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Assessing the Liquefaction Susceptibility and Liquefaction Potential
of Srinagar City, J&K on the basis of Standard Penetration Test
Sidrat Ul Muntaha Anees#1, Ajaz Masood*2
#Govt. College for Women, M.A Road, Srinagar, J&K, *Road Research & Material Testing
Laboratory Design Inspection & Quality Control Department, Srinagar, J&K. 1sidrathamdani@gmail.com, 2ajazmasood@gmail.com
Abstract - Soil liquefaction induced by earthquake shaking is a major contributor to urban seismic risk. Evaluation of
the liquefaction resistance of soils is an important step in many geotechnical investigations in earthquake prone regions.
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is one of the most broadly used tests worldwide to characterize in situ soil strength.
The SPT data of 206 boreholes falling within Srinagar city has been used in present study. The parameters selected for the
assessment of liquefaction potential of the study area were; SPT N-values, Liquid Limit, Water content of the soil and
Presence of potential sandy layer. The data was analyzed to obtain the average SPT N-values, Liquid limit, water content
and presence of sandy layer for the soil up to the significant depth of 9 meters for all the 206 boreholes. The values of the
same were spatially interpolated using the kriging method for the preparation of the maps respectively. Liquefaction
susceptibility was assessed on the basis of SPT N-values while as liquefaction potential was assessed on the basis of all the
four selected parameters. The results of the study indicate that almost the entire city depicts occurrence of potential
liquefaction which makes the city vulnerable especially at the time of earthquakes. Also a large portion of city area has high
liquefaction susceptibility; therefore, proper mitigation strategies must be adopted in order to reduce the vulnerability of
areas which are highly susceptible to potential liquefaction.
Keywords - Liquefaction, Standard Penetration Test (SPT), SPT N-values, Liquefaction susceptibility,
Liquefaction potential
1. INTRODUCTION
Liquefactions have been widely observed during numerous devastating earthquakes [16]. During earthquakes, the shaking
of the ground may cause saturated granular soils to lose their resistance and behave like a liquid. This phenomenon is
called soil liquefaction and may cause building settlement or tipping, sand boils, landslides and other failures [29].
Earthquake liquefaction is a major contributor to urban seismic risk [41]. The shaking causes increased pore water pressure
which reduces the effective stress and therefore reduces the shear strength of the sand [14]. Soil liquefaction is a major
cause of damage during earthquakes [50].
Liquefaction does not occur at random, but is restricted to certain geologic and hydrologic environments, primarily
recently deposited sands and silts in areas with high ground water levels. Generally, the younger and looser the sediment,
and the higher the water table, the more susceptible the soil is to liquefaction [6]. Liquefaction is likely to occur when a
loose sand is in saturated conditions and shaken by a strong earthquake or shocks which result in a built up of hydrostatic
pore pressure and a decrease of the effective stress [5]. Liquefaction is also likely to occur in loose to moderately saturated
granular soils with poor drainage, such as silty sands, sandy silts, clayey sands [24] or sands and gravels capped or
containing seams of impermeable sediments [61]. The objective of the study is to assess the Liquefaction Susceptibility and
Liquefaction Potential of Srinagar city, Jammu and Kashmir on the basis of Standard Penetration Test.
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Soil liquefaction is a major concern for structures constructed with or on saturated sandy soils. Since 1964, much work
has been carried out to explain and understand soil liquefaction. The major earthquakes of Niigata in 1964 and Kobe in
1995 have illustrated the significance and extent of damage that can be caused by soil liquefaction [39]. When the soil
supporting a building or other structure liquefies and loses strength, large deformations can occur within the soil which
may allow the structure to settle and tip [6]. It is caused by large deformation or cracks in the foundation ground due to
subsidence and displacement in the liquefied layers [5]. It causes failure of foundations, soil embankments and dams and
these failures ultimately affect the social and financial status of the region [59]. When liquefaction is accompanied by some
form of ground displacement, it is destructive to the built environment [6]. Buildings whose foundations bear directly on
clayey silty up to silty sandy and sandy soil which liquefies will experience a sudden loss of support, which will result in
drastic and differential settlement of the building. Sand boils can erupt into buildings through utility openings and may
allow water to damage the structure or electrical systems [41].
2. EVALUATION OF LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY AND
POTENTIAL
Evaluation of the liquefaction resistance of soils is an important step in many geotechnical investigations in earthquake
prone regions [4]. The phenomenon of liquefaction has been extensively studied for the case of cohesionless soils under
seismic loading conditions [41]. The international research on liquefaction behavior of cohesionless soils has shown that
reasonable estimates of liquefaction potential and prediction can be made based on simple in-situ test data, such as
standard penetration values (S.P.T. tests), some lab tests and the experience during the past earthquakes [10], [30], [36],
[42], [43], [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [61], [62].
Liquefaction susceptibility is strongly a function of density (typically relative density of cohesionless soils). The capacity for
volume reduction in a soil is the basic cause for cyclic pore pressure development and consequent liquefaction [27].
Measures to mitigate the damages caused by liquefaction require accurate evaluation of liquefaction potential of soils [16].
The evaluation of liquefaction potential at a site is essential to take measures for the prevention of seismic disasters and
reduction of damage [5]. The liquefaction potential of a soil layer can be determined through either laboratory tests on
undisturbed soil samples or from in situ tests [25].
The field test which has gained common usage for evaluation of liquefaction susceptibility is the Standard Penetration Test
[62]. The Standard Penetration Test, known as the SPT, is one of the most broadly used tests worldwide to characterize in
situ soil strength. It is currently the most popular and economical means to obtain subsurface information [1]. SPT is the
most commonly used in situ test for liquefaction potential prediction [25]. The penetration resistance of the split-spoon
sampler could provide useful in situ test data that might be correlated with the consistency and density of the soils
encountered [40]. A large data base of SPT blow counts, normalized to account for the effects of different overburden
pressure and performance conditions, has been correlated to occurrence and non-occurrence of liquefaction in a wide
variety of soils [17], [45], [49]. The SPTs empirical method [36] is commonly used for evaluation of liquefaction potential
of silty soils up to silty sands [41].
3 STUDY AREA
The Kashmir valley located in North-western Himalayas lies between the Pir-Panjal and the Zanskar thrusts, making it
vulnerable to earthquakes [20]. Srinagar is the largest city of Jammu and Kashmir state [12]. It is located between
33º53´49´´- 34º17´14´´ North latitudes and 74º36´16´´- 75º01´26´´ East longitudes (Fig. 1), 1585 meters above sea level.
Srinagar has been shaken numerous times by earthquakes in the past millennium, most recently by damaging earthquakes
in 1885 (M 6.2) and 2005 (M 7.6) with estimated EMS (European Macroseismic Scale) intensity VI-VII [8]. Srinagar lies on
one of the most waterlogged soft soil sites for a capital city in the world [28].
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The city is located on both the sides of the Jhelum River which passes through the city and meanders through the valley.
The best quality loams and clayey loams extend over the entire length of the Valley on either side of the Jhelum, has its
main expanse in the central part consisting of parts of Srinagar tahsil (a revenue subdivision within a district) [38]. The
low-lying tracts in the Valley, particularly those on the left bank of the Jhelum, have two main types of soil, clayey and
swampy soils [38]. The Kashmir valley especially the Jhelum valley floor has the vast tracts of land comprising of alluvial
soil. In the Kashmir valley, the soils vary from clayey loams to loams [26], [38]. In Srinagar, thick sediments in the Jhelum
River valley and around lakes are likely to amplify shaking significantly [8].
The Himalayan zone is divided into three seismic gaps; Kashmir gap, Central gap and Assam gap. The Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand falls under Kashmir gap which is the highest earthquake prone seismic zone
[52]. Bilham's studies show that the Indian tectonic plate is moving along a major fault beneath the Himalaya at about 1.8
centimetres a year. (This is about one-third of the total plate movement of India toward Asia - 5.4 centimetres a year. The
remaining rate of plate motion is responsible for tectonic deformation and uplift in Tibet and other parts of central Asia)
[56]. The state of Jammu and Kashmir falls in a region of high to very high seismic hazard with Srinagar falling in the High
seismic hazard zone. As per the 2002 Bureau of Indian Standards [9] map (Fig. 2), this state also falls in Zones IV & V [2].
The history of earthquakes goes back to 1505 in this region [18]. The earthquake record of the past decades shows that the
Kashmir region has been hit at least by one earthquake of magnitude 5 or larger every year or two [56]. The tectonic
movement in the region is responsible for the creation of the Himalayan mountain ranges through compressive and
bending stresses. The subduction mechanism has triggered a few great and several intermediate earthquakes in a band of
about 50-80 km width and an arc length of about 2500 km [7], [18], [32], [33].
Fig. 1 Location of the Study area
Fig. 2 High seismic hazard zones of Jammu and Kashmir
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4 MATERIALS AND METHODS
One of the most widely used procedure for estimation of liquefaction potential includes the Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) N-values to estimate a soil’s liquefaction resistance [31]. SPT conducted by means of the split spoon, furnishes in-
place data about resistance of the soils to penetration which can be used to evaluate in-place soil strength data and other
characteristic properties like density, consistency, in terms of N value of soil (number of blows per 30 cm of penetration of
standard split spoon sampler) [21]. The liquid limit is defined as the minimum moisture content at which a soil will flow
upon application of a very small shearing force [23] while as water content indicates the natural moisture content of the
soil [22]. The SPT data of 206 boreholes executed within Srinagar city was used and the data was collected from Design
Inspection and Quality Control Department, Srinagar (J&K). The Survey of India toposheets (1971) (J12, J16, K13 and
N4) on scale 1:50000 were used to present the spatial distribution of the executed boreholes selected for the study as
indicated in Fig. 3. Softwares like Arcview 3.2a and ArcGIS were used for the preparation of maps. The Srinagar city map
was used as the base map for the preparation of all the other maps generated for the depiction of the liquefaction
susceptibility and liquefaction potential of the area. Based on reviewed literature [15], in order for a cohesive soil to liquefy,
the soil must have a Liquid limit (LL) that is less than 35 (i.e. LL < 35) and the water content (W) of the soil must be
greater than 90% of the liquid limit {i.e. W > 0.9 (LL)}. The data for these two criteria was used along with the SPT N-
values [34], [37], [40], [55], [58] and presence of sandy layer [3], [37] for the assessment of liquefaction potential. Therefore,
on the basis of in-place Standard Penetration Test (SPT) data, the parameters selected for the assessment of liquefaction
potential were; N values, Liquid Limit, Water content of the soil, and Presence of sandy layer. The data of 206 boreholes
used for the study were from different sites within Srinagar city which were spatially distributed almost over the entire
study area. The average SPT N-values, Liquid limit, water content and presence of sandy layer for the soil up to the
significant depth of 9 meters for all the 206 boreholes were interpolated spatially using the kriging method [35] for the
preparation of the maps respectively. Liquefaction susceptibility was assessed on the basis of SPT N-values while as
liquefaction potential was assessed on the basis of all the four selected parameters. Among the four selected parameters, if
any one fulfilled the criteria for the occurrence of potential liquefaction, the soil was taken to be potentially liquefiable at
that place. Table 1 includes the SPT data of one representative borehole.
Fig. 3 Location of the executed 206 sampling boreholes
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5 ASSESSMENT OF LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY
Liquefaction susceptibility refers to the capacity of the soil to resist liquefaction. Investigations by several researchers have
shown that there is a rational basis to expect a good correlation to exist between soil liquefaction resistance and soil
penetration resistance [45], [53], [57]. According to Woods (1978), Seed (1979) and Prakash (1981), the Standard
Penetration Test is a reliable method that could be used in an empirical way for the correlation with liquefaction risk
probability of the ground. SPT tests can be performed to correlate the SPT N values with geotechnical design parameters
such as soil density, etc to provide an index of soil liquefaction resistance [1]. On the basis of the SPT N-values obtained
from the 206 boreholes, the ranges considered for the Liquefaction susceptibility based on the density/consistency of soil
for Srinagar city were framed as in Table I [40], [54], [58].
TABLE I
CATEGORIZATION OF BOREHOLES ON THE BASIS OF THEIR POTENTIAL LIQUEFACTION
SUSCEPTIBILITY BASED ON
PENETRATION RESISTANCE AND SOIL PROPERTIES BASED ON THE SPT (VARGHESE 2005 AND
ROGERS 2006)
S.No
.
SPT
N-value
Soil packing
Cohesion less/Cohesive
Liquefaction
susceptibility
1. 0 - 4 Very loose/ Very soft to
soft
High
2. 4 - 10 Loose/ Firm Moderate
3. 10 - 30 Medium/ Stiff to Very
stiff
Low
4. 30 - 50 & > 50 Dense to Very dense/
Hard
Very Low
According to the Liquefaction susceptibility of Srinagar city on the basis of interpolated N-values (Fig. 4); out of the total
area (i.e. 278.1 km2) about 22.88% (63.62 km2) area depicts high liquefaction susceptibility including areas which lie in
close proximity of Dal Lake and river Jhelum in the inner part of the city. About 30.32% (84.32 km2) area depicts
moderate liquefaction susceptibility including almost the entire inner city. 41.44% (115.26 km2) area depicts low
liquefaction susceptibility comprising of the peripheral areas of the city and 5.36% (14.9 km2) area depicts very low
liquefaction susceptibility including only few chunks of the area of the city.
Fig. 4 Potential liquefaction susceptibility of Srinagar City as per the interpolated SPT N-values
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The relationship between SPT N-values with increasing depth of soil was presented graphically in order to show that in
most of the boreholes the SPT N-values are low which indicates higher susceptibility to liquefaction. In only some cases,
the SPT N-values are high indicating lower susceptibility to liquefaction (Fig. No.’s 5a to 5t). The trend indicates a higher
susceptibility of soil to potential liquefaction which is a matter of great concern and requires immediate response.
According to the data obtained from most of the boreholes, the SPT N-values increase with the increasing depth of soil
but in some cases the N-values decrease or depict constant values, the reasons for which can be attributed to presence of
potential sandy layer or encounter with layer of soft soil, proximity of water table or any water source or any other reasons.
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5a SPT N-values for Boreholes 1-10
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5b SPT N-values for Boreholes 11-20
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m7.5 m
0
5
10
15
20
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5c SPT N-values for Boreholes 21-30
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
5
10
15
20
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5d SPT N-values for Boreholes 31-40
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
5
10
15
20
25
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5e SPT N-values for Boreholes 41-50
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
50
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5f SPT N-values for Boreholes 51-60
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5g SPT N-values for Boreholes 61-70
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
50
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5h SPT N-values for Boreholes 71-80
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
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1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
50
60SP
T N
-val
ue
s
Fig. 5i SPT N-values for Boreholes 81-90
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
20
40
60
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5j SPT N-values for Boreholes 91-100
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
5
10
15
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5k SPT N-values for Boreholes 101-110
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
5
10
15
20
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5l SPT N-values for Boreholes 111-120
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
5
10
15
20
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig.5m SPT N-values for Boreholes 121-130
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
20
40
60
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig.5n SPT N-values for Boreholes 131-140
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
20
40
60
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5o SPT N-values for Boreholes 141-151
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m7.5 m0
20
40
60
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5p SPT N-values for Boreholes 152-162
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
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Fig. 5a – 5t Relationship of SPT N-values with the increasing depth of soil (in meters) for all the 206 boreholes
6 ASSESSMENT OF LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL
Liquefaction potential for Srinagar City was assessed on the basis of SPT N-values, Liquid Limit, Water content and
Presence of potential sandy layer. Among these parameters if any one fulfilled the criteria for the occurrence of potential
liquefaction, then the soil was taken to be potentially liquefiable at that place.
TABLE II
AVERAGE SPT N-VALUES, LIQUID LIMIT (%AGE), WATER CONTENT (%AGE) AND PRESENCE OF
POTENTIAL
SANDY LAYER CALCULATED FOR THE REPRESENTATIVE 206 BOREHOLES EXECUTED WITHIN
SRINAGAR CITY
S.No. SPT
N-values
Number of boreholes
included
0.9 of
Liquid Limit (%age)
Number of
boreholes included
1. 1 – 15 144 18 – 29 33
2. 16 – 30 50 30 – 41 170
3. 31 – 45 12 42 – 53 3
Liquid
Limit
(%age)
Number of boreholes
included
Water content (%age) Number of
boreholes included
1. 20 – 32 30 8 – 25 68
2. 33 – 45 171 26 – 43 135
3. 46 – 58 5 44 – 61 3
Presence of potential sandy layer Yes No
Number of boreholes included 58 148
Source: Computed from RRMTL, Srinagar (J&K) data
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
5
10
15
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5q SPT N-values for Boreholes 163-173
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m7.5 m0
20
40
60
80
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5r SPT N-values for Boreholes 174-184
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
50
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5s SPT N-values for Boreholes 185-195
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
1.5 m
4.5 m
7.5 m0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SPT
N-v
alu
es
Fig. 5t SPT N-values for Boreholes 196-206
1.5 m
3 m
4.5 m
6 m
7.5 m
9 m
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On the basis of the methodology adopted, the soils of the study area were classified into liquefiable and non-liquefiable
ones. Maps were prepared based on the interpolated values of Liquid limit, water content and presence of potential sandy
layer (Fig. 6, 7 and 8). Fig. 9 represents the potentially liquefiable and non-liquefiable soils within Srinagar city on the basis
of all the parameters taken into consideration. The figure clearly indicates that almost the entire city consists of potentially
liquefiable soils leaving only few areas in southern and north-eastern parts of city which consist of potentially non
liquefiable soils.
Fig. 6 Potentially Liquefiable and
Non liquefiable soils of Srinagar
City on the basis of Liquid Limit
Fig. 7 Potentially Liquefiable and
Non liquefiable soils of Srinagar
City on the basis of Water content
Fig. 8 Potentially Liquefiable and
Non liquefiable soils of Srinagar City on the
basis of presence of potential sandy layer
Fig. 9 Potentially Liquefiable and
Non liquefiable soils of Srinagar City on
the basis of all the selected parameters
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7 RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
According to the Liquefaction susceptibility of Srinagar city about 63.62 km2 (22.88%) area is highly susceptible and 84.32
km2 (30.32%) area is moderately susceptible to liquefaction; while as 115.26 km2 (41.44%) area depicts low and 14.9 km2
(5.36%) area depicts very low liquefaction susceptibility. The SPT N-values increase with the increasing depth of soil but in
some cases the N-values decrease or depict constant values, the reasons for which can be attributed to presence of
potential sandy layer or encounter with layer of soft soil, proximity of water table or any water source or any other reasons.
On the basis of Liquid limit, about 106.92 km2 (38.45%) area is potentially non-liquefiable and about 171.19 km2 (61.55%)
area is potentially liquefiable. According to the water content, 125.8 km2 (45.24%) area is potentially liquefiable while as
remaining 152.3 km2 (54.76%) area is potentially non-liquefiable. As per the presence of potential sandy layer, 131.23 km2
(47.19%) area is potentially liquefiable and the rest 146.88 km2 (52.81%) is potentially non-liquefiable. On the basis of all
the parameters, about 52.82 km2 (18.99%) area is potentially non-liquefiable while as the rest 225.29 km2 (81.01%) area is
potentially liquefiable which covers almost entire 63 wards out of a total of 68 wards and includes almost 1,58,697 (87%)
residential structures, 10,21,620 (86.5%) population and 4,88,813 (87%) female population of city. Thus, almost the entire
city depicts occurrence of potential liquefaction which makes the city vulnerable especially at the time of occurrence of
earthquakes. Also a large portion of city area has high liquefaction susceptibility; therefore, proper mitigation strategies
must be adopted in order to reduce the potential liquefaction of areas which are highly susceptible to potential
liquefaction.
Demarcation of the areas highly susceptible to potential liquefaction within the city can be done so that the residential or
commercial constructions can be avoided especially in the close proximity of water bodies where the risk is high. Before
the construction of any building (residential or commercial) soil testing of the site should be carried out in order to check
the resistance of the soil to potential liquefaction and construction should be carried out only after joint approval of the
concerned authorities. This broader categorization of potential liquefaction can further be filtered and improved by
statistically more accurate, intense, representative and site specific parametric studies, which may yield site specific
characterization or even micro zoning of potentially liquefiable regions within the city.
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