMEUTueoRAroRJrS
WATER VAPOR VISCOSITY
240
230
220
21 0
200
1 90
180
170
160
150
1 40
1 30
120
110
1 00
90
80
70
60 0 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - OF 500 600
FIGURE 9
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
1000
1 00
10
1 0 100 200 303 400
TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600 700
FIGURE 10
1
1
I . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
MERCURY LIQUID DENSITY
850
830
81 0
c) c s A
' 790 >-
Z
c tn
w
- Q
770
750
730 0 200 400 600 800 lo00
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 1 1
.035
.034
u, 0
m s .033
I
2 w I v -
.032 w CL v)
.031
MERCURY LIQUID SPECIFIC HEAT
TR W EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES . I I I I I I I I I I !
I I I
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
TEMPERATURE -OF
FIGURE 12
1 . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
MERCURY LIQUID THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
10
800 1 000 0 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE -OF
FIGURE 13
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
MERCURY LIQUID VISCOSITY (AB SOLUT E)
d 0 - X
u w v) I
I- s -I I
> c
- >
12
1 1
10
9
8
7
6
5
4 0
I \ B
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
A \
200 400 600 800
TEMPERATURE -OF
1000 1200
FIGURE 14
. I 1 1 1 I 1 1 I I I I I I I I
I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
~
MERCURY SURFACE TENSION (LIQUID -VAPOR)
.034
.G33
.032
I- LL
-J
t -031 0 Z - v)
w I-
t? 5 Q -030 u,
v)
.029
-028
.027
400 600 800 1 000 0 200 TEMPERATURE - O F
FIGURE 15
TRw EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
.014 I
MERCURY VAPOR THERMAL CON DUCT I V I TY
* 01 2
0" I I- L L
e I .010
& .008 3 n Z 0 W
;i I .OM pr: W I I-
.004
.002 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
TEMPERATURE -OF
FIGURE 16
,I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I
1. 1 I I 1 II 1 I 1 I I I I I I I I I I
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 0
MERCURY VAPOR V I SCOS ITY (ABSOLUTE)
400 600 800
TEMPERATURE -OF
lo00 1200
FIGURE 17
TRw EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES ,I
lo00
100
10
1
MERCURY VAPOR PRESSURE (111)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 18
I
I I I
~
1 I 1 I I I I i I 1 1 1 I I 1 I I I 1
IRW EQWPMW LIIKIRAIXBRIES
POTASSIUM LIQUID DENSITY
52
50
48
m E 4 6 h A
I
> != Z w 4 4 n
LA
42
40
30 200 400 600 800 lo00 1200 1400 1600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 19
k I
m
a r w
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES I
POT ASS I UM L I Q U I D SPECIFIC HEAT
.23
.22
.21
.20
.19
.18
.17
.16 200 400 600 800 1000
TEMPERATURE - OF
1200 1400 1600
FIGURE 20
1. 1 1 I 1 1 I I I I I 1 I 1 I I I I I
POTASSIUM HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
940
900
m -J
3 860 m
Z 0
5 820
+ I
I-
- 8 2
2
>
780 w I
740
700 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 21
-
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14 200
POTASS I UM LIQUID THERMAL CON DUCT I V ITY
400 600 800 lo00 TEMPERATURE - OF
1200 1400 1600
FIGURE 22
1. 1 I 1 I I I 1 i I i I I I 1 I I 1 I
POTASSIUM LIQUID VISCOSITY (ABSOLUTE)
3.4
3.0
2 . 6
2.2
1.8
1.4
1.0
.6
.2 200
f
400 600 800 1000
TEMPERATURE - OF 1200 1400 1600
FIGURE 23
. OOE
007
.OM $3 -I
I
Z 2 v, .005 Z w I- w U Q
5 .004 LL
v,
.003
.002
TRw EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
POTASS I UM SURFACE TENS1 ON (LIQUID-VAPOR)
b
\
800 1 000 1200 1400 1600 200 400 600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 24
.I I I I I I 1 I I I 1 1 I I I I I 1 I
u . lRW~ourpwrrvr LABORATORIES
.28
.) 26
LL 0 .24 m s I-
I
I-
m
4 -22 r u U
- L - I J J L VI .20
.18
-16
.14 600 800
POTASSIUM VAPOR SPECIFIC HEAT (CONST. P)
L 1 000 1200 1400 1600 1800
TEMPERATURE - OF FIGURE 25
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
POTASSIUM VAPOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (62)
.OlO
.009
.008
.007
.006
.005
.004 600 800 1000 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE - OF
1600 1800
FIGURE 26
POTASSIUM VAPOR VISCOSITY (ABSOLUTE)
(62)
i I I
1 I I I I
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1 .c
C ., 600 800 lo00 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE - OF
1600 1800
FIGURE 27
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
POTASSIUM VAPOR PRESSURE
1000
100
10.0
1 .o
. 1
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 28
,I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I A
-EQUIPMENT LA60RATORlES
RUBIDIUM LIQUID DENSITY
91
89
87
85
A
I
I- ul
>
Z -
81
79
77
75
73 200
\
400 600 800 lo00 TEMPERATURE - OF
1200 1400 1600
FIGURE 29
T A W EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
RUBIDIUM HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
400
380
360
340
320
300 400 1400 1600 600 800 1000 1200
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 30
,I I I E I I I I I I I I 1 I 1 I I I I
1. 1 I I I
mw EQUWUENT LABORATORIES
RUBIDIUM LIQUID THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
(62) 17
16
15
14
13
12
1 1
10 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 31
TRw EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
RUBIDIUM LIQUID VISCOSITY (ABS 0 LUTE)
2.0
1.8
6
. 4
.2
1 .o
0 400 600 800 1000
TEMPERATURE - OF
1200 1 400
FIGURE 32
I I
I I I
RUBIDIUM SURFACE TENSION (LIQUID -VAPOR)
.005 1
I -004
~ ; .003 I 0
J v)
i D 0
(97)
200 400 600 800 lo00 1200 1400 1600
I TEMPERATURE - OF
I FIGURE 33
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
. I 1
.10
.09
.08
.07 400
7 I
RUBIDIUM VAPOR SPECIFIC HEAT
(CONST. P) (62)
1400 600 800 1000 1200 TEMPERATURE - OF
1600
,I I I 1 I 1 I i 1 I I I
FIGURE 34
RUBIDIUM VAPOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
(62)
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
2.0
.8
m 0 c
X
u 1.6 W v)
I- s A I
> 1.4 I- - 5 u
1.2
1 .o
RUBIDIUM VAPOR VISCOSITY (AB SOL UTE)
(62)
400 800 1 000 1200
TEMPERATURE - OF
400 1600
FIGURE 36
800
I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I Ii
RUBIDIUM VAPOR PRESSURE
1 00
80
60
40
5 20 v) &
I
W ai 2 v) Lu cz
10 Z 0 8 - s 2
I-
3 6
v)
4
2
1 I
1
i
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 37
300
200
1 00
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
70
60
50
40
\
ETHY LBE t
ORGANIC LIQUID DENSITY
L E N E (61)
I L E N E (61)
\
\
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 38
.I I I I I I 1 1 I I I 1 I I I I I I I
R I I
.8
.7
.6
.5
.4
. 3 0
ORGANIC LIQUID SPECIFIC HEAT
DOWTHERM-A (23)
100 200 300 400 TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600
FIGURE 39
TR W EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
ORGANIC HEAT OF VAPORIZATION
200
190
180
170
160
150
1 40
130
120
110
100
90
80
70 0 100 200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - O F
500 600
FIGURE 40
1. 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
ORGANIC LIQUID THERMAL CON DUCT1 VlTY
.09
.a3 LL 0
I t- u.. w r 3 c .07 m
>- >
t
t- - - 6 3 -06 n Z 0 V
4 2 .05 r
a
w
t-
.04
.03 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF FIGURE 41
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES ,
.003
.002
.001
0 0 100
ORGANIC LIQUID VISCOSITY (ABSOLUTE)
(23)
200 300 400 TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600
FIGURE 42
.I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I 1 I I I II
28
27
26
25
* E 24 x
23 k
z 22 0
z 21
a 20
2 I
- In
W + W u LI ni
ln 3
19
18
17
16
15
14
13 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 43
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
ORGANIC VAPOR SPECIFIC HEAT (CONST. P)
.6
.5
L 0 I
m i 2 .4
5 I! .3
m I
+
I
LL - U w p. m
.2
. 1
ETHYLBENZENE &
/ ' DOWTHERM-A j23)
I
0 1 00 200 300 400 500 600 TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 44
,I I I 1 I I I I 1 I I I I I I 1 I 1 I
ORGANIC VAPOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
(61 ) .022
,020
-018
u, 0
I I- LL
CY I .016 I
I- m
I
3
>. C .014 >
3 0 Z 0 u .012 Q z
- ti
J
CY Lu I I-
.010
.ow
.006 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 45
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
ORGANIC VAPOR VISCOSITY (ABSOLUTE)
90 c
X u w v, I I- s
8
J
I
I- > - U c" >
IO
9
8
7
6
5
4 0 1 00
ORTHO-XYLENE (61)
200 300 400
TEMPERATURE - OF
500 600
FIGURE 46
.I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I
100.0
10.0
s v)
I n
1 .o
0.1
-I-
ORGANIC VAPOR PRESSURE (23)
0 200 300 600 700 800
SATURATION TEMPERATURE- OF FIGURE 47
TRw EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
ORGANIC LIQUID VISCOSITY (ABSOLUTE)
(1 07)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 48
.I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
1 I
I 1
I 1
mw EQWWEWT LABORATORIES
ORGANIC VAPOR PRESSURE (61) lo00
100
i 100 200 300 400 500
TEMPERATURE - OF 600 700
FIGURE 49
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
ili
COBALT ALLOYS (16)
S. ST. (1) i I
I
.I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
PYROLYTIC 'GRAPHITE - a DIRECTION (38) I I
\
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 14QC TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 50
S
I ZIRCALOY-2 (1) I
1' AZ31B 8, HK31A Mg (1) I 0 200 400 600 800 lo00 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE - OF FIGURE 51
TRw EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
\ I Y
1 oo(
I\ I I
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
'COBALT ;ALLOYS (16)
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I
I I
\ Ti - 6 A I - 4V (1)
/ PYROLYTIC GRAPHITE - a DIRECTION (38)
7075 & 2024 A I (1 ) I I I I- 1-
I I . . , . . - , I I 1
I-----
I
'\ ---
Cb-1 Zr (6)
0 208 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE - OF FIGURE 52
1. I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I 1 1 1 I I
1 OOG
500
1 00
50
10
5
1 0
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
I I I I I I I I
1 I
Y I I I 1 I I ’ ZlRCALOY-2,(1)
i I
I 300 SERIES I
200 400 603 800 TEMPERATURE - OF
1 O N : 1200 14co
FIGURE 53
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES .
1 00
90
80
70 7 0 c
X - 60 v, p.
I
E 50 0 Z w oi I- Ln
-1 n 40 w > 8 7 30
20
1c
0
.2% YIELD STRENGTH OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
I I I I
’ PYROLYTIC GRAPHITE - a DIRECTION (89
.I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
~~
0 200 400 600 830 1 OOC 1206 1400 TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 54
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
.2% YIELD STRENGTH OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
\ I
0 200 400 600 800 lo00 1200 1400
FIGURE 55 TEMPERATURE - OF
IRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
.2% YIELD STRENGTH OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
1 50
1 40
130
120 c) I 0
x 2 110
1
I I-
80
70
60
50 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
TEMPERATURE - OF
FIGURE 56
,I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I
THERMAL EXPANSION OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I 1 I
9 0
X
LL 0
M W P
-
Z - & w P
Z
Z 0 Z
X
- I
- v)
2 w z w W
I- I
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
H
I 300 SERIES
Be (1/2 -3
I 1 I I
I PYROLYTIC GRAPHITE a DIRECT O N (89)
~
0 200 400 600 800 loo0 1200 1400
FIGURE 57 TEMPERATURE - OF
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES
THERMAL EXPANSION OF RADIATOR MATERIALS
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
7
' A-286 (6)
/rli Ti - 6 A I - 4V
0 200 400 600 800 1 OCO 1200 1 400
FIGURE 58 TEMPERATURE - OF
.I I U I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I
0 0. co h c
0 0 hl
c
3 - 33NVll lW3 lV3ld3HdSIW3H lV101 FIGURE 59
TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES ,
EFFECT OF COATING THICKNESS ON as A N D CC~/'H
(68)
0.45 n
u I
\
U z 2 0.35 a
5 n
{ 0.30 Y
b
8 m 0.25 m d oi 4 0 v,
0.20 0 .OOl I 002 .003 .004
THICKNESS - INCHES
.O05
FIGURE 611
.I I I I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I I 1 I 1
IV.
References
Note:
but rather a publication which referenced the primary source.
ke-pt the u i i e r of refeArexes to a mesma3le m&er *Ale still emblFng the
interested user t o analyze t h e primary source of data.
I n some cases, the reference l isted is not the primary source of' data - !&is substitution
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&uarterly, MY 1962.
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March 1965.
7. Davis, Harold L., "The Future of' t h e Rankine Cycle," Nucleonics, Vol. 22,
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8. Kelly, K. J., Klannrt, C. J., Rosenblwn, L., *=el, J. W., Jr. and
Thurber, W. C., llCorrosion of High Temperature Materials i n Alkali Metals,"
Nucleonics, Vol. 22, March 1964, 37-42.
9. Freche, J, C., Ashbrook, R. L. and Sanorock, G. D., High Temp erature
Cobalt Tungsten Alloys f o r Aerospace Applications, NASA Lewis, ASME &3D,
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10. Diedrich, J. H. and Lieblein, S., Materials Problems Associated with the
Design of Radiators f o r Space Power Plants, NASA Lewis, 0F.ARS 2535-62,
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Compatibility with Two-Phase Alkali Metals, TM-3697-67, TRW Inc . , May 1963 9
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TRW EQUIPMENT LABORATORIES . I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I 1 1 I 1 I I I I
18. Blaser, R. U. and Owens, J. J., Special Corrosion Study of Carbon and
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Praperties of Ortho-xylene, TM-3633-67, T R W Inc., March 1, 1963.
25. Vargo, E. J. and Pearson, J. B., Therma3 Stabili ty Determinations of
Selected Organic Working Fluids, TM-3381-67, !TRW Inc., April 3, 1962.
26. McEwen, Malcolm, Organic Coolant Data Book, Technical Publication No. AT-1,
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34
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36
37
Bickerman, J. J., Surface Chemistry, Academic Press, Second Edition, 1958.
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Nejedlik, J. F., The SNAP 2 Power Conversion System Topical Report No. 14,
(m-SR-6306) Mercury Materials Evaluation and Selection, ER-4461, T R W Inc.,
July 24, 1962.
Solax Rankine System Performance and Status Summary, ER-4955, TRW Inc.,
July 24, 1962.
Owens, J. J. and Nejedlik, J. F., Materials Compatibility with Mercury
at Temperatures below 1000°F, Corrosion by M e t a l . Heat Transfer Liquids
Symposium, AIME Meeting, February 22, 1962.
NASA-AEC Liquid-Metals Corrosion Meeting, Washington, D.C., NASA TN D-769,
December 1960.
Liquid Metals Handbook, Sodium-NaK Supplement, T I 0 5277, July 1, 1955.
Designing w i t h Aluminum, Kaiser Aluminum Inc., 1957.
Corrosion Resistance of Beryllium i n High Temperature Water, Brush
Beryllium Company, Cleveland, Ohio, 1957.
Titanium Design Notes, Electro Metallurgical Company, Reprinted from
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38. Pyro lytic Graph i te , A Status Report, G.E. Technical Information Series,
R 63 SD &.
39. "Materials i n Design Eugimering," Materials Selector Issue, October 1963.
40. "Pruperties of Ti-6Al-4VY" Titanium Engineering Bulletin No. 1, TitaniUm
Metals Corporation of America, Revised February 1965.
41. "yp ical Pmp erties of Tungsten, Tantalum, Molybdenum and Columbium,
Fansteel Metallurgical Corporation, Brochure, 1960.
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45. Hayes, R. J., Determination of the Fmissivity of Materials @&erly
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through June 30, 1963, NASw-109, PWA-2255.
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48. Hayes, R. J. and Atkinson, W. H., "Thermal Emittance of Materials f o r
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(No. g ) , 616-62~
Ceramic W l e t i n , September 1964, Vol. 43
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1, 1 1 I I I I I 1 I 1 1 I I I 1 1 I 1
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Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 34th Edition, 1952-1953.
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Graphites, DMIC 148, March 1962.
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GD/C-65-120, May 1965, Revised August 1965.
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November 7-11, 1965.
.I I I 1 1 I 1 I I I I I I I I I 1 I I
1. I 1 I I 1 I I I I I I I 1 I I I I 1
75. Radioisotope Dynamic Electrical Parer Systems Study for Manned Ws/Venus
Mission, Ktd-term Report, Atcmics International Report AI-65-6 Vol. 1,
February 19, 1965 (Unclasswied Section) mAs 9-3520.
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Progress i n Astronautics and Aeronautics, "Power System i n Flight,"
(Editors) Zipkin, M. A. and Edxarrds, R. N.
77. Multi-Tube Orbital Rankine Experiment, m-6700, TRW Inc., November 1965.
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79. Solar Rankine System Performance and Status Summary , m-4955, mw Inc.,
July 24, 1962.
80. Tietz, T. E. and Perkins, R. A., Refractory M e t a l Alloys i n Sheet Form:
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Rockets, May-June 1964, Vol. 1, No. 3.
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