Post on 02-Jul-2015
description
transcript
Elements of an argument and the
importance of refutation
By
Meibis González
The Argumentative
Paragraph
Argument
• In an argument the writer tries either to change
the way the reader thinks or to influence the
reader to do something
• The writer wants the reader to:
– Accept or reject an idea
– Try a new way of doing something
– Realize that action should be taken to solve a
problem
Proposal
• The title of the paragraph states the
writer´s idea or proposal
• The title is narrowed down to a
specific idea that can be managed
• Avoid using obvious proposals
Pros and Cons
• There are pros (ideas that support your
proposal), and cons (ideas that are against
your proposal) in an persuasive paragraph
• It is recommended that a brainstorm of
proposals and cons be made. From them,
you keep the ones that really matter.
When writing a persuasive
paragraph you should • List at least three reasons in support of
your proposal (pros)
• List the main reason against your
proposal (con)
Example:
• Proposal: “All handgun sales should be
prohibited”
• Pros:
– Would decrease violent crimes
– Would save taxpayer money (less police)
– Would help create a better social environment
Example:
• Proposal: “All handgun sales should be
prohibited”
• Con:
– Would restrict individual freedom (a person
couldn`t buy what he or she wanted)
Refutation• In this section, the writer must attack and
refute the opponent´s main argument, that
is, the con.
• There are three main methods to refute
the main con or against argument
Methods to refute an argument
• Method 1:
“Demonstrate that the opponent argument
is wrong because it is based on incorrect or
misleading information”
Methods to refute an argument
• Method 2:
“ Show that your opponent argument is
weak because it is based on insufficient
information or ignores significant
information”
Methods to refute an argument
• Method 3:
“Agree that your opponent argument is
valid, but show that your points or support
are more convincing”
Example
Proposal:
“All handgun sales should be prohibited”
Con:
• “would restrict individual freedom (a
person couldn`t buy what he or she
wanted)
Refutation Example:
• Method 2: the opponent argument is
partially right.
• “Freedom to buy would be restricted, but
freedom from fear of people who have
them would be decreased”
Proposal: workers should not retire at age
sixty-seven
• CON:
“those who disagree with this proposal point out
that as people grow older their bodies begin to
slow down, and it is risky for them to continue
working”
Proposal: workers should not retire at age
sixty-seven
REFUTATION: METHOD 2
Actually, this is partially true--the body does slow
down. However, accident rates for those over
sixty-seven are slightly less than those for people
under sixty –seven. It is due to their experience,
and because they are more aware of their own
limitations
Proposal:
Sex-education is appropriate for six graders
Con
“the opponent of this idea claim that most
eleven-year-olds have not seen information
about sex; therefore, teaching them sex
education would put the idea of sex into their
minds”
Proposal:
Sex-education is appropriate for six graders
REFUTATION: METHOD 1
“Nothing could be further from the truth; most
eleven-year-olds have been exposed to sex long
before the sixth grade. Some TV shows, mixed
with drugstore sex magazines, “R”- rated movies,
and even “sexy” comic books, expose children to
sex long before they are in the sixth grade
Flowchart of the Process
Proposal
Pros
Pro 1 Pro 3
Main Con
Refutation of Con
Pro 1
The topic sentence
• The general subject is the proposal
• The specific parts are either the pros, the
refutation of the con, or a mixture of both
Example of a topic sentences
“Greater life expectancy rates and lower
death rates indicate that women may be
biologically stronger than men”
The proposal is in red
The pro is in green
The refutation of the con is in yellow
Example of a topic sentences
“All handgun sales should be prohibited
because violent crime would decrease and
the social environment would improve”
The proposal is in red
The two pros are in green
Types of Evidence in the subject
development of the paragraph
1. Statistical information based on research
2. Information based on personal
experience or common sense
3. Information that compares similar things
Three common problems with evidence
and logic
1. False conclusion:
The conclusion is not based on evidence
2. Bad Evidence:
Evidence that comes from an outdated,
incompetent, or biased source is used
Three common problems with evidence
and logic
3. Misplaced causes and effects:
The fact that two things take place one after
the other doesn´t mean that they are related
in a cause and effect relationship
Examples of the mistakes
False conclusion:
“there is no doubt that the economic
situation of black in South Africa is
improving. According to statistics recently
released by the South African Interior
Ministry, black income has climbed by 5
percent and black unemployment has
decreased by 22 percent”
Examples of the mistakes
• Misplaced causes and effects
“Treating teeth with fluoride causes cancer.
A recent research study, which tracked
children who had had their teeth treated with
fluoride, found that at age sixty, 7 percent of
them had gotten cancer”
Examples of the mistakes
Bad Evidence:
“The voting age in the United States should be
lowered from eighteen to seventeen. At age
seventeen, young people are allowed to drive
unrestrictedly in twenty-five states and even to
drink alcohol in one (Arizona). If they drive and
can drink alcohol, seventeen-year-olds should
surely be able to vote”
Language Patterns used
To make a proposal in the topic sentence:
“I (propose, urge, recommend, insist) that
the killing of whales be (use base verb)
stopped because…”
Language Patterns used
Pattern to cite a source of statistics:
According to (Based on) information from
the U.S. government….
Language Patterns used
Patterns to introduce the main con
“the opponents of (those who disagree
with) this proposal might (would) argue
(assert, declare, claim, say, take the
position) that…”
Language Patterns used
Possible patterns to summarize
“It is essential (important, necessary, vital,
urgent) that the killing of whales be (base
verb form) stopped.”
The Summary Sentence
• It emphatically restates the proposal
stressing the necessity of accepting it
Examples:
1. Help stop the killing of whales!
2. In summary, it is important that the
international language not be English
A grammar tip to keep in mind
Noun clauses appear frequently in
argument. There are many words that may
introduce a noun clause (such as whether, if,
who, what, which, when, where, why, or
how), but the most common word is “that”
References
• Rooks M. George. 1988. Paragraph Power.
Communicating Ideas through Paragraphs: New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
• Images were taken from different sources from The
Internet.