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Contents

introduction ............................................................................................................ iii

Section 1: General information .............................................................................1

1.1 Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents..............................................................................3

1.2 Conversions.......................................................................................................................... .4

1.3 Aircraft Nomenclature ..........................................................................................................13

Axes of an Airplane.........................................................................................................13

Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight..............................................................................13

Types of Aircraft Structure ..............................................................................................14

Truss .........................................................................................................................14

Monocoque ...............................................................................................................14

Semimonocoque ........................................................................................................15

1.4 ATA-100 System of Identification......................................................................................... .16

1.5 Aircraft Nationality Identification.............................................................................................21

1.6 Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations......................................................................... .24

1.7 Standard Taxi Signals...........................................................................................................27

1.8 Cylinder Color Code Identifiers ............................................................................................ 28

Section 2: Physical and Chemical .......................................................................29

Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................................................. 30

2 .1 Temperature Conversion ......................................................................................................... ..31

Absolute Temperature .................................................................................................. 36

2.2 ICAO Standard Atmosphere ..................................................................................................... ...37

2.3 Distribution of Electrons in the

Chemical Elements .........................................................................................................38

2 . 4 Density of Various Solids and Liquids ............................................................................. ..41

Density of Various Gases ........................................................................................ ..41

2.5 Hydraulic Relationships.......................................................................................................... ..42

2 . 6 Quantity of Liquid in a Drum................................................................................................. ..44

Estimating Quantity of Liquid in a Standard 55-Gallon Drum ..........................................................44

S e c t i o n 3 : M a t h e m a t i c s 4 5

3 .1 Measurement Systems 47 The International System of Units (SI) 47 The Metric System 48 U.S. - Metric Conversion 48

Length 48 Weight 48 Volume 49

3 . 2 Mathematical Constants 50

3 . 3 Mathematical Symbols 51

3 . 4 Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots of Numbers 52

3 . 5 Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle 55

3 . 6 Geometric Formulas 58

Triangle 58 Square 58 Rectangle 58 Parallelogram 58 Trapezoid 58 Regular Pentagon 59 Regular Hexagon 59 Regular Octagon 59 Circle 59 Ellipse 59 Sphere 60 Cube 60 Rectangular Solid 60 Cone 60 Cylinder 60

3 . 7 Trigonometric Functions 61

3 . 8 Powers of Ten 65

3 . 9 Number Systems 68 Binary Equivalent of Decimal 68 Octal Equivalent of Decimal 68 Binary Equivalent of Octal 68 Hexadecimal Number System 68 Binary Coded Decimal Equivalent of Decimal 69 The Gray Code 69 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) ... 69 Special Control Functions Used in ASCII: 71

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S e c t i o n 4 : A i r c r a f t D r a w i n g s 7 3

4 . 1 Types of Aircraft Drawings 75

Sketches 75 Detail Drawings 75 Assembly Drawings 75 Installation Drawings 75 Sectional Drawings 75 Cutaway Drawing 75 Exploded-View Drawing 75 Schematic Diagram 76 Block Diagram 76 Repair Drawings 76 Wiring Diagrams 76 Pictorial Diagrams 76 Orthographic Projections 76

4 . 2 Meaning of Lines 77

4 . 3 Material Symbols 78

4 . 4 Location Identification 79

Fuselage Stations 79 Water Lines 79 Butt Lines 79 Wing and Horizontal Stabilizer Stations 79

S e c t i o n 5 : A i r c r a f t E l e c t r i c a l S y s t e m s 8 1

5 .1 Electrical Symbols 83

5 . 2 Alternating Current Terms and Values 91

5 . 3 Ohm's Law Relationships 92

5.4 Electrical Formulas 94

Formulas Involving Resistance 94 Formulas Involving Capacitance 95 Formulas Involving Inductance 97 Formulas Involving Both Capacitance and Inductance 100

Resonant Frequency 100 Total Reactance 100 Impedance 100

5 . 5 Electrical System Installation 101 Selection of Wire Size 101 Notes on Wire Installation 106 Switch Derating Factors 108 Wire and Circuit Protectors 109 MS Electrical Connectors 110 Resistor Color Code 114 Aircraft Storage Batteries 116

Lead-Acid Batteries 116 Nickel-Cadmium Batteries 117

S e c t i o n 6 : A i r c r a f t M a t e r i a l s 1 1 9

6 .1 Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys 121

6 . 2 Four-Digit Designation System for Wrought Aluminum Alloys 122

6 . 3 Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys 123

6 . 4 Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys 124 Heat-Treatable Alloys 124

Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys 124

6 . 5 Temperatures for Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys 125

6 . 6 Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum Alloy Sheet 126

6 . 7 Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets 127 Single-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets ... 127 Double-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets .. 127

6 . 8 SAE Classification of Steel 128

6 . 9 Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness 129

6 . 1 0 Color of Steel for Various Temperatures 130

6 . 1 1 Color of Oxides on Steel at Various Tempering Temperatures 131

S e c t i o n 7 : T o o l s f o r A i r c r a f t M a i n t e n a n c e 1 3 3

7.1 Measuring and Layout Tools 135 Steel Rule 135 Hook Rule 135 Combination Set 135 Vernier Calipers 136 Dividers 136 Outside Calipers 136 Inside Calipers 136 Hermaphrodite Calipers 136 Scriber 136

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How to Read the Vernier Scale 137 Micrometer Caliper 138 Dial Indicator 140 Feeler Gages 140 Small-Hole Gages 140 Telescoping Gages 140

7 . 2 Holding Tools 141 Vises 141

Bench Vise 141 Drill Press Vise 141

Pliers 141 Combination/Slip Joint Pliers 141 Water Pump Pliers 142 Vise-Grip® Pliers 142 Needle-Nose Pliers 142

7.3 Safety Wiring Tools 143 Diagonal Cutting Pliers 143 Duckbill Pliers 143 Safety Wire Twisting Tool 143

7 . 4 Bending and Forming Tools 144 Tools for Making Straight Bends and Curves 144

Cornice Brake 144 Box Brake 144 Press Brake 144 Slip Roll Former 145

Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal 145 English Wheel 145

7 . 5 Cutting Tools 145 Shears 145

Throatless Shears 145 Squaring Shears 146 Scroll Shears 146

Hand Shears 146 Tin Snips 146 Compound Shears 147

Saws 147 Band Saw 147 Hacksaw 148

Wood Saws 148 Crosscut Saw 148 Ripsaw 148 Compass, or Keyhole Saw 148 Backsaw 149

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Chisels 149 Flat Chisel 149 Cape Chisel 149 Diamond Point Chisel 149 Round Nose Chisel 149

Files 150

7 . 6 Hole Cutting Tools 151 Twist Drills 151 Twist Drill Sizes 151 Drill Gage 154 Twist Drill Sharpening 154

Drill Point Gage 155 Large Hole Cutters 156

Hole Saws 156 Fly Cutter 156

Countersink 156 Reamers 157 Drills for Wood and Composite Materials 157

Auger Bits 157 Forstner Bits 158 Flat Wood-Boring Bits 158 Brad-Point Drills 158 Spade Drill 158

7 . 7 Threads and Threading Tools 159 Unified and American Standard Thread Form 159 Thread-Cutting Tools 159 Body and Tap Drill Sizes 160 Taps 160 Screw Pitch Gage 161

7 . 8 Torque and Torque Wrenches 162 Click-Type Torque Wrench 162 Deflecting-Beam Torque Wrench 162 Torque Conversions 164 Recommended Torque Values 164

7 .9 Pounding Tools 166 Carpenter's Claw Hammer 166 Ball Peen Hammer 166 Metalworking Hammers 166

Straight Peen and Cross Peen Hammers 166 Body, or Planishing Hammer 166 Mallets and Soft-Face Hammers 167 Sledge Hammers 167

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7 . 1 0 Punches.................................................................................................................................167

Prick Punch..................................................................................................................167

Center Punch .............................................................................................................. 167

Drift, or Starting Punch................................................................................................ 167

Pin Punch ................................................................................................................... 168

Transfer Punch.............................................................................................................168

Automatic Center Punch ..............................................................................................168

7 . 1 1 Wrenches .......................................................................................................................... 169

Open End Wrench .......................................................................................................169

Adjustable Open End Wrench ................................................................................169

Ratcheting Open End Wrench................................................................................169

Box End Wrench..........................................................................................................170

Ratcheting Box Wrench ......................................................................................... 170

Combination Wrench................................................................................................... 170

Flare Nut Wrench ........................................................................................................ 170

Socket Wrenches ........................................................................................................ 171

Socket Wrench Handles......................................................................................... 171

Hand Impact Tool .................................................................................................. 171

Typical Socket Wrenches....................................................................................... 172

Extension and Adapters......................................................................................... 172

Allen Wrenches ........................................................................................................... 172

7 . 1 2 Screwdrivers ....................................................................................................................... .173

Slot Screwdrivers ........................................................................................................ 173

Offset Screwdriver....................................................................................................... 173

Recessed-Head Screwdrivers .....................................................................................173

Screw Heads for Special Structural Screws.................................................................174

S e c t i o n 8 : A i r c r a f t H a r d w a r e ...................................................................................... ..1 7 5

8 . 1 Standards.............................................................................................................................177

8 . 2 Threaded Fasteners .............................................................................................................177

Bolts ............................................................................................................ .......................177

Hex-Head Bolts...................................................................................................... 178

Flush-Head Bolts ................................................................................................... 179

Drilled-Head Bolts.................................................................................................. 179

Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts ......................................................................... 179

Internal Wrenching Bolts ....................................................................................... 179

Clevis Bolts ............................................................................................................ 180

Eye Bolts ............................................................................................................... 180

B o l t Installation......................................................................................................... 180

Bolt Fits....................................................................................................................... 181

Screws 181 Aircraft Screw Heads 182 Set Screws 183 Self-Tapping Sheet-Metal Screws 183

Nuts 184 Nonlocking Nuts 184 Self-Locking Nuts 185

Low-temperature locking nuts 185 High-temperature locking nuts 186

Wing Nuts 186 Anchor Nuts 186 Channel Nuts 187 Pressed-Steel Nuts 187 Instrument Nuts 188 Rivnuts 188

Threaded Fastener Safetying 189 Locking Washers 189 Cotter Pins 189 Safety Wire and Safety Wire Twisting 190

8 .3 Washers 193

8.4 Special Rivets 195 Blind Rivets 195

Friction-Lock Rivets 196 Mechanical-Lock Rivets 197 CherryMax Rivets, Olympic-Lok Rivets, Huck Rivets 198

High-Strength Pin Rivets 198 Hi-Shear Rivet 198 Hi-Lok Fasteners 200 Hi-Tigue Fasteners 201

8 . 5 Cowling Fasteners 202

8 . 6 Thread Repair Hardware 203 Helicoil Insert 203 Acres Sleeves 204

S e c t i o n 9 : M e t a l A i r c r a f t F a b r i c a t i o n 2 0 5

9 .1 Sheet Metal Layout and Forming 207 Definitions 207 Layout Procedure 208

Example 208 Forming 210

9 . 2 Minimum Bend Radii for 90° Bends in Aluminum Alloys 211

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S e c t i o n 1 2 : N o n d e s t r u c t i v e I n s p e c t i o n .................................................2 4 5

1 2 . 1 Visual Inspection............................................................................................................... ..247

NDI.............................................................................................................................. .247

Visual Inspection ..........................................................................................................247

Surface Visual Inspection ...................................................................................... ..247

Internal Visual Inspection ........................................................................................247

1 2 . 2 Tap Test............................................................................................................................ ..248

1 2 . 3 Penetrant Inspection........................................................................................................ ...249

1 2 . 4 Magnetic Particle Inspection ............................................................................................ ...250

1 2 . 5 Eddy Current Inspection ......................................................................................................251

How it works ............................................................................................................... .25 1

What it is suited for........................................................................................................252

Method ...................................................................................................................... ...252

Detection of corrosion...................................................................................................252

1 2 . 6 Ultrasonic Inspection............................................................................................................253

1 2 . 7 Radiography. ..................................................................................................................... ..253

X-Rays..........................................................................................................................253

Gamma Rays ...............................................................................................................254

Inspection—Steps .........................................................................................................254

Considerations .............................................................................................................255

Safety ..........................................................................................................................255

S e c t i o n 1 3 : A i r c r a f t C o n t ro l S y s t e m s ....................................................2 5 7

1 3 . 1 Types of Control Systems....................................................................................................259

Torque Tubes.............................................................................................................. 259

Push-Pull Rods.......................................................................................................... ..259

1 3 . 2 Control Cables.....................................................................................................................260

1 3 . 3 Control Cable Terminals ......................................................................................................261

1 3 . 4 Turnbuckles ..................................................................................................................... ....262

Turnbuckle Safetying ................................................................................................. ..262

Clip-Locking Turnbuckles .......................................................................................... ..263

1 3 . 5 Control Cable Tension ..................................................................................................... ....264

S e c t i o n 1 4 : A i r c r a f t F l u i d L i n e s ................................................................2 6 7

1 4 . 1 Rigid Fluid Lines............................................................................................................... ..269

Materials recommended for rigid fluid lines.................................................................269

1 4 . 2 Flexible Fluid Lines .............................................................................................................271

Types of Flexible Fluid Lines.......................................................................................271

14.3 Installation of Flexible Hose 273

14.4 Fluid Line Identification 274

S e c t i o n 1 5 : O x y g e n S y s t e m S e r v i c i n g 2 7 7

15.1 Oxygen System Servicing 279 Filling Pressure for 1,850 PSI Oxygen Cylinders 279

S e c t i o n 1 6 : A i r c r a f t W e i g h t a n d B a l a n c e 2 8 1

16.1 Locating the Center of Gravity 283

16.2 Datum Forward of the A i rp lane—Nose Wheel Landing Gear 284

16.3 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — Nose Wheel Landing Gear 285

16.4 Datum Forward of the Main W h e e l s — T a i l Wheel Landing Gear... 286

1 6 . 5 Datum Aft of the Main Wheels — T a i l Wheel Landing Gear 287

16.6 Location of CG with Respect to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord .... 288

S e c t i o n 1 7 : C o m p o s i t e s 2 9 1

1 7 . 1 Resin Sys tems—Typ ica l Properties 293

1 7 . 2 Resin Mix Ratios 294

1 7 . 3 Fiber/Resin Ratio Formulas 295

1 7 . 4 Reinforcing Fibers 296

1 7 . 5 Textile and Fiber Terminology 297

1 7 . 6 Yarn Part Numbering Systems 298

1 7 . 7 Fabric Weave Styles 299

1 7 . 8 Common Weave Style Numbers and Features 301

1 7 . 9 Ply Orientation Conventions 302

1 7 . 1 0 Damage Removal—Scar f ing and Stepping 302

1 7 . 1 1 Core Materials 304

1 7 . 1 2 Bleeder Schedules 305

A p p e n d i c e s 3 0 7

1: Hydraulic Fittings 309

2: Engines 313

3: Aircraft Lead Acid Battery Theory 315

4: Aircraft Tires 335

I n d e x 3 4 7

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