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r—m.—^ BENTHIC COMMUNITIES IN SOME
DERELICT WATERBODIES OF ALIGARH
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
IN
ZOOLOGY
By
HABEEBA AHMAD KABEER
Under the Supervision of
DR. SALTANAT PARVEEN
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE UNIT DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)
2008
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D E P A R T M E N T O F Z O O L O G Y ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
, , ALIGARH-202002 Sections:
1. EMTOM0LO6Y INDIA - ^ , - _ 2. FISHERY SCIENCE AAQUACULTURE 3. GENETICS 4. NEMATOLOGY Daiti 5. PARASITOLOGY
Certificate
This is to certify that the work presented in the dissertation entitled "Benthic
communities in some derelict water bodies of Aligarh" by Ms. Habeeba
Ahmad Kabir incorporates the results of her independent study carried out
under my supervision. I consider it a good piece of work with a considerable
amount of addition in the existing knowledge. She is, therefore, allowed to
submit this dissertation for the award of M.Phil degree in Zoology, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh.
Dr. Saltanat Parveen (Supervisor)
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements Page No.
INTRODUCTION 1
1. DISCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
2. AND CLIMATOLOGY 7
3. METHODOLOGY U
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 14
a- Physico-chemical Parameters
14
17
19
21
25
27
29
32
33
34
38
44
53
55
58
5.
6.
7.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Transparency
Temperature
pH
Alkalinity
Dissolved Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Hardness
TDS
Conductivity
b- Benthos
I.
II.
Phytobenthos
Zoobenthos
CONCLUSIONS
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
List of Tables
Table. 1 a. Monthly variations in different physiochemical parameter in Medical Pond
Table 1 b. Monthly variations in different physiochemical parameter in Lai Diggi
Pond.
Table 2. Statistical brief of various water quality parameters in Medical Pond & Lai
Diggi Pond.
Table 3 a. Distribution and abundance of Phytobenthos (No/cm^) in Medical pond.
Table 3 b. Distribution and abundance of Phytobenthos (No/cm^) in Lai Diggi Pond.
Table 4 a. Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No/m^) in Medical Pond.
Table 4 b. Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No/m' ) in Lai Diggi Pond.
Table 5 a. Monthly percent composition of different group of Zoobenthos in Medical
Pond.
Table 5 b. Monthly percent composition of different group of Zoobenthos in Lai
Diggi Pond.
List of Figures
Fig.l a Showing monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos
in Medical Pond.
Fig 1 b. Showing monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos
in Lai Diggi Pond.
Fig 2. Regression line showing correlation between Air Temperature and Water
Temperature and total dissolved solid and Water Temperature.
Fig 3. Regression line showing correlation between Phytobenthos and
Zoobenthos and Hardness and Phytobenthos.
Fig 4. Regression line showing a correlation between alkalinity and bicarbonate
and Alkalinity and Phytobenthos.
A CKNO WLED GEMENTS
In the name of "Almighty Allah", Jor all thai He has blessed me with and I
have never, ever-felt abandoned by His Grace I pray to Him to keep it the
same way for me in this life thereafter
I acknowledge, with all respect and regard to my supervisor Dr.
Saltanat Parveen, lecturer, Department of Zoology, AMU, Aligarh, for the
help and guidance. Her invaluable help, support and teaching shall remain the
guiding force for the rest of my life
I am also thankful to Pwfessor Absar Mustafa Khan, Chairman.
Department of Zoology and Dean faculty of Life Science, AMU. Aligarh for
providing necessary laboratory facilities
I would fail in my duty if I do not acknowledge my heartfelt thanks lo
Prof. Asif All Khan, Head, Section of Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit
Department of Zoology, AMU, Aligarh, for providing necessary laboratory
facilities, valuable suggestions and encouragement from beginning to the
compilation of this work.
I would like to put on record my heartfelt thanks to Prof. Iqhal
Parwez, Dr. Mukhtar A. Khan and Dr. Afzal Khan for giving me
encouragement and inspirations during the course of research
It is my privilege to mention my deep sense of reverence to Mr. Syed
Mohd. Aslam, Mr. S.M. Ali Sayeed, Mr. Abrar Imam and Mrs
Fatima Kabirfor their advice and valuable suggestions
I owe an expression of thanks to my seniors Miss. Shazia Ansari and
Mr. Waseem Raja for their constant help, encouragement throughout the
writing of this dissertation.
I wish to express my special thanks to Shazia Ansari, Maiyam and Uzma
for their moral support
/ wish to express my sincere thanks to my friends and lab colleagues
Seemab, Sadaf, Maryam, Nuzhat, Uzma, Shazia, Divya and Altaf Hussain
Ganaifor there necessary help and cooperation.
I feel pride and privilege for my loving father Mr. S.M. AH Ahmad
Kabir and beloved mother Mrs. Shahzad Rana who lit the flame of learning
in me. Their prayer and sacrifices helped me to gain this success. I have no
words to express my special feelings for my sisters and brothers Umra kabir,
Tasmia Mubasshir, Abdullah, Mubasshir, Ashraf Rumi, Amir, AH, Karim,
Inam, Khursheed and Umar. It is their love, care and inspiration that have
been instrumental in overcoming the complexities at every step of this work.
At last but not the least I express my humble feeling and gratitude for my
respected teachers Dr.Rashid Tanveer, S.B. Singh and Mr.Kasim.
Lastly my love, regards and best wishes to all well wishers (Amin)
Habeeba Ahmad Kabir
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Water is an integral constituent of life and one of the most important natural
resources. According to Odum (1983), fresh water habitats occupy relatively a small
portion of earth surface but its importance is far g'-eater than their actual area. The
present domain of life existing in the earth has evolved in water (Hosetti, 2002). Fresh
water habitats present a wonderful picture of thousands of living organisms ranging
from microscopic, including chemosynthetic bacteria, saprophytic fungi, micro and
macro invertebrates, algae and higher aquatic plants, these organisms eat together,
live together and struggle together in a balanced habitat forming various unique
communities. These communities are named as Plankton, Neuston, Nekton, Pleuston
and Benthos etc.
The benthos is composed of bottom dwelling organisms and has the major
categorical division between phytoplankton and zooplankton. The term benthos is
derived from two Greek words 'Ben' meaning "the collection of organisms living on
or in the sea or lake" and 'Thos'- meaning "the bottom of sea or lakes. These benthic
organisms range from microscopic to macroscopic fungi, macro and micro
invertebrates, algae and higher aquatic plants. These may crawl or move on the mud,
burrow in sandy si't, struggling for place for breeding purpose, for food and are not
restricted to a definite niche but they move freely through out the basin of aquatic
environment so as to form a free world of their own. Burrowing worms and molluscs
demonstrated sedimentary behaviour and move with in or on near the bottom.
Haeckel (1967) defined benthos as the organisms associated with solid-liquid
interphase. Hutchinson (1967) defined them as the association of species of plants and
animals that live in or on the bottom of a body of water. He has given following
terminologies
Rhizohenthos - rooted well extended into the aqueous phase.
Haptobenthos - attached to solid submerged surface.
Herpohenthos - moving through mud or creeping on mud.
Sammon - if bottom material is made up of sand.
Endohenthos - living inside the soil or solid substratum.
Nectic benthos - large moving organisms and swimming on the bottom surface.
Nektoplanktonic - organisms benthic during day and nektoplanktonic during night.
Planktobenthos- they are plankton but move on the bottom surface.
On the basis of their size, the benthos are classifled as follows :
Microbenthos - organisms 1-100 micrometer in size e.g. bacteria.
Meiobenthos - which are 100-1000 micrometer in size.
Macrobenthos - which are more than 1000 micrometer in size.
They are further categorized based on the Lake zonation i.e. littoral, sub littoral and
profundal. Gams (1918) have given systematic classification suitable for all
organisms living in aquatic environment. The fundamental distinction in this
classification is whether the organisms are attached at the surface, rooted or free.
Theses three assemblages are termed as ephaptomenon, rhizomenon and planomenon,
respectively. As far as aquatic form are concerned, the ephaptomenon, consist of
attached plants which were called as Nereid's by Warming (1895) and Haptobenthos
by Hutchinson (1967).
The phytobenthos includes the aquatic microphytes and the bottom dwelling algae.
There are other important large plants that are considered to be algae. These are the
kaiophyton including Chara spp. and Nitelia spp. The mosses (bryophytes) and ferns
(pteridophytes) have contributed most to the littoral flora.
The littoral zoobenthos is extremely varied when compared with that of deeper
region. Protozoan, sponges, coelenterates, rotifers, nematodes, bryo7oans.
crustaceans, molluscs, insects, annelids, echinoderms and many lower vertebrates are
abundant in the shallow waters. These animals are wide spread in their distribution
and can live on all bottom types, even on man made objects. They can be found in hot
spring, small ponds and large lakes. Some are even found in the soil beneath puddles.
Many species of benthos are able to move around and expand their distribution by
drifting with current to a new location during the aquatic phase of their life or by
flying to a new stream during their terrestrial phase. Most benthic species can be
found throughout the year, but the largest numbers occur in spring just before the
reproductive period. In colder months, many species burrowed deep within the mud or
remain inactive on rock surfaces. Many aquatic insects undergo a complete
metamorphosis, the transition from egg to larvae to pupa and finally to adult. They
remain in the water for most of their life (typically one month to four years). After
becoming adults, the majority of insects leave for only a brief time, usually a few
hours to a few days, while they locate mates. Biglow (1928) divided the littoral
benthic micro-organisms of Nipigon lake, Canada into ecological groups. The ooze
films group comprises those micro-organisms living in and on the film, ooze which
form the upper surfice of the lake bottom. The assemblage was found to contain
following microscopic organisms e.g. bacteria, green algae, diatoms, protozoans,
rotifers, several ento)nostracan (mostly cladocera), tradigrada and certain water mites.
In the distribution of benthic flora, light plays a very important role when the
water is sufficiently shallow. Light reaches the bottom sediments in plenty and as a
result of it, benthic algae and macrophytes grow in greater abundance. It is also
reported by Hustedt (1922) that the nature of the substratum is of the great importance
in determining the composition of algal association li'-ing upon it. A shallow water
body has greater part of water mass in the direct contact with the bottom than the
deeper ones. This allow nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorus, to dissolve more
efficiently from the basin.
Many species of benthos are sensitive to pollutants such as metals and organic
waste. Mayflies, stone flies and caddis flies are generally intolerant of pollution.
Benthos are sensitive to watershed condition and exhibit sufficient stability in
assemblage structure over time to make them useful as long term monitor of stream
and indicator of water quality (Gauffin and Tarzwell, 1952. Hynes (1960) reported
that the density of benthos in a water body is useful index of water quality although
density may fluctuate widely with changes in the seasons and space.
The productivity of microbenthic algae accounts for large percentage of the
total primary production in the aquatic environments.
The total numerica' abundance of these organisms has been taken in to consideration
to evaluate the Benthic index (Pearsall, 1921).
The paucity of plankton accompanies a poor bottom fauna (Welch, 1952) The
benthic algal productivity accounts for large percentage of total primary production in
shallow estuarine water bodies (Jonsson, 1991). Sometimes it may be even greater
than that of the phytoplankton (Hargrave , 1983). The biomass of benthic microalgae
is high and they retain a part of the newly mineralized nutrients at the sediment
surface (Cartlon and Wetzel, 1988). The correlation between benthic primary
production and temperature and irradiance was studied by Colijn and Jonge (1984)
The study of benthic communities has been found to be best indicator of pollution
(Venugopal, 1982). Studies which have revealed a clear cut seasonal and spatial
variation in relation to sediment characteristics along west coast have been earned out
by Harkantra (1980). Devasy (1987), Prabhu and Reddy (1987) and Gopalknshna and
Nair (1998). The need for comprehensive studies on benthic fauna is important for
better understanding of benthic community and also in evaluating their role as fish
food. They are also used for evaluating the quality of flowing and standing water The
earliest and very brief records on great lakes benthos came from Jackson (1844).
Agassive (1850), Stimson (1871) and Hoy (1872). A brief classification of benthos
was given by Warming (1895) and Gams (1918), Sessile and slowly moving epifauna
has been differentiated by Petersen (1913). More information has been gathered on
benthic community by Birge and Juday (1911), Juday (1922) Petersen (1926), Daken
(1927), Sassuchin (1927) and Rawson (1930). Bigelow (1928) described ooze film
layer of the bottom. Ecology and economy of Benthic community was studied by
Eggleton (1936), Pennak (1939) Ward (1940) and Kenk (1949). Needham (1959)
published papers on culture methods for benthic invertebrate animals. Berg (1938),
Meuche (1939), Roll (1939) and Mare (1942) The biology of bottom invertebrates
was studied in detail by Anderson and Day (1986), Bachelet (1986), Bass and Bruce
(1986), Copper and Luther (1986), Kendall and Lewis (1986) and Lewis (1986).
Benthos forms an important part of the food chain, especially for fish. Many
invertebrates feed on algae and bacteria, which are on the lower end of the food chain.
Some eat leaves and organic matter that enter the water because of their abundance in
the aquatic food chain. Benthos plays a critical role in the natural flow of energy and
nutrients. As benthic invertebrates die, they decay leaving behind nutrients that are
reused by aquatic plants and other animals in the food chain. Benthic community can
be used to monitor the stream quality condition over a broad area or they can be used
to determine the effect of discharges from sources such as sewage treatment plants
and industries. Ecologists evaluate environmental quality using benthic sample as
they are important indicator of streams, river or lake water quality. Generally taxa
richness indicates better water quality.
Keeping in view the above scenario, two small shallow derelict ponds of
Aligarh were selected for the study. Present study includes the benthic communit\
composition in relation to some physico-chemical parameters.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA AND
CLIMATOLOGY
Description of the Ponds
For the present study on benthos, two freshwater ponds of Aligarh, namely Lai Diggi
and Medical College ponds, located in the vicinity of the University campus, were
selected. Water supply to these ponds is regulated through rain water and drainage
system and so the volume of water fluctuates throughout the year. They provide new
habitat to aquatic organisms, wild aquatic birds and support an extensive fishery of
various kinds. Benthic organisms in these ponds play a very important role in
enhancing the pond fertility and so have a direct relationship with the fish production.
The Lai Diggi pond
It is a perennial freshwater, sewage-fed pond and is situated in the residential area of
Aligarh at a distance of about 1.5km from the Department of Zoology. It has a more
or less flat basin covering an area of 0.8 hectares. The drainage system of this pond
constitutes four inlet drains which bring in the waste water and sewage from the
surrounding locality. A livestock, buffalow dairy shed is situated on the south-east
bank of pond which also supply large quantity of excretory products. The whole shore
line of the pond is surrounded by large number of trees, namely Azadirachta indica,
Dalbergia sisso, and Acacia Arabica. Considerable amount of leaf litters from these
trees are deposited at the bottom of the pond making its basin marshy. These tall trees
on the North-West iide cover the pond in such a way that deprive the shore line area
from direct sunlight during late hours of the day. The colour of the bottom sediments
ranged from brownish to grey-black, which spells a very bad smell. The water of the
pond is turbid and dull green in colour showing luxuriant growth of algae (bloom)
throughout the year. The pond is used as drainage basin in to which drainage water
sweeps from the surrounding area. It is also used for bathing purpose of livestock
especially buffalos. Human excreta and dung from the surrounding locality are
washed into the pond during rainy season thereby contributing large quantities of
nutrients to the pond.
Medical College Pond
Medical college pond is also a sewage fed pond, situated on the back side of the
Medical College residential complex at a distance of about 2 km from the Department
of Zoology. It covers a surface area of about 0.71 hectares, having a depth of 1 to 2
meters in different seasons. The pond does not show much fluctuation in depth
because the excess water is always pumped out in to the surrounding fields. The pond
is rectangular in shape with regular shore line. The pond receives rain water from the
surrounding area along the shore line. The pond is inhabited by aquatic plants,
particularly filamentous algae, like Cladophora, Spirogyra. Hydrodictyon, Chara, and
Nitella. It also has luxuriant growth of green algae, sometimes forming blooms at the
surface.
The basin is simple, flat and slightly sloping. The bottom sediments are black
in colour consisting of sand, silt, clay, mud with decayed plant matter and organic
substances. These various types of deposits support various kinds of benthic
organisms.
Climatology of Aligarh
Climatic factors play an important role in ecology of both aquatic and terrestrial
environments (Barclay, 1966). These factors control organic production in lake and
rivers by affecting circulation and exchange of essential nutrients. Rawson (1958),
Rodhe (1958), Handa (1987) and Panday and Tripathi (1988) have reported the role of
climatic factors and their interaction with the biological processes within the water
body. In view of all this, a brief description of the climatology of Aligarh is given
here.
Aligarh, a district of Western Uttar Pradesh in North India, located in the
central Ganga Yamuna Doab at latitude 27°54'N and longitude 78°4'E.It experiences
the tropical monsoon type of climate with marked North East and South West
monsoons. The year can be broadly divided in to the following five seasons:
1) Winter season (December to January)
2) Post Winter (February to March)
3) Summer season(April to June)
4) Monsoon season i.e. season of general rains(July to September)
5) Post Monsoon season(October to November)
The winter season is marked with considerable fall in temperature. The nights are
cold and the days are moderately warm. The winds are light and mostly dry. The
season experiences occasional rains.
The post winter season is marked with gradual rise in temperature, bright sunshine
absence of cloudy days, a gradual lengthening of the photoperiod and a lower relative
humidity. The summer season is marked with considerable rise in temperature and
long photoperiod. In tiie month of May and June, temperature rises exceptionally high
with mercury touching some times to 48°C during noontime and fast current of hot
and dry air blow in day time. The monthly average of the wind velocity do not give
the correct idea of velocity and speed as they are liable to great variation during 24
hours. It blows with the force of gale during daytime, falls off very rapidly in the
evening and nearly calm down during nights. The fast and hot winds are locally called
as Loo. The occurrence of dust and thunderstorms caused by convection currents is a
peculiar phenomenon of the summer season. Summer is followed by Monsoon season.
The rains generally begin in July and last till the end of September. This season is
characterized by a gradual fall in temperature. The monsoon season is characterized
by cloudy days, steady rains, relatively low light ..itensity, gradual shortening of
photoperiod, relatively high humidity and cyclonic weather. The monsoon season is
followed by period of transition from rainy to dry and cool weather. This is the season
of retreating monsoon and is termed SiS post-monsoon. This season is characterized by
a further fall in diurnal and nocturnal temperatures and a gradual decrease in
photoperiod and relative humidity.
METHODOLOGY
Methodology
The physiochemical parameters of the two selected ponds were recorded monthly at
10 am from May, 2007 to April, 2008. For analysis, water was collected with the help
of a bucket.
Colour of the sample was compared with the known colour standard. Air and
Water temperature were recorded with the help of an electronic digital thermometer
Transparency was determined by using standard Secchi disc method. Secchi disc
having a diameter of 20 cm and divided into black and white quadrants at surface, is
lowered in the water body. The average of the two depth readings at which Secchi
disc disappeared and reappeared was noted as transparency. Free Carbondioxide
(CO2) was determined by titrating 100 ml of water sample with 0.025N-NaOH using
phenolphthalein as an indicator. (Theroux , 1943).
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) analysis was performed at the sites by Winkler's
modified technique (APHA, 1998). pH of water was determined at the sites by using a
portable electronic digital pH meter. Alkalinity was estimated by titrating 100 ml
water sample with 0.02N sulphuric acid using phenolphthalein and methyl orange as
indicators (Theroux , 1943). Hardness of water was estimated by titrating the water
sample with O.OIN EDTA solution using murexide as indicator (Trivedy and Goel,
1984). Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) was measured with the help of electronic digital
TDS meter. Electrical Conductivity was measured by a conductivity meter in nS/cm.
The amount of Calcium and Magnesium present in the water was estimated by
titrimetric methods as given by Trivedy and Goel (1984) and APHA (1998).
11
Sampling of Benthic Organisms: For the present work, bottom mud scrapper with
tow Hne was used to collect the samples from the bottom of the ponds for qualitative
and quantitative analyses. This mud scrapper, as described by Michael (1984), is a
small bucket of thick tin of 15 cm xlOcm size having small holes made on the bottom
plate. Two holes were made near upper region of bucket opposite to each other A
strong plastic rope was tied to these holes and a weight was attached. The weight
helps to keep the bucket down while it is being towed along the bottom. Ten sub-
samples were taken from the sample and analysed according to Trivedy and Goel
(1984).
After collecting the bottom sample, it is diluted with ambient water. Slurry is
poured gradually into the sieves arranged in series. Slurry is washed gently through
the sieves to prevent damage or loss of organisms. Slurries that clog the screen require
careful removal. A series of one coarse screen S.S. 100 (e.g. 4mm mesh size) will
hold back larger materials to pass through the next sieve and S.S. 20 (0.8 mm mesh
size) and S.S. 30 (0.6mm mesh size) were used and smaller particles were passed
through 30 mesh screen. Carefully check rocks, sticks, shells and other objects were
for attached or burrowed organisms before discharging. Residue was passed and
washed on the screen and stored in a container. The containers were labeled with a
collection code. Other details can also be written with marker that describe location.
date, time and sieve number in recorded book. These samples were fixed in 5%
formaldehyde solution.
Sorting and Identification of the sample was done. Organisms were picked
using forceps and pipettes from the sample and sorted under an inverted microscope.
Then they were separated according to their taxonomic level to make the data quality
12
objective and reccrded on the data sheet. Analysis was done by putting 1 ml of fixed
sample on a Sedgewick Rafter cell and studying it under inverted microscope. Counts
were made as number of Benthos/m^. For qualitative analysis ,the information given
in Edmondson (1959), Needham and Needham (1962), Pennak(1978) and Tonapi
(1980) were utilized .For most organisms encountered, the identification was made
up to generic level .But wherever taxonomic evaluation of organisms was possible, it
was done up to species level.
13
RESULTS AND DISCUUSION
Transparency
Light is the energy capable of doing work that can be transformed from one form to
another. It can nei her be created nor destroyed. Solar radiation determines the events
in the water body directly or indirectly. Most of the solar radiation, which falls on
earth's surface, is absorbed by water vapors, carbon dioxide, oxygen and ozone in
atmosphere. The final limited energy, which arrives at the aquatic surface, thus
becomes the only source of solar radiation available for photosynthesis (Boney,
1989). Intensity of light plays an important component of planktonic primary
production (Marra, 1993).
During the daytime, the chlorophyll (a, b, and c) of phytobenthos utilize
underwater light to compose carbon in the form of carbohydrates and produce oxygen
that is used for respiration and grov^h of algae and others aquatic plants (Ojha and
Howard, 2000). Light availability at depth is affected directly by the presence of total
suspended solid (TSS) and plankton in the water column and by macarophytes and
sediment accumulation on the surface (Carter and Rybicki, 1985). Almost all energy
that controls the metabolism of water body is derived directly from the solar energy
and utilized in photosynthesis either within the lake or brought in the water bodies in
various form of organic matter (Carter and Rybicki, 1985). Welch (1952), Hutchinson
(1957), Ruttner (1963), Khan (1978), Marra (1993) have given detailed account of
light condition in fresh water bodies. According to Hutchinson (1975), transparency,
the depth up to which light penetrates in water body, can be used as a reliable
indicator of productivity. Except of well known uranium fission and hydrogen fission
device one is hard pressed to list energy sources that do not depend on sun (Cole.
1983). Perhaps the earth's internal heat and moon pulled tides are the only other noon
solar sources of energy we can list .Thus, it becomes a subject of interest for a
14
limnologist to know that how much radiation falls on the surface of a water body with
in a span of time, how far it penetrates and how it can be used or how it affects the
aquatic organisms.
Radiant energy is transformed into potential energy by biochemical reactions,
during photosynthesis of aquatic plants or to heat and thus, control the productivity ot
water. It controls various metabolic activities of aquatic flora and fauna (Wetzel,
1983). Natural waters exhibit great difference in the degree to which sunlight can
illuminate them and wide seasonal and diurnal fluctuations are noted (Hutchinson,
1957). Despite the large amount of literature exist on the light conditions,
photosynthesis, turbidity and transparency of aquatic ecosystems, there is a dearth of
information related to light (Birge and Juday, 1929).
Many workers reported that light available and irradiance limit submersed
macrophyte growth and photosynthesis in fresh and saline water (Spence, 1976; 1985;
Kirck, 1983).
The spatial composition of light has also been suggested on factor controlling
the depth distribution of submerged macro-invertebrate (Kirk, 1983). Spence (1976),
Cole (1983), Datta (1983), Wetzel (1983), Chambers and Kalff (1985), Pennock
(1985), Kirk (1986) and Marra (1993) have given interesting and useful detailed
account on the principles light penetration in different types of water bodies its
measurements and effects on the aquatic organisms.
Transparency values are given in (Table-la,b). There is a wide variation in
transparency values in these freshwater bodies. They ranged from 13.0 cm to 24.5 cm.
In Medical pond, Seechi disc transparency ranged from 15.0 cm to 19.2 cm showmg
minimum in November, 2007 (15.0 cm) and maximum (19.2 cm) in April, 2008. In
IS
Lai Diggi Pond, it ranged from 13.0 cm to 24.5 cm showing minimum in August,
2007 (13.0 cm) and maximum 24.5 cm in February, 2008 (Table-la, b).
It shows low levels of transparency in Medical Pond and Lai Diggi Pond were
found in summer and monsoon seasons. In summer, .' was because of evaporation of
water, which causes concentration of dissolved solids at increasing temperature and
production of turbidity during monsoon season is caused by the entry of huge amount
of suspended and colloidal matter, silt and clay into the water body along with the
rainwater from the surrounding field. The low values in Medical Pond during winter
may be attributed to low light intensity, caused by fog, smoke and cloudy weather.
1 ^
Temperature
Temperature is the most important factor in aquatic environment since it regulaies
various physico-chemical as well as biological activities (Kumar et al , 1996)
Thermal properties of water and corresponding relationships have greater importance
in maintaining fitness of the water of an ecosystem. The temperature of natural water
system responds to water depth, climate and topography, the ambient atmospheric
temperature being the most universal. Temperature changes govern water mixing,
turbulence and formation of currents. (Ried, 1961 and Ruttner, 1963).
Surface area and volume of the water body are the two main parameters to
assess fluctuations in water temperature (Anderson, 1964). Temperature governs
growth, development, reproduction and other life process of the biota. (Wetzel, 1983)
Some important contribution made in the field of thermal conditions in aquatic
ecosystems are those of Singh (1960), Hutchinson (1967), Rangarajan and Marichamy
(1972), Vashisht and Sharma (1975), Bohra et al. (1978), Ayyappan and Gupta
(1981), Chaurasia and Adoni (1985), Fasihuddin and Kumari (1990), Kant and Raina
(1990), Vijaykumar (1992, 1996) and Zhou et al. (2000).
Addition or loss of heat leads to temperature changes in water body (Wetzel,
1983). These temperature changes are given in Table (l.a, b). The water bodies in the
present study are small and shallow in depth and thus are subjected to easy
disturbances resulting in wide temperature fluctuations.
Maximum {5°C) and minimum (1°C) differences were found between air and
water temperatures. In Medical Pond, minimum temperature difference was TC
during December jind September, 2007 and maximum was 5°C during, June 2007.
Minimum water temperature was 15°C in January, 2008 and maximum was 37°C in
July, 2007 during the investigation period.
17
In Lai Diggi Pond, minimum temperature difference was \°C during October.
2007 and January, 2008 and maximum was 6"C during February, 2008. 17°C was the
minimum water temperature observed in January, 2007 while 39°C was the maximum
temperature in July, 2007 (Table-la,b).
Air temperature varied between 17°C during January, 2008 to 35"C
during May, 2007 in Medical Pond. Whereas in Lai Diggi Pond it varied between
16"J during January, 2008 to 37"C during July, 2007.In both the ponds water
temperature followed air temperature and a positive correlation was found between air
and water temperature. (Table-1 a,b, Fig.2). A positive correlation have been observed
in between air temperature and water temperature in both the Ponds in Medical Pond
(r = 0.875) and in Lai Diggi Pond (r = 0.925) given in (Table-2 and Fig.2).
18
pH
pH of any aquatic system is suggestive of acid-base equilibrium achieved by various
dissolved compoinds. pH or Hydrogen ion concentration of natural water is,
therefore, an important environmental factor. The variations of which are linked with
chemical changes species composition and life processes of animal and plant
communities inhabiting the water body. pH is generally considered as an index for
suitability of environment and is one of the most important factors affecting
productivity of a water body (Welch, 1952). There is always an optimum range of pH
for growth and survival of any organism. pH between 6.5 and 8.0 supports good
fishery (Ellis, 1937).
Alikunhi (1957) has demonstrated that pH between 6.5 to 8.5 with large
variations play a pivotal role in the productivity of water. Bell (1971) has stated that
pH range between 6,5 to 9.0 provide an adequate environment for the well being of
freshwater fish, bottom dwelling invertebrates and fish food organisms. Das et al.
(1995) observed that pH range of 6.1 to 8.6 was absolutely harmless for Indian major
carps fry growing under agro climatic conditions of Assam. According to Das et al.
(2001), pH has a direct effect on fish growth appetite and food conversion ratio as
well as growth and survival offish food organisms.
The pH in these water bodies fluctuated from 5.8 to 9.5 throughout the course
of study (Table-la, b). The Medical College pond showed minimum pH 5.8 during
May 2007 and maximum 9.6 in the month of September 2007. The Lai Diggi pond
showed minimum pH 7.8 during September 2007 and maximum 9.5 during May,
October and November 2007.
In the present study pH of water in Lai Diggi Pond is always alkaline. The pH
depends on the amount of carbonates of calcium and magnesium and carbon dioxide
19
tension in the water. The later in turn influenced by pliotosynthetic activity of aquatic
vegetation and life cycles in the pond (Das and Gupta, 1993). High pH values indicate
domination of photosynthetic activity. Decrease in pH value during some months
(July and March) was probably due to release of anaerobic water, affected by the
decomposition of concentrated organic matter and respiration of biota while mcrease
was mainly due to rise in carbonate alkalinity resulting from the photosynthetic
activity of phytoplankton and other green aquatic plants. In monsoon months, heavy
rains caused higher turbidity, and so photosynthetic rate is also decreased because o(
low transparency and reduced intensity of light causing decrease in pH value in these
ponds. Lai Diggi pond showed highest pH during summer months It is might be due
to evaporation of water resulting in the concentration of detergents and other organic
matters. Medical Pond is subjected to disturbances caused by washer man's activity.
wind action and catties. As a result, there is a great variation in pH seen.
The occasional rains are responsible for the entry of surface runoff material,
increased turbidit) and reduced transparency. This in turn reduces photosynthetic
activity and thus reduces pH in some months.
20
Alkalinity
Alkalinity of water, as usually interpreted, refers to the quantity and quality of
compounds present, which collectively shift the pH to the alkaline side of neutrality
(Wetzel, 1983). Natural waters exhibit wide variations in relative acidity and
alkalinity, not only in actual pH values, but also in the amount of dissolved materials
producing the acidity or alkalinity. The concentration of these compounds and the
ratio of one to another determine the actual pH and the buffering capacity of given
water. The property of alkalinity is usually imparted by the presence of bicarbonates,
carbonates and hydroxides and less frequently in inland waters by borate, silicate and
phosphates (Wetzel, 1983). The CO2, HC03' and CO3'" equilibrium is a major
buffering mechanism in freshwaters. Alkalinity is very important for aquatic life in
fresnwater system because it corrects pH changes that occur naturally as a result of
photosynthetic activity of chlorophyll bearing plants.
Natural water bodies in tropics usually show a wide range of fluctuations in total
alkalinity values depending upon the location, season, plankton population, ramfall,
washer men's activity and nature of bottom deposits etc. The range of alkahnity m
Indian waters varied from 40 to 1000 mg/1 (Jhingran, 1991). Many workers
considered alkalinity as a measure of productivity (Alikunhi, 1957). Spence (1964)
divided South Scottish water bodies into three major categories based on alkalinity,
i) Nutrient poor with alkalinity ranging 1.0 to 15.0 mg/L.
ii) Moderately rich with alkalinity ranging from 16.0 to 60.0 mg/L, and
iii) Nutrient rich with alkalinity greater than 60.0 mg/L.
The three kinds of alkalinity, hydroxides (OH'), carbonates (CDs') and
bicarbonates (HCO3') can be distinguished w-'th standard acid using methyl orange
and phenolphthalein indicators successively. Norm..' carbonate alkalinity may be
01
present with either hydroxide or bicarbonate alkalinity, but hydroxide and bicarbonate
cannot be present together in the same sample (Theroux et al., 1943) There ma> be
only one condition among given five alkalinity conditions in the sample.
(1) Hydroxides alone (2) Hydroxides and normal carbonates (3) Normal
carbonates alone (4) Normal carbonate and bicarhonates (5) Bicarbonates alone
In the present study, alkalinity was due to carbonates and bicarbonates in both
the ponds. According to Jhingran (1991), a mixture of bicarbonate and carbonate
alkalinity is generally encountered in water of pH ranging from 8.4 to 10.5.
In studied ponds, alkalinity is contributed by carbonates, bicarbonates and
hydroxide (Table-la,b ). Total alkalinity values ranged between 102 to 725 mg/1. In
Medical College pond minimum value (102 mg/1) was recorded during July, 2007 and
maximum (305 mg/L) recorded during November, 2007. Lai Diggi Pond showed
minimum (390 mg/L) during June, 2007 and maximum (775 mg/L) during December
2007.
Lakes and ponds of the plains of country have been reported to be alkaline in general
(Sen et al., 1992; Pathak and Shastree, 1993; Patralekh 1994 and Kumar, 1995).
The factors responsible for higher alkalinity have been reported to be organic
pollution excessive release of soap and detergents through cloth washing, bathing and
decomposition of organic matter in sediments (Hayes and Anthony, 1959).
In the present study, higher and lower alkalinity values were found to be
related with the fluctuations in the photosynthetic activity of chlorophyll bearing
organisms.
Statistically, a positive correlation was obtained (Table-2) between total
alkalinity and phytobenthos in Medical pond, (r = 0.516), where as a negative
correlation was obtained in Lai Diggi pond (r= -0.627). Higher values during wmter
might be due to lower photosynthesis rate (in both the ponds) due to low light
intensity due to fog. It can be said that wide fluctuations in the total alkalinity, in these
water bodies, might also be due to entry of sewage, detergents, fertilizers and
insecticides from the surrounding catchments areas. Spence, (1964) stated that
alkalinity and pH are closely connected with an accurate measure of the trophic status
of lake water.
Total alkalinity, in studied in both the ponds, was always found to be greater
than 60 mg/1 (table-2 ) and, thus, they can be considered nutrient rich ponds (Spence,
1964).
Carbonate alkalinity: Carbonate alkalinity is invariably found in all water bodies on
occasions when free CO2 is absent. Wetzel (1983) correlated the presence and
absence of CO2, CO3" and HCOs' with the pH of the water. He reported that free
carbon dioxide dominates waters bearing pH 5 or below. Carbonates are
quantitatively significant in waters having pH 9.5, and HCOs' predominates in waters
having pH between 7 and 9. Theroux el al. (1943) have reported presence of CO2 and
absence of CO3 in waters having pH 8.3 or less.
In the Lai Diggi pond the minimum carbonate alkalinity (140mg/L) was
recorded during the month of July, 2007 and maximum (775 mg/L) during the month
of December, 2007, Medical College pond showed minimum carbonate alkalinity (40
mg/L) during September, 2007 and maximum (188 mg/L) during October, 2007.
Carbonate alkalinity was recorded in all the samples collected from these derelict
water bodies but absent during December, 2007 in Lai Diggi Pond.(Table-la,b)
The fluctuations in the carbonate alkalinity were mainly due to photosynthetic
activity of algae and green plants inhabiting the ecosystem. During photosynthesis,
bicarbonates are broken down and carbonates are released. The changes in
23
phytobenthos number have been found to be directly related with the changes in
carbonate concentration.
Bicarbonate alkalinity: In the present study bicarbonates were recorded in the range
from 0-775 mg/L in Lai Diggi pond while in Medical pond it ranged from 32-227
mg/L. The maximum value of bicarbonates(775 mg/L) in Lai Diggi Pond was
recorded in December, 2007, while in Medical Pond maximum bicarbonates(227
mg/L) was recorded in November, 2007. (Table-la, b)
Higher values during winter and post winter months might be due to mput ol
detergents and lower production values in monsoon months were found to be mamiy
due to higher turbidity and low transparency values, as also recorded by Panda et al
(1999). Hydroxide alkalinity: Hydroxide alkalinity was always recorded zero in both
the studied ponds except it was recorded only in one month in February. 2007(170
mg/L) in Lai Diggi Pond.(Table-la,b)
Dissolved Oxygen
Natural water bodies load a great variety of gases dissolved in them. Out of
these gases oxygen is most significant one as it is a regulator of metabolic processes
in the organisms (Kaushik and Saksena, 1999). Measurement of dissolved oxygen is
of great significance in the study of aquatic environment. Dissolved oxygen provides
key information about biological and biochemical reactions going on in a water body.
Oxygen dissolves freely in fresh water from atmosphere and it is also added as a by
product of photosynthesis of green aquatic plants. It is utilized in respiratory,
biochemical, as well as in many chemical reactions involved in ecosystem of the
environment. Despite the fact that all of us are taking oxygen in to our bodies and
converting in to carbon dioxide as a part of metabolic process to extract energy from
our food, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere remain remarkably stable at about
20.95% of the air (Wetzel, 1983). This amount is called the oxygen solubility or
saturation value, and is not fixed but depend upon oxygen pressure in the air and
water temperature, dissolved salt present, wave action, pollution, inflowing
underground water, photosynthetic activity of plants and respiration by bacteria plants
and animal in the water etc (Zutshi and Vass, 1978).
In the present study in Lai Diggi pond, the concentration of dissolved oxygen
was recorded maximum 20.0 mg/L in the month of March, 2008 and minimum 2.4 in
September,, 2007, where as in Medical college Pond, maximum concentration were
noted 9.4mg/L during the month of December,2007 and minimum was noted
1.46mg/L during June, 2007 (Table-la,b).
The overall dissolved oxygen values in Lai Diggi Pond were found to be
higher as compared to Medical Pond. It is because of dense growth of aquatic plant
especially Hydrodicyton, found in the form of mat like covering on the basin near
shore line of pond. Dissolve oxygen concentration in both the ponds appears to fall
during post monsoon months. It is due to incoming surface runoff and drainage water
containing large amount of silt and other material causing an increase in turbidity of
water which inhibits light penetration in the water body. Higher value of dissolved
oxygen content in the water during winter and post winter months appear due to
intensive diffusion from atmosphere at low temperature and high rate of
photosynthesis during the period with favourable light conditions. At lower
temperature diffusion from atmosphere and the capacity of the water to hold dissolved
oxygen is always higher (Hutchinson, 1975).
Statistically, a positive correlation was obtained between D.O. and pH in both
Medical Pond (r = 0.333) and Lai Diggi Pond (r = 0.161) and negative correlation
have been observed between water temperature and dissolved oxygen in both Medical
Pond (r = 0.426) ard Lai Diggi Pond (r = 0.923) given in (Table-2 and Fig. 2).
Carbon Dioxide
Atmospheric carbon dioxide enters into ttie natural waters tiirough diffusion (Brocker,
1973) and invasion (Schindler and Fee, 1973). In addition, carbon dioxide is also
generated by biotic components within the lake through decomposition of organic
matter and respiration etc. The rain also absorbs some small amount of the gas and
delivers it to the water on which it falls. Unni (1972) emphasized that the rate of
change in free carbon dioxide concentration h considerable due to decomposition of
organic matter at the bottom. Thus, presence and abj-^nce of free CO2 in the surface
waters is mostly governed by its utilization by algae during photosynthesis and
through respiration, decomposition and diffusion from air (Sreenivasan, 1974). The
CO2 of pond water has been found to be highly variable due to various interdependent
factors, spatially and temporally as well as in both temperate and tropical ecosystems
(Boyd, 1982). Higher concentrations of CO2 have been reported in tropical ponds
during decomposition of dead plankton and during cloudy and hot weather (Datta,
1999). The free carbon dioxide which is much more soluble than oxygen (Welch,
1952) in water always found in large quantities in polluted waters. Thus free CO2 may
be present throughout the year (Verma, 1969, Chourasia and Adoni, 1985) or in some
samples taken in a year (Prasad. 1990) or present sporadically (Kant and Raina, 1990)
or may be absent throughout the year (Ganapati, 1960 and Gaur, 1998).
Free carbon dioxide was never recorded in both the ponds, throughout the
study period from May 2007 to April 2008. Complete absence of CO2 might be due to
beside its utilization in photosynthesis its conversion in to carbonates and
bicarbonates at high pH. The absence of carbon dioxide might be attributed to release
of carbon dioxide from water column to atmosphere due to increase in temperature,
complete utilization of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis by algae, presence of
T T
abundant carbonates which did not allow carbon dioxide to be produced in the bottom
and column to reach to the surface (Ganapati, 1960) and also due to complete
conversion of free CO2 into bicarbonates after reacting with carbonates (Rawson.
1939). Welch (1952) stated that some free CO2 might be lost into atmosphere due to
agitation of water. Complete absence of carbon dioxide was also reported by Ganapati
(1960), George (1966), Jana and Sarkar (1971), Khan and Khan (1985), Gaur (1998)
and Kaushik and Saksena (1999).
98
Hardness
Hardness prevents lather formation with soap and increase boiling point (Trivedy and
Goel, 1984). Carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, nitrates and silicates
anions and multivalent metallic cations Ca" " and Mg" " contribute to hardness
Hardness due to carbonates is temporary whereas non carbonate anion and cations
cause permanent hardness. Alkalinity and hardness are closely related to each other
(Mairs, 1966). Andrews (1972) has classified water bodies on the basis of hardness.
Unni (1983) has suggested that total hardness can be used as indicator for classifying
domestic pollution in water.
In the present study total hardness showed wide variations (90 - 312.8 mg/L)
in both the freshwater ponds under study. Medical pond showed minimum 153 mg/L
in March, 2008 and maximum 312.8 mg/1 June, 2007, whereas Lai Diggi pond
showed minimum 90 mg/1 in December, 2007 and maximum 213 mg/L February,
2008 study (Table-la,b).
Higher values might be due to the evaporation of water at high temperature
during summer months. Haque (1991) has also reported higher values of hardness
during summer. The observed decrease in hardness during monsoon months might be
attributed to dilutioa of water by rain as reported by Basheer (1991) and Gaur (1998).
Ionic Composition: All waters contain both organic and inorganic dissolved
solids. The inorganic solids, when solution consists anions like carbonates,
bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, nitrates and nitrites etc., and
cations like calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium and potassium etc. They combine each
other to form compounds. These ions play very impoi ant role in the life of aquatic
flora and fauna. They have been regarded as an index of productivity (Moyle, 1949;
Northcoteand Larkin, 1956; Sarkarand Rai, 1969).
Calcium: It is one of the most abundant cations found in freshwater bodies. It serves
as an essential micronutrient for most of the aquatic organisms, particularly green
algae and macronutrient for blue green algae (Goldman, 1965). Lack of this cation
may lead to the decreased rate of mineralization of organic matter and their recycling
for the use of primary producers. German limnologist, Ohle (1938) has given
classification of water bodies depending upon the calcium concentration.
Medical pond showed minimum concentration (44.0 mg/L) in December, 2007
and maximum (140 mg/L) in April, 2008. Lai Diggi pond showed lower value (12.8
mg/L) in September, 2007 and maximum (85.3mg/L) in March, 2008. (Table -la, b)
It was observed that calcium content in these ponds was highest in summer,
moderate in winters and lowest in monsoon. Increasing calcium level during summer
in Medical Pond probably due to evaporation of water and decomposition of dead
aquatic plants and animals.
Haque (1991) has also reported high calcium content during summer months
when decomposition was very high and humidity was very low. Relatively higher
calcium in these water bodies might also be due to heavy input of sewage from
surrounding areas. In monsoon month's dilution of water was found to be the main
cause of lowering the calcium content as reported by Kant and Raina (1990) whereas
Zutshi and Vass (1978) have reported low calcium level during winter and related it to
sedimentation and utilization by plankton organisms.
Magnesium (Mg): According to Wetzel (1975), Mg is required by both micro and
macro green algae to build chlorophyll. It is also required in enzymatic
transformation, especially transphosphorylation of algae fungi and bacteria.
in
The depletion of Mg acts as limiting factor for the growth of phytoplankton.
According to Welch (1952), Mg is usually found in combination with CO3 and HCO3
and some times with sulphates and chlorides.
Medical pond showed minimum concentration of magnesium (4.09mg/L) in
November, 2007 and maximum (42.9 mg/L) in February, 2007. Lai Diggi pond
showed lower value (5.3mg/L) in January, 2007 and maximum (40.2mg/L) in
September, 2007, (Tablela, b).
Haedness showing negative correlation with Phytobenthos in Medical Pond
(r=-0.421) and in Lai diggi Pond (r=-0.729), (Table-2 and Fig.3). Highest
concentration was recorded in the months of summer and lowest in the monsoon
month have been reported by Khan and Siddiqui (1974), Shastree (1991) and Haque
(1991) in the North Indian freshwater bodies.
Total Dissolved Solids
It originates from natural sources and depends upon location, geological nature,
drainage, rainfall, bottom deposits and inflowing water. The T.D.S. has been proved
as a very useful parameter in determining the productivity of inland waters (Rawson.
1951; Hutchinson, 1975 and Wetzel, 1975). Kemp (1971) has stated in the
classification of water regarding their productivity that the amount of TDS present in
a water body is of greater importance than their chemical composition. According to
.Trivedy and Goel (1984) excess amount of TDS in water tends to disturb the
ecological balance due to suffocation in aquatic fauna even in the presence of fair
amount of D.O.
Values of TDS ranged from minimum 184 mg/L (October 2007) to maximum
400 mg/L (May 2007) in Medical Pond while in Lai Diggi Pond the value of TDS
ranged from minimum 152 mg/L September, 2007 to maximum 618 mg/L during
May. 2007, (Table-la,b).
TDS showed variations mainly caused by the addition of dissolved substances
and their utilization by organisms and other aquatic plants and animals during
different months. Higher values of TDS during summer in these water bodies might
be due to higher decomposition rate, release of nutrients from the sediments and due
to evaporation of water leading to concentration of T.D.S. per litre.
Its lower values might be due to loss of nutrients into sediments and their
utilization by plankton and other aquatic plants. Water bodies with high TDS have
been reported to he productive than those with low values (Northcote and Larkin,
1956).
TDS showed negative correlation(r = -0.706) with transparency in Lai Diggi
Pond and Positive correlation with Medical pond (r= 0.090), (Table-2; Fig.).
Electrical Conductivity (E.C.)
Electrical conductivity of water reflects the amount of dissolved solutes present in it.
Therefore, it is considered as an index of total dissolved solids (Sreenivasan, 1964).
According to Rawson (1951) and Haque (1991) it is directly related to productivity.
Freshwater bodies in their natural state have very low conductivity values. Polluted
waters showed higher values of conductivity (Trivedy et al., 1985).
In Medical pond, the conductivity minimum 2050 i S cm"' (June, 2007) to
maximum 2698}.iS cm" (January, 2008). Lai Diggi Pond showed minimum 956 (.iS
cm"' (August, 2007) to maximum 1800 [xS cm'' (June, 2007), (Table-la,b). Higher
values of conductivity during some months might be due to the fact that various
dissolved substances (nutrients) etc. are continuously released into the aquatic
medium through death and decomposition of aquatic organisms. Lower values of
conductivity might be attributed to the consumption of TDS by the phytoplankton and
other aquatic organisms present there. Very high conductivity values in Medical Pond
might be due to large input of detergents and dyes in addition to sewage.
Benthos
The benthic community plays an import int role in the economy of natural waters. Study
of qualitative and quantitative macro-zoobenthic organisms are important criteria for
evaluations leading to water quality designation according to Saprobiant system. Level of
species richness was found dependent upon abiotic factors like temperature, hardness,
pH, dissolved oxygen, chloride and phosphorus. However the importance of habitat
types, pollution, biotic factors and anthropogenic can not be t-uled out. They are sensitive
to watershed conditions and exhibit sufficient stability in assemblage structure over time
to make them useful as long term monitors of stream health (Richard and Minshell, 1992)
and indicator of water quality (Reshl995). Hynes (1960) reported that the density of
benthos in a water body is a useful index of water quality although density may fluctuate
widely with change in the seasons.
There is a practically no data available on limnotic components of contributing
tributaries on Ganga river from Garhwal region and whatever is reported is fragmentary
(Sharmaet al; 1990; Singh, 1991; Nautiyal, 1986). Roff and Ward (1989) identify stream
flow variability as a major factor affecting the other abiotic and biotic factors that
regulate lotic macro zoo benthic patterns. Brown and Brown (1994) and Richards et al.
(1993) suggested that many variables, including conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH,
current velocity, substrate type, depth and water temperature affects the invertebrate
production in response to flow in change regime. Hynes (1970) has discussed in general
the changes in faunal composition with longitudinal distance in lotic ecosystem and also
mentioned oxygen, temperature and nature of substratum as possible contributor to this
change.
34
Pirse et al. (2000) concluded that some of the environmental variable like temperature
conductivity, depth and width influenced the invertebrate distribution and abundance
with in the river basin. They also reported that Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera were found
most abundant at the site where water quality as well as favorable conditions was
acceptable as these groups are sensitive to water quality as contrast to group. Diptera
which was associated with poor water quality as they are more resistant to pollution, also
observed by Depiereux et al. (1983). Increased population density of echiurids with
increased depth was observed in the coastal water off Manglore (Jayraj, 1982) and higher
population of same were recorded at 20m and 30m depth in the near shore sediments of
Gangolli (Venkatesh Prabhu et al., 1993).Dominance of polychaetes along west coast of
India was observed by various workers (Ansari et al.,1977, Parulekar et al.,1982, Jayraj
1982, Prabhu and Reddy, 1987). However along the Mangalore coast, lower densities of
Polvchaetes were recorded by Gopalkrishnan and Nair (1998). Almost all the workers
recorded an insignificant contribution of Crustacean in the benthos collected along the
west coast of India (Prabhu and Reddy, 1987; Gopalkrishanan and Nair, 1998). Ansrai
(1997), Devi and Venugopal (1989) and Devi et al. (1991) have observed the changes in
the quality of benthos due to influence of industrial effluents in Cochin back waters.
Similar changes in the quality of benthos due to industrial activities were observed along
the west coast of India (Devassy et al.,1987 Varshney et al.,1988; Jiyalal Ram et al.,
1998). Seasonal variation of Molluscs could not be delineated clearly, since the greater
abundance was recorded both in pre and post monsoon at different station. However the
study (Devassy et al.,1987; Venkatesh Prahbu et al., 1993) have shown that the higher
abundance of benthic organisms were recorded during post monsoon season. Irregular
35
changes in salinity by rainfall, low oxygen content at night, high temperature at day time,
and the considerable amount of organic matter formed by shrimps production result in
habitat degradation for macrobenthic organisms dwelling within. There was a clear
tendency that molluscs and arthropods decreased evidently as the depth increased from
the surface to the deeper layers because they were epibenthos which inhabited
predominantly on the surface layer of muddy substratum. The close similarity of
macrobenthic fauna among the surface layer seems to be related to the dominant of these
epibenthic organisms. The benthic algal productivity accounts for large percentage of
total primary production in shallow estuarine water the predominant primary producers
are benthic micro algae (Raymont, 1980) which play a major role in benthic environment
as food resources for benthic invertebrate (Hansson, 1992; Sivadasn and Joseph,
1997).The biomass of benthic microalgae is high and they retain a part of the newly
mineralized nutrients at the sediment surface (Cartlon and Wetzel, 1988). Hence it is
essential to estimate the primary production of the benthic environment and assess
potential fishery resources. Colijn and Venekamp (1977) observed significant positive
correlation between primary algae biomass and benthic primary production in EMS-
Dollard estuary. The temperature and salinity of near bottom waters influence the
distribution of organisms in the top layer of sediment. The studies of Colojn and Jonge
(1984) showed positive significant correlation between benthic primary production and
temperatures and irradiance. The zoobenthic animals started building up their population
from autumn. The maxima of the benthic assemblages during winter could be accounted
for low water temperature, good oxygen content coupled with low water level in the
systems having least disturbance due to dry spells. This is in accordance with the findings
36
of Pant et al. (1985), Sunder and Vass (1988) and Kaushal and Tyagi (1989). Rawson
(1995) observed an inverse relationship between mean depth and standing crop of bottom
organisms. Further during colder months, normally the predation pressure becomes less
due to low metabolic activities of consumer which could be one of the factors for the
enrichment of the benthic population in these lakes (Sunder and Vass, 1988). This may be
due to swollen biotopes through constant rains in the catchment areas causing abiotic and
blotic disturbance besides creating turbidity which directly or indirectly influences the
abundance of macro-zoobenthos. Similar observation has been made by Kaushal and
Tyagi (1989). The migratory phenomenon of benthic communities have been recorded by
many workers (Mundie,1959; Grimas,1965; Sunder and Vass, 1988 and Kaushal and
Tyagi,]989).The estimate annual production of the benthic microalgae, 33.59 gem'' is
moderate value compared to other areas (Riznyk et al.,1978, Varela and Penas, 1985 and
Barranguet 1997). Cadee and Hegeman (1974a) and Verala and Penas (1985) found
epibenthic productivity to be 10 times greater than that of the water column, while
Matheke and Horner (1974) found epibenthic production to be only twice as high as that
of plankton. Colijin and de Jonge (1984) have found a positive significant correlation
between sediment cholorophyll-a and benthic primary productivity.
The seasonal distribution of benthic diatoms supported the peak period of
phytobenthic productivity. In comparison, Colijn and Venekamp (1977) observed
significant positive correlation between algal biomass and micro phytobenthic
productivity in EMS-Dollard estuary. Species composition of plankton in water and
sediment showed predominance of pinnate diatoms.
37
Benthic community may also reflect eutrophication depending upon how quickly they
respond to eutrophication (Lang, 1985)
Phytobenthos: The Phytobenthos includes the aquatic macrophytes and the bottom
dwelling algae. There are other important large plants that are considered to be
algae.They are Vascular Plants, hetrophic organisms and photosynthetic algae (including
cyanobacteria), living on or attached to substrate or other organisms in surface water.
Phytobenthos was gathered (brushed) from the surface of the sample stone.
Myxophyceae (Blue green algae)
A number of species of Myxophyceae are cosmopolitan and have a worldwide
distribution. They are found not only in free form but also in epilithic forms and as
symbionts (Weis, 1982). They are more efficient in utilizing CO2 at high pH level and
low light availability under eutrophic conditions (Shapiro, 1990), and thus, their
abundance indicates the eutrophic nature of the studied water bodies (Seenayya and
Zafar, 1981 and Gaur, 1994). Algal blooms oi Microcystis show that the water body is
eutrophic (Codd, 2000). The nuisance growth of blue algae also causes O2 depletion after
decomposition during unfavorable conditions, thereby, killing many organisms inhabiting
the water body (Philipose, 1972 and Reynolds, 1991). Blue-green algae starts increasing
in early summer and reaches its peak in middle summer when the temperature is about
33°C and then decrease in number towards monsoon. They are found in surface waters
even during the monsoon. Gonzalves and Joshi (1946) attributed the rise of blue-green
algae at the end of rainy season to the rise in temperature at the end of the monsoon
38
season. The periods of myxophycean maxima are usually accompanied by the low
concentration of dissolved oxygen.
Seasonally, higher densities of this group were recorded 21 No./cm^during October,
2007 in Medical Pond, whereas Lai Diggi Pond showed higher densities 30 No./cm'
during August, 2007. (Table 3 a,b). Th members Microcystis, Anabaena and Spirulina in
Medical Pond And Lai Diggi Pond throughout the period of study.
Chl-orophyceae: Unicellular and colonial species are commonly called as desmids
(Hutchinson, 1967). The green algae, like Ankistrodesmus, Kirchnerella, Pediastrum,
Crucigenia and Scenedesmus among chlorococcales are abundantly found plankton in
ponds or shallow fertile lakes (Hutchinson, 1967). The green algae embrace such familiar
genera as Spirogyra, Chlorella and Ulothrix each belong to a different order of
Chlorophyceae and represent 8,000 freshwater species (Hutchinson, 1967). The
per'odicity of green algae in these selected water bodies is represented in (Table-3a,b).
Chlorophyceae forms most significant group of phytobenthos in these ponds. Besides
physico-chemical parameters, presence of myxophyceae is also known to control the
fluctuations in green algae population (Lin, 1972 and Bais et al., 1993). Gaur (1998)
found high density of Chlorophyceae associated with higher myxophycean population.
In the present study, Chlorophyceae formed dominant group among all
Phytobenthos the number fluctuate between 28 No./cm^ to 49 No./cm^ in Lai diggi Pond
where as in Medical Pond it ranges between 10 No./cm^ to 19 No,/cm^ (Table- 3a,b)
The members, Cmcigenia, Ankistrodesmus, Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Protococcus
and Actinastrum in Lai diggi and Medical Pond were found throughout the study.
39
Chlorophycean dominance has been attributed to eutrophic nature of the ponds
(Gonzalves and Joshi, 1946; Singh, 1960; Saify et al., 1986). The ability of
chlorophycean algae to withstand against the pollution load has been reported by Palmer
(1969) and Jha et al. (1989). In the present study, alkaline medium favours optimum
growth of Chlorophyceae (Philipose, 1960; Munawar, 1970; Saha et al., 1985),
Cruceginia: contributed maximum 4 No./cm^ during February, 2008and Minimum
1 No./cm^ during December, 2007, July and August, 2008 in Medical Pond, whereas in
Lai Diggi Pond it contributed maximum 12 No./cm^ in September, 2007 and minimum 3
No./cm^ in January, 2008. A positive correlation was found in between the Zoobenthos
and Pytobenthos in Medical pond (r =0.417) and in Lai diggi Pond (r =0.643) showed in
(Table-2 and fig.3). A negative correlation have been observed between water
temperature and phytobenthos in Medical Pond (r= -0.378) where as a positive
correlation was found in between water temperature and phytobenthos in Lai Diggi Pond
(r = 0.533) given in (Table-^_
Euglenophyceae: Euglenoid algae form a relatively large and diverse group but
few species are truly planktonic (Wetzel, 1983). According to Hutchinson (1967) "though
the group consist of more than 600 species of photosynthetic form, as well as many that
are apochlorotic, few are of many importance as members oi the lake plankton". Among
the free swimming species, some members of Trachelomonas and Lepocinclis and a few
species of Euglena are widely distributed in the open water of lake. Euglena acus, which
occurs in large and deep waterbodies, as the sea of Galilee (Komarovsky, 1959), is
probably the most eulimno-planktonic species. Almost all euglenoids are unicellular, lack
a distinct cell wall and possess one, two or three flagella (Wetzel, 1983). The ecological
40
distribution of euglenoids lias been studied by Rao (1955), Zafar (1959), Philipose
(1960), Singh (1960), Munawar (1970) and Singh and Swarup (1979).
The seasonal variations of euglenoids are given in (Tables-3a,b)
The group contributed maximum number, 9 No./cm^, during February, 2008 and
4 No./cm^ during August, 2007 in Medical pond, whereas 17 No./cm^, during July, 2007
to 5 No./cm^ in December, 2007 in Lai diggi pond.
Less diversity and continuous presence of euglenoids in soil sample in the present
study might be due to richness of these water bodies in terms of organic matter and
nutrients.. Dense bloom of Euglena sp. usually occurs in small and organically polluted
water bodies rich in non humic organic matter Kumar and Gupta (2002).
Bacillariophyceae: The diatoms, the most important members of the fresh water
phytobenthos. Most genera are planktonic and occur in benthic and littoral regions often
in majority. The group as a whole has commonly been divided into the centric diatoms
exhibiting radial and pinnate diatoms which are bilateral in their functional structure
(Hutchinson, 1967). Members of Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) constitute most important
groups of algae even though most species are sessile and associated with littoral substrate
(Wetzel, 1983). Some of the common freshwater phytobenthic diatoms recorded in the
present observations are Diatoma. Cydotella, Amphora, Navicula, Nitzschia and
Symdra. These are enveloped in cell wall made up of amorphous hydrated silica plus
organic contents and are found in the form of a single chain of cells or satellite or other
alignment of cell.
Diatoms are preferred food of many grazers and organisms in the upper trophic
level and thus form the basis of productive fisheries (Ryther, 1969). They have been
41
suggested to enhance the transfer of energy to higher trophic levels (Doering et a!., 1989)
either through fewer trophic links (Ryther, 1969) or higher food quality. It is estimated
that net primary production on earth is in order of 1.4x10'" kg dry wt./year and diatoms
constitute about 20-25% of this total production (Werner, 1977). Nutrient availability can
also influence diatom community structure in streams and rivers (Chetelat et al., 1999).
Many investigators stressed the importance of silicates, nitrates, phosphates, and D.O in
the productivity of diatoms (Patrick, 1948; Vcnkatcswarlu, 1969; Sampathakumar, 1977)
Growth of diatoms depends upon the presence of dissolved silicates, contrary to non-
diatom species, which dominate when dissolved silicates are low (Conley et al., 1993).
Since diatom abundance is partly determined by available dissolved silica, the presence
and absence of diatoms may have a significant impact on the food web and trophic
In the present study, maximum count of this group was 15 No./cm" during July,
2007 and minimum 6 No./cm" during February and March, 2008 in Medical pond and in
Lai diggi pond it was recorded maximum 21 No./cm" during August, 2007 and minimum
6 No./cm" in February, 2008.(Table-3a,b). In the present study, the group
Bacillariophyceae was found to be represented by Navicula, Nitzschia, Amphora and
Diatoma.
Desmidiaceae: The term desmid is used in limnology to designate members of
those conjugates that are either strictly unicellular or in which, if filamentous, the cells of
fllamenis are loosely connected (Hutchinson, 1967). Desmids are exclusively fresh water
plants and not a single species is found in the sea (Plaskitt, 1997). They are typically
found in acid bogs, in very dilute waters low in electrolytes and in oligotrophic lakes
(Cole, 1983). Hutchinson and Pickford (1932) also emphasized the role of calcium in the
42
distribution of desmids. Von Oye (1934) attributed the paucity of desmids in Belgium
freshwaters to their euirophic expression and has been interpreted in terms of organic
matter, dissolved oxygen, average depth, nutritional level and bottom fauna. In the
present study, they were recorded throughout the study in both the ponds.
in the present study, desmids number fluctuated between 1 No./cm" to 5 No./cm"
in Medical pond and it was recorded i No./cm" to 6 No./ cm" in Lai Diggi pond.
Closterium sp., which are known to exhibit tolerance with the higher concentration of
organic matter, was the only genera noted throughout the period of investigations. Wetzel
(1975) and Goldman and Hore (1983) have reported the desmids being less abundant in
the water bodies that were rich in organic matter. Singh and Pandey (1991) recorded on[>
two genera of desmids in polluted water body. Haque (1991) receded low density of
desmids during higher density of myxophyceae. Present study substantiate the general
belief that large water bodies have low myxophyceae and more desmids as compared to
smaller water bodies (ponds) which have more myxophyceae and less desmids (Hosmani,
2002).
43
Zoobenthos: Moreover, the population of macrobenthos was highly stable in both
ponds on account of feebly changing ecological conditions. The major groups of
Zoobenthos in two ponds belong to: Insecta {Ephemeroptera, Diptera, Plecoptera and
Coleopterd), Cladocera, Copepoda, Ostracoda, Oligochaetes and Rotifera (Table-
4a,b) shows their relative abundance during the study period. Among bottom livmg
organisms, the acjuatic insects on an average, formed the dominating group
comprising (39.0%) of the total benthos, followed by Cladocera (8.2%) Copepods
(7.6%), Ostracods (8.5%), Oligochaetes (18.5%) and rotifers (17.8%) in Lai Diggi.
whereas it was Oligochaetes (17.3%)) which comes next to insects (43.2%)) in Medical
College pond. Ostracods contributed (9.6%)) followed by Cladocera (6.4%o), Copepods
(6.4%) and Rotifers (17.2%) to the total benthos composition in Medical College
pond.
Monthly Variations in the Distribution of Major Taxa are given in (Table-5a,b
and Fig.la,b). In Lai Diggi, the percent contribution of insects highest (45.9%)) in the
month of July, 2007 and lowest (36.2%) in October, 2007. Oligochaetes (21.1%).
Rotifers (19.9%), Copepods (11.5%), Ostracods (9.5%) and Cladocera (9.0%) were
found to be higher in the month of July (2007), December (2007), October (2007).
March (2008) and August (2007), and, respectively, and lowest in December, 2007
(15.0%), August, 2007 (15.0%), March, 2008 (4.2%), June 2007 (6.8%), January,
2008 (7.3%)), and In Medical College pond also, insects remained highest but
maximum (45.9%) was observed in July, 2007 with a low population (36.4%) in
March, 2008. Highest percentage (8.9%) of Cladocera were recorded in July, 2007
and lowest (5.4%) in September, 2007. whereas highest percentage of Copepods were
recorded (8.3%) in the month of January, 2008 and lowest (4.9%) in the month of
October, 2007. Oligochaetes were found to be higher (20.3%o) in September, 2007 and
44
the lower (14.4%) during January, 2008. High percentage of ostracods (20.4%) in the
month of March, 2008 and low percentage (6.5%) in the month of December. 2007
and Rotifers (21.7%) were recorded in the month of August, 2007 and minimum
(15.1%) in the month of July, 2007, respectively.
Higher number of insects was mainly due to high dipteran larvae. Tables-4a,b
indicate a well defined monthly fluctuation in time and space. Though insecta, the
most dominant group in bottom fauna yet all other groups were quite abundant in all
the months.
Rotifers: This group was always recorded in percentages as 17.8% in Lai Diggi and
17.2% in Medical College pond (Table-5a,b). The total number of rotifers recorded in
these two ponds were found to vary from 221 No./m^ to 358 No.W (Lai Diggi pond)
and from 211 No./m^ to 320 No./m^ (Medical College Pond), (Table-4a,b). Maximum
number of rotifers were collected in December and minimum in April from Lai Diggi
pond whereas from Medical College pond maximum rotifers were collected in August
and minimum in July, 2007. The group is represented by only four genera namely.
Brachionus, Filinia and Keratella and Notholca. Among them, Branchionus was
recorded as dominating genus. Filinia, showing a great affinity to deep hypolimnion
(Ruttner, 1980). was moderately distributed in both the ponds throughout the study
period. The population densities of rotifers in these ponds were low in the months of
July because of less intensity of light (Table-4a,b). Minkoff et al. (1983) showed that
the light exposure is necessary for rotifers to produce young ones, particularly during
hatching of resting eggs. Population density may also change substantially due to
presence of predators. The substantial and high selective nature of cladoceran and
cyclopoid predation on rotifers (Williamson, 1983) might be one of the reasons for
reduction in the density of rotifers in winter. Khan (1970) and Haque (1987) have
already been reported the occurrence of cladocerans and copepods in greater amounts
in winter.
Present study has shown that Brcichionus prefers a habitat rich in organic
particulate matter and indicated wide range of tolerance to pollution caused by
domestic sewage in Lai Diggi Pond. It is always recorded in greater percentages in
Lai Diggi pond than the other genera.
These interesting micro invertebrate were presumed to be a product of the
aerobic phase in the development of our planet (Sladecek, 1983). Although the
rotifers represent a very small group (minor phylum) of animal kingdom yet they are
often qualitatively and quantitatively the most abundant metazoans in inland waters.
They are regarded as valuable bio-indicators of water quality (Sladecek, 1988;
Berzins and Pejler, 1989). They also serve as an essential food source for many fishes
like Indian Major Carps as well as for many vertebrate and invertebrate predators
(Herzig, 1987).
Temperature is generally not a limiting factor for rotifers (Pejler, 1957). Laal
(1989) has observed a pronounced periodicity during monsoon and winter than m
summer.
Brachionus calyciflorus: In Medical Pond, it was found from 26 to 64 No./m^ and in
Lai diggi pond it was 28 to 62 No./m'.
Brachionus bidentatus: In Medical Pond, it was found from 26 to 69/m^ and in Lai
diggi Pond 29 to 72 No./ml
Filinia spp.: In Medical Pond, it was found from 27 to 72/m^ and 27 to 55 No./m^ in
Lai diggi Pond.
Cladocera: It comprises a group of primitive and usually microscopic crustaceans to
which the general name of'entomostraca' was formerly applied. The members of this
46
group are also commonly termed as "water fleas' because of their characteristic
'jerky' swimming action of locomotion (Dodson and Frey, 1991).
They are the consumers of first order, directly drawing energy from primary
producers of the ecosystem viz., phytobenthos. In turn, form the food for
planktivorous fishes and other invertebrates, transferring energy to higher trophic
levels. Besides, they have also been reported to be reliable indicators of eutrophic
nature of water bodies (Sinha and Khan. 1998 and Sharma. 2001).
Cladocera form the most important group of the bcnthic population
representing average 8.2% of the total number of bottom organisms in Lai Diggi In
Medical College pond, Cladocera were 6.4% of the average total benthos. The total
number of Cladocera varied from 105 No./m^ to 150 No.W in Lai Diggi pond and 71
No./m^ to n o W iti Medical College pond, being highest in December. (Table-4 a,b).
This group is represented by Daphnia sp, and Bosmina sp. Cladocera showed
polymodal occurrence. In Medical Pond, maximum density was found in winter
months and early summer months. In Medical Pond, maximum density was found in
winter and summer months whereas in Lai Diggi Pond, maximum density was found
during winter, post winter and monsoon months.
Daphnia Sp.: In Medical Pond, it was found during the whole period of investigation
and its number fluctuate between 29 to 97 No./m^ and in Lai diggi pond it was
recorded 69 to 112 No./ml
Bosmina Sp.: In both the Ponds, it was found throughout the period of investigation
and it was recorded 26 to 48 No./m^ in Medical pond and 27 to 54 No./m^ in Lai
Diggi pond.
Copepods: They are very ancient arthropods and the diminutive relatives of crabs and
shrimps. In terms of their size, diversity and abundance they are also often called as
47
'water fleas' in common with many other small crustaceans (Reddy. 2001). A vast
majority of copepods are confined to marine and brackish waters, only a small
fraction, about 2000 species inhabit freshwaters (Reddy, 2001). They inhabit many of
the habitats such as lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, ponds and pools (Tonapi, 1980). As to
their importance, copepods are significantly primary and secondary consumers in
aquatic food chain. Their grazing contributes to the transfer of algal primary
production to higher trophic levels. In other words, copepods can make organic
material available to higher trophic levels in a la/per pellet form thus saving the
foraging energy of their predators (Reddy, 2001).
The free-living copepods are separable into three distinct groups, the
Calanoida, Cyclopoida and Harpacticoida (Wetzel, 1983). The representative
members of the copepods are Cyclops spp. and Diaptomus spp.
Cyclops Sp.: In the present study minimum copepods (4.9%) in the month of October,
2007 and maximum (8.3%) in the month of January, 2008 in Medical Pond whereas
in Diggi Pond minimum (4.2%) in the month of March, 2008 and maximum (10.3%)
in the month of September, 2007. It was recorded 29 No./m^ to 69 No./m^ in Medical
pond whereas 32 No./m" to 98 No./m in Lai diggi pond.(Table-4a,b)
Diaptomus Sp.: It was found during the whole period of investigation and it was
recorded 29 to 65 No.W in Medical pond and 27 to 98 No./m' in Lai diggi
pond.(Table-4a,b).
Ostracods: Ostracods commonly known as seed shrimps, form another important
group of benthic ccmmunity. They inhabit all types of substrates in both standing and
running waters, including rooted vegetation, debris, mud, sand and rubble. A few
species swim about actively above the substrate (Pennak, 1978), They resemble
miniature mussels and 'mussel shrimps' in an old European vernacular name. Most of
48
the fresh water ostracods are bottom dwellers, although some appear occasionally in
plankton samples It is represented by four genera namely Heterocypns Centrocypns
Stenocypris and Cyclocypris
In the present study, Ostracods shared only 8 5% in Lai Diggi and 9 6% of the
total benthic population in Medical College pond (Table-5a,b) The total number of
ostracods varied from 103 No W to 170 No W in Lai Diggi pond and 101 No Im'
to 146 No.W in the Medical College pond. They were numerically higher in Lai
Diggi as compared to Medical College pond The diversity in composition and
abundance was not of much significance Cypndopsis was found to be dominant
among ostracods
The percentage composition of this group did not show much variation in
different months ^4lnlmum number of ostracods might be due to temperature which
IS regarded as one of the important factors affecting the parthenogenesis in ostracods
Probably depth was another important factor regulating the distribution and
abundance of ostracods They were recorded numerically high in Lai Diggi which is
shallower than Medical College pond From the present investigations, it was also
observed that ostracods, if not all, but few genera can tolerate the wide range of
pollution
Pop'.lation density may also change substantially due to seasonal pattern ol
reproduction.
Eggs: The numbers of eggs of rotifers and crustaceans were lumped together and
counting was made together during the period of investigations Year round
occurrence of eggs indicated that rotifers and crustaceans are continuous breedeis
(Table 4-a,b).
49
Oligochaetes: The oligochaetes have been represented by Tubifex, Chaetogaster,
Nais and Aelosoma in order of abundance, (Table-4a,b). The strong dominance was
recorded by Tubifex in both Lai Diggi and as well as in Medical College pond
Cowell and Vodopich (1981) have found an uniformity in the abudance of
oligochaetes throughout the year. In the present investigations too. the seasonal
fluctuations in the abundance of oligochaetes were not so much pronounced.
Maximum number of Tubifex were observed 92 No./cm^ in the month of January,
2008 in Lai Diggi, and 95 No./cm^ in the month of October, 2007 in Medical College
pond, might be the result of higher quantities of organic particulate matter as these
sludge worms feed mostly on bacteria down to 10 cm below the sediment surface
(Brinkhurst, 1974). These red annelids were less in number in Lai diggi pond
comparatively, mainly due to the presence of bottom dwelling predators. The general
distribution pattern of these worm favoured more eutrophic areas having low oxygen,
and high organic matter. According to Hawkes (1979), Oligochaetes are the common
inhabitants of polluted waters. Availability of food, polluted environment and absence
of predation might be the causes of higher number of individuals in Lai Diggi, The
red annelid worms have also been reported in increasing in number in waters polluted
with domestic sewe ge (Odum, 1971). The same is true with the Lai Diggi also.
Insecta: It has become clear from the data (Table-4a,b) that insects form the major
portion in the composition of total Zoobenthos. In Lai Diggi pond the total number of
insects varied from 539 No./m^ (August, 2007) to 716 No./m^ (August, 2007) whereas
in Medical College pond, maximum number (787 No.W) of insects was collected in
December, 2007 and the minimum (569 No. /m^ ) m March, 2008, (Tables-4a,b)
Study also showed greater number of insects and fewer genera in Lai Diggi pond than
in the Medical College pond. In these two ponds insects are represented by members
50
of four groups namely, diptera, ephemeroptera. coleopteran and plecoptera in order of
abudance.
Out of the total insects present in the total benthos, dipterans contributed
major share in the samples collected from the Lai Diggi, showing its maximum value
(413 No./m^) in December, 2007 and minimum (252 No./m^) in August, 2007.
Whereas in Medical College pond, of insects present in the total benthos and dipterans
contributed most dominating group of the total insects with a maximum value (415
No./m^'in the month of September. 2007 and minimum in (345 No./m^) in the month
of May, 2007. (Table-4a,b)
Diptems were represented by four genera Chironomus, Tanypus, Pentaneura
and Culicoides (Tables-4a,b). Chironomus was most abundant genus and found to be
present throughout the period of investigation in both the ponds. The trend of seasonal
variations has also been reported by Mandal and Moitra (1975). Bass (1986) has also
observed maximum population of chironomids during winter months with a peak
during spring. Baggae and Tulki (1967), Baggae and Jimppanen (1968), Cairs and
Dickson (1971), Learner et al. (1971), Olive and Darabach (1973) and Hawkes (1979)
have reported that some of the chironomids are common inhabitants of polluted water.
rich in nutrients and poor in oxygen content, and so they are being used as the
biological indicators of pollution. In Lai Diggi, among, dipterans, Tanypus was the
second most dominant genus followed by Pentaneura. In Medical College pond,
Chironomus was the most common genus followed by Tanypus. Rapid larval
development of chironomids may be the effective cause for large increase in
population (Gowell and Vodopich, 1981).
Coleoptera were the second major share holder In the Insect population, and
51
were mainly represented by Berosus Hydaticus Hydracarwa Hydranchna The
number of Coleoptera varied from 138 No /m^ (April, 2008) to 189 No W ( January.
2008) m Lai Diggi In Medical College pond with a maximum population 223 No /m"
in the month of (December, 2007) and minimum 121 No /m^ in the month of (June.
2007)
Plecoptera constituted least dominant group of the insects in both the ponds and was
represented by a single genus, Atoperla
Ephemeroptera: Represented by Baelis showed maximum population in Lai Diggi
pond during December, 07 (61 No /m ) and minimum in November, 07 (28 No /m~)
respectively. Whereas, in Medical College pond their maximum value was recorded
during October (62 No.W) and minimum in March and December (22 No./m^)
respectively. Ephemeroptera always occurred in low quantities and were not
significant contributor to zoobenthic community. It may be due to the presence of
organic pollution in these ponds as has been reported that Plecopterans,
Ephemeropterans and Tricopterans progressively disappear; from organically polluted
streams (Hynes, 1964 and Chandler, 1970).
52
CONCLUSIONS
CONCLUSIONS
In Medical pond, Seechi disc transparency ranged from 15.0 cm to 19 2 cm
showing minimum in November, 2007 (15.0 cm) and maximum (19.2 cm) in April.
2008.In Lai Diggi Pond, it ranged from 13.0 cm to 24.5 cm showing minimum in
August, 2007 (13.0 cm) and maximum 24.5 cm in February, 2008. Low levels of
transparency in ^ledical Pond and Lai Diggi Pond were found in summer and
monsoon seasons.
Increase in pH is the result of the rise in carbonate alkalinity resulting from the
photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton and green algae. Decrease in the pH can be
attributed to the release of anaerobic water.
Higher values of dissolved oxygen might be due to increased photosynthetic
activity while lower values may be because of its utilization during decomposition of
organic matter and respiration by micro and macro-organisms.
Carbon dioxide was absent in both the ponds during the investigation period
due to the photosynthetic activity of phytobenthos and its conversion into carbonate
and bicarbonate which were recorded throughout the study.
Higher and lower alkalinity values were found to be related with the
fluctuations in the photosynthetic activity of chlorophyll bearing organisms.
Higher valies of hardness might be due to the evaporation of water at high
temperature during summer months while lower values during monsoon months
might be attributed to dilution of water body by rain water. Calcium and magnesium
showed higher values during summer and lower during monsoon months.
53
Higher values of conductivity during some months might be due to the fact
that various dissolved substances (nutrients) are continuously released into the aquatic
medium due to the death and decomposition of aquatic organisms. Lower values of
conductivity might be attributed to the consumption of T.D.S. by phytobenthos
present there. Statistically a correlation v 'as obtained for phytobenthos and TDS.
Phytobenthos is represented by algae groups viz; Chlorophyceae,
Myxophyceae, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Desmidiaceae. The most
dominant group is Cholorophyceae and least dominant group was Desmidiaceae in
both the ponds throughout the study period.
Zoobenthos showed positive correlation with Phytobenthos in both the ponds.
Cladocerans, Copepods, Oligochaetes, Roii^ers, Ostracods and Insects
constitute the major group of Zoobenthos population.
Insects formed the most dominating group as these group showed continuous
occurrence. Interspecific and intraspecific factors influence the distribution and
abundance of benthos. The availability of food affects the Zoobenthos by affecting the
female fertility.
Diptera in both the ponds indicates good water quality as well as favorable
condition for insects communities.
54
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
The water is one of the most essential factor for h'ving organisnis.-The quality of
water affects peaks composition, abundance productivity and physiological condition
of aquatic communities.
Water temperature was recorded maximum 2TC during July, 2007 and minimum
IS^C during January, 2008 in Medical Pond whereas 17°C during January, 2008 and
maximum 39°C duiing July, 2007 in Lai Diggi Pond.
Transparency ranged from minimum 13.0 cm (August, 2007) to 23.0 cm
(November. 2007) in Medical Pond and from minimum 7.8 cm (December, 2004) to
maximum 14.5 cm (October, 2004) in Lai Diggi Pond. Low levels of transparency
was found during summer and monsoon seasons because of increase concentration of
dissolved solids at high temperature and due entry of huge amount of suspended and
colloidal matter, silt and clay into the water body during monsoon months.
pH ranged form 5.8 to 9.6 in both the ponds during the study period.. Minimum pH m
Medical Ponds was 8.0in July, 2007 and maximum was 9.6 during September 2007.
In Lai Diggi Pond it ranged from 7.8 in September, 2007 to 9.5 during November.
2007. The wide range of pH might be the result of variable photos} nthesis due tn
disturbances caused by washer men's activity.
Dissolved oxygen varied from 1.6 mg/L in June, 2007 and 9.4 mg/L, in December,
2008 in Medical Pond and 2.4 mg/L, in September, 2007 and 20.0 mg/L in March,
2008, in Lai Diggi ^ond. Fluctuations in D.O. content have been found to be affected
by many factors like solubility of oxygen in water, intensity of light and
photosynthesis.
55
During the present study CO2 was absent in both the Ponds. This might be due to
release of free carbon dioxide at high temperature from the water column, its
complete utilization during photosynthesis and due to presence of carbonates and
bicarbonates in abundance.
Alkalinity ranged from 102 mg/L in July, 2007 to 305 mg/L in November. 2007 in
Medical Pond, whereas 380 mg/L during August, 2007 and 775 mg/L in December.
2007 in Lai Diggi Pond. Higher might be due to regular input of detergents and lov\er
values in monsoon months were found to be mainly due to dilution of water, higher
turbidity and low transparency values.
Hardness ranged from 153 mg/L in March, 2008 to 312.8 mg/L in June. 2007 in
Medical Pond whereas in Diggi Pond it ranged from 90 mg/L in December, 2008 to
213 mg/L in March, 2008. Higher values during summer and lower during monsoon
might be attributed to the evaporation of water leading to concentration at high
temperature and dilution of water by rain respectively. Calcium ranged from 44.08
mg/L to 140 mg/L in Medical Pond whereas from 12.8 mg/L to 85.3mg/L in Lai
Diggi Pond and Magnesium from 4.09 mg/L to 42.9 mg/L in Medical Pond whereas
from 5.3 mg/L to 40.2 mg/L in Lai Diggi Pond . Ionic composition was constituted by
the two main ions calcium, magnesium. Increasing calcium and magnesium levels
during summer might be due to evaporation of water and decomposition of dead
aquatic plants and animals.
Total Dissolved Solids ranged from 184 mg/L to 400 mg/L in Medical College Pond,
whereas in Lai Diggi Pond it ranged from 152 mg/L to 618 mg/L. Its concentration in
water body mainly depends on the surface run off during monsoon months, sediment
release of nutrients and evaporation at high temperature during summer.
56
The conductivity ranged from 956 i S cm'' to 2698 |-iS cm''. Higher values of
Conductivity during some months might be due to the fact that variqus dissolved
substance are continuously released into the aquatic medium through death and
decomposition of organism. Lower values might be attributed to the consumption of
TDS by the phytoplankton and aquatic organisms.
The Phytobenthos ranged from minimum 36 No./cm" (June. 07) to maximum 56
No./cm^ (October, 07) in Medical Pond and in Lai Diggi Pond it was recorded in the
range of minimum 57 No./cm^ (February, 08) to 90 maximum No./cm^ in (June.07)
The Chlorophyceae is one of the most dominant group among all Phytobenthos the
number fluctuate between minimum 28 No./cm" to maximum 49 No./cm in Lai Diggi
Pond whereas in Medical Pond it ranges from 10 No./cm^ to 19 No./cm^
The major groups of Zoobenthos in two ponds belong to: Insecta (Ephemeroptera,
Diptera, Plecoptera and Coleoptera), Cladocera, Copepoda, Ostracoda, Oligochaetes
and Rotifera.
In Lai Diggi, the percent contribution of insects highest (45.9%) in the month
of July, 2007 and lowest (36.2%) in October, 2007. Oligochaetes (21.1%), Rotifers
(19.9%), Copepods (n.5%), Ostracods (9.5%) and Cladocera (9.0%) were found to
be higher in the month of July (2007), December (2007), October (2007), March
(2008) and August (2007), and, respectively, and lowest in December. 2007 (1 5 0«,i)
August, 2007 (15.0%), March, 2008 (4.2%), June 2007 (6.8%), January, 2008 (7.3%),
and In Medical Co'lege pond also, insects remained highest but maximum (45.9%)
was observed in July, 2007 with a low population (36.4%)) in March, 2008. Highest
percentage (8.9%)) Df Cladocera were recorded in July, 2007 and lowest (5.4%) in
September, 2007. whereas highest percentage of Copepods were recorded (8.3%) in
the month of January, 2008 and lowest (4.9%) in the month of October, 2007.
57
Oligochaetes were found to be higher (20.3%) in September, 2007 and the lower
(14.4%) during January, 2008. High percentage of ostracods (20.4%) in the month of
March, 2008 and low percentage (6.5%) in the month of December, 2007 and Rotifers
(21.7%)) were recorded in the month of August, 2007 and minimum (15.1%) in the
month of July, 2007, respectively.
58
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Table- 2
Statistical Briefs of Various Water Quality Parameters in Medical and Lai Diggi Ponds
Parameters
Air Temperature
Water Temperature
Transparency
Dissolved Oxygen
vs
vs
vs
vs
Parameters
Water Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
Total Dissolved Solids
pH
Phytobenthos
Total dissolved Solid
pH
pH
Phytobenthos
Ponds
LD
MP LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
Coefficient of Correlation 'r'
U.925
0.875 -0.426
-0.923
-0.196
-0.355
0.533
-0.378
-0.706
0.090
-0.117
-0.034
0.I6I
0.333
-0.465
0.314
Significance at (p<0.05)
y
-
—
-
^
-
-
-
Continued...
Parameters
Hardness vs
Myxophyceae vs
Phytobenthos vs
Total Dissolved Solid vs
Parameters
Calcium
Magnesium
Phytobentlios
Clioioropliyceae
Water Tempreture
Zoobenthos
Phytobenthos
Ponds
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
LD
MP
Coefficient of Correlation 'r'
0.340
0.809
-0.103
0.258
-0.729
-0.42!
0.074
0.167
0.527
-0.386
0.643
0.417
-0.295
-0.109
Significance at 5% level
-
/ y
—
—
y
-
-
—
—
-
y
-
Distribution and
~~ "-^—~^__^ Month Genera ^ ~———_ MYXOPHYCEAE Microcystis Anabaena Spirulma Total
CHOLOROPHYCEAE Cruceginia Pediastrum Choiorella Protococcus Tetraspora Spirogyra
Ulothrix
Total
BACILLARIOPHYCEAE
Navicula
Nitzschia
Amphora Diatoma
Total
EUGLENOPHYCEAE Euglena sp.
Phacus sp
Total
DESMIDIACEAE Closterium
Total
Grant Total
abundance
May 07
6 1 1 8
2 1 1 2 2 1
1
10
9
3
1 I
14
1
4
5
1
1
38
June
4 2 I 7
2 1 1 3 2 1
1
11
4
3
2 2
11
1
5
6
1
1
36
Table 3a of Phytobenthos (N
July
4 1 2 7
1 2 2 2 3 1
I
12
7
6
1 1
15
2
3
5
2
2
41
Aug
5 1 4 10
1 1 2 5 2 2
1
14
4
4
1 3
12
1
2
4
1
1
41
Sep
7 2 7 16
3 3 1 3 2 1
2
15
4
3
2 2
11
3
3
6
3
3
51
o./cm
Oct
9 3 9
21
2 2 3 3 1 1
1
13
8
2
2 2
14
2
4
6
2
2
56
i'')in
Nov
3 1 5 9
3 1 1 2 3 4
1
15
6
2
1 3
12
2
5
7
2
2
45
Medical Pond
Dec
4 1
10 15
1 1 2 1 2 1
2
10
4
5
3 1
13
2
3
5
2
2
45
Jan
6 2 5 13
2 2 2 3 1 1
1
12
3
4
2 1
10
4
2
6
5
5
46
Feb
9 2 4 15
4 2 3 5 1 1
1
17
3
1
1 1
6
5
4
9
4
4
51
Mar
8 1 2 11
2 1 3 n J
4 4
2
19
2
2
1 1
6
2
6
2
2
46
Apr 08
8 -) 1
11
- 1
1 2 1
-) -)
")
15
5
-)
2
2
11
- 1
3
6
1
1
44
Table -3b Distribution and abundance of Phytobenthos (No./cm ) in Lai Diggi Pond
Genera Month
MYXOPHYCEA Microcystis Anabaena Spirulina
Total
May 07
13 12 3
28
June
15 10 5
30
July
14 4 5
23
Aug
13 15 3
31
Sep
12 11 5
28
Oct
9 9 3
21
Nov
12 13 2
27
Dec
11 8 2
21
Jan
10 3 1
14
Feb
13 2 2 17
Mar
8 3 1
12
Apr 08
12 5 3
20 CHOLOROPHYCEAE Cruceginia F ediastrum Cholorelia Protococcus Tetraspora Spirogyra
Ulothrix
Total
BACILLARIOPHYCEAE Navicula
Nitzschia
Amphora Diatoma
9 1 2 8 5 2
1
28
9
4
2 2
10 2 3 10 8 3
3
39
11
4
1 2
8 4 4 14 4 6
2
42
8
2
1 1
8 3 3 8 7 4
2
35
12
3
3 3
12 2 3 11 10 4
1
43
7
2
2 2
11 2 4 12 13 5
2
49
9
I
1 2
4 1 9 11 12 3
3
43
6
2
1 4
6 3 5 12 9 5
3
43
4
3
3 2
3 2 3 7 11 7
1
34
4
1
2 3
7 2 4 11 2 o J
2
31
2
1
2 1
10
2 13 -1
5 -» J
39
3
2
2 1
8 -)
1 7 5 5 4
32
5 2 " 1
3
Total
EUGLENOPHYCEAE Euglena sp.
Phacus sp
17
6
5
18
6
4
12
n 6
21
4
3
13
3
3
13
3
4
13
5
2
12
4
1
10
5
1
6
8
5
8
4
3
13
5
7 Total 11 10 17 7 6 7 7 5 6 13 7 12 DESMIDIACEAE Closterium
Total 3 3
'•"" P'"' 77 90 79 88 90 89 86 79 62 57 64 69
Table- 4a Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No. /m^) in Medical Pond
^ " ^ ^ ^ ^ a meter Mon ths^^^^^ Genera ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ROTIFERA Branchionus bidentatiis
B calycifloriis Keratella quadrata K tropica
Filinia
Notholca sn
Total CLADOCERA Daphma sp Bos m ma
Total
COPEPODA Cyclops sp
Diaptomus sp.
Total
OSTRACODA Cypridopsis Nauplius
Eggs
Total
OLIGOCHAETA Tubi/ex
Chaetogaster
Nais
Aelosoma niveum
A.quaternarium
Total
May 07
52 39 38 60
39 28
256
78 29
107
42
52
94
32 24
45
101
52
42
62
72
28
256
June
26 56 39 59
37 29
240
97 28
125
29
49
78
51 25
43
119
49
36
64
62
32
243
July
28 29 52 52
28 22
211
29 54
83
62
45
107
62 19
65
146
54
29
30
53
41
207
Aug
68 62 52 64
36 38
320
32 39
71
45
45
90
64 22
46
132
79
48
39
45
28
239
Sep
39 58 39 42
35 26
239
54 29
83
54
56
110
39 17
45
101
87
70
61
38
53
309
Oct
64
26 45 29
54 29
247
59 39
98
45
34
79
56 32
56
144
95
62
59
62
39
317
Nov
62 64 29 25
62 25
267
58 42
100
52
58
110
42 26
62
130
72
72
68
38
49
299
Dec
67
28 38 44
72 34
283
92 38
130
61
34
95
29 21
65
115
87
81
79
39
54
340
Jan 08
62 48 29 68
45 29
281
67 29
96
69
65
134
44 34
54
132
58
46
46
43
38
233
Feb
69 52 48 58
38 39
304
53 27
80
49
45
94
28 18
59
105
46
39
39
38
29
211
Mar
36 39 39 64
27 36
241
48 42
90
55
29
84
27 14
46
320
45
42
42
52
51
257
Apr
48 62 52 42
29 37
270
83 39
122
62
45
107
36 22
61
119
38
45
45
61
61
269
Cont.
""^"---. ^ Months Genera^---,^^^
EPHEMEROPTERA Baetis
Caenis
Total PLECOPTERA Alopei ala
Total COLEOPTERA Beioius
Hydaticus Hydracanna Hydianchna
Total
DIPTERA Chironomns
Tanypus
Pentaneura
Culicoides
Total
Grant Total
May ,07
29
38 67
40
40
30 34 52 28
144
239
49
28
29 345
1410
June
29
49 78
38
38
32 22 41 26
121
248
39
26
35 348
1390
July
58
55 113
39
39
44 28 42 19
133
249
39
32
37 357
1396
Aug
57
37 94
29
29
38 32 44 17
131
260
37
36
35 368
1474
Sep
28
38 66
21
21
37 46 64 24
m"
292
39
38
46 415
1515
Oct
62
60 122
28
28
52 44 66 26
188
237
45
29
48 359
1582
Nov
40
77 117
19
19
48 50 85 36
219
258
47
34
72 411
1671
Dec
52
66 118
42
42
56 55 74 38
223
247
52
39
66 403
1750
Jan ,08
61
52 113
38
38
49 38 63 29
179
266
51
37
52 406
1612
Feb
39
38 77
36
36
38 33 64 19
' r54
257
48
29
49 383
1444
Mar
22
32 54
21
21
34 29 59 17
~139
247
34
27
47 355
1561"
Apr
38
29 67
23
23
36 25 48 2 ^
132
253
32
22
58 365
1474
Table 4b Distribution and abundance of Zoobenthos (No./m^) in Lai Diggi Pond
Months May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Genera ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 07 08^ ROTIFERA Branchionm 48 47 34 53 43 59 63 72 45 56 29 45 bidentatus B calycijlorus 48 62 38 29 35 56 45 51 59 56 45 28 Keratellaquadrata 45 38 46 29 55 54 32 53 56 39 43 49 K tropica 43 42 46 28 45 52 57 65 72 39 52 63 Fihmasp 39 41 40 54 39 43 49 55 49 38 28 27 Notholca sp
Total CLADOCERA Daphnia sp Bosmina sp
Total COPEPODA Cyclops sp
Diaptomus sp
Total
21 244
88 32 120
54
29
83
39 269
86 28 114
52
38
90
24 228
92 29 121
45
65
110
28 221
99 34 133
72
59
131
37 254
98 26 124
59
95
154
42 306
102 48 150
95
98
193
49 295
105 34 139
98
82
180
62 358
112 25 137
82
58
140
68 349
94 35 129
58
38
96
42 270
87 38 125
38
29
67
39 236
76 29 105
32
27
59
29 241
69 38 107
49
39
88
OSTRACODA Cypndopsis 39 52 42 64 38 35 34 54 39 45 38 39 Nauphus 28 22 23 29 39 42 48 53 46 37 48 49
Eggs 44 29 39 55 42 46 52 63 65 45 48 43
Total 111 103 104 148 119 123 134 170 150 127 134 131 OLIGOCHAETA 7""*'/" 52 63 53 62 74 52 56 72 92 81 56 42 Chaetogaster 55 72 75 35 44 86 48 49 76 45 38 36
^^'* 82 75 93 86 78 56 62 54 58 29 73 62 Aelosoma mveum 64 46 48 64 49 38 56 53 52 54 62 58
Aquaternarium 39 32 28 53 45 63 32 42 54 45 56 38
Total 293 288 297 300 290 295 254 270 332 254 285 236
Contd.
Months May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Genera '^^ - ^ 07 08
EPHEMEROPTERA
Baelis
Laenis
Total
PLECOPTERA
Atoperala
Total
30
53
83
21 21
56
52
108
29 29
43 37
80
27 27
54 39
93
33 33
38
45
83
32 32
52
58
110
24 24
28 42
70
23 23
61
53
114
38 38
44
58
102
54 54
29
32
61
53 53
32
45
77
45 45
54
49
103
34 34
COLEOPTERA Berosiis Hydalicus Hydi acanna Hydranchna
23 36 53 39
24 48 39 28
27 54 62 29
32 59 49 21
29 29 53 32
22 42 59 39
56 39 39 29
57 38 28 28
34 56 65 34
45 29 39 39
34 32 38 45
23 46 3 34
Total 151 139 172 161 143 162 163 151 189 152 149 138 _ _ _ _ _ _
Chironomus 168 101 159 60 70 98 87 122 98 102 104 97
Tanvpt4s 68 98 49 39 94 45 69 109 78 89 98 Of
Pentaneiira 45 96 65 98 45 104 84 98 92 56 59 65
Culicoides 45 72 95 55 80 65 99 84 92 45 48 50
Total 326 367 368 252 289 312 339 413 360 292 309 308
Grant Total 1432 1507 1407 1472 1488 1675 1597 1791 1761 1401 1399 1386
Table 5a Monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in
Medical Pond
MONTHS
Rotifera Cladocera Copepoda Oslrucoda
Oligochaeta
Epheiiieroptera Coleoptera
Plecoptera Diptera
May' 07
18.1 7.5 6.6 7.1
18.1
4.7 2.8
10.2 24.4
June
17.2 8.9 5.6 ii.5
17.4
5.6 2.7
8.7 25.0
July
15.1 5.9 7.6 10.4
14.8
8.0 2.7
9.5 25.5
Aug
21.7 4.8 6.1 8.';
16.2
6.3 1.9
8.8 24.9
Sep
15.7 5.4 7.2 6.6
20.3
4.3 1.3
11.2 27.3
Oct
15.6 6.1 4.9 ').[
20.0
7.7 1.7
11.8 22.6
Nov
15.9 5.9 6.5 7.7
17.8
7.0 2.5
13.0 24.5
Dec
16.1 7.4 5.4 6.5
19.4
6.7 2.4
12.7 23.0
Jan' 08 17.4 5.9 8.3 8.1
14.4
4.7 2.3
11.1 25.1
Feb
21.0 5.5 6.5 7.2
14.6
5.3 2.4
10.6 26.5
Mar
15.4 5.7 5.3 20.4
16.4
34 2.5
8.9 22.7
Apr
18.3 8.2 7.2 8.0
18.2
4 5 1.5
8.9 24.7
Table 5b Monthly percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in
Lai Diggi Pond
MONTHS
Rotifera Cladocera Copepoda Ostracoda
Oligochaets Ephemeroptera
Coleoptera Plecoptera Diptera
May' 07 17 8.3 5.7 7,5
20
5.7
10.5 1.4 22.7
June
17 7.5 5 6.8
19
7.1
9.2 1.9 24.3
July
16.2 8.8 7 7.3
21.1
5.6
12.2 1.9 26 1
Aug
15 9 8.8 10
20.3
6.3
10.9 2.2 17.1
Sep
17 8.3 10.3 7.9
19.5
5.5
9.6 2.1 19.4
Oct
18.2 8.9 11.5 7.3
17.5
6.5
9.6 1.4 18,6
Nov
18.4 8.7 11.2 8.3
15.9
4.3
10.2 1.4 21.2
Dec
19.9 7.6 7.8 9.4
15
6.3
8.4 2.1 23
Jan' 08 19.8 7.3 5.4 8.5
18.8
5.7
10.7 3 20.4
Feb
19.2 8.9 47 9
18 1
4 3
10 8 3.7 20 8
Mar
16.8 75 42 9.5
20 3
55
106 3.2 22
Apr
173 77 6 3 94
17
74
99 24 22 8
May, 07 June
181 172
Jul
174
104
151
27 3
112
157
203
Oct
118 156
Nov
15S
Dec
161 12 7 1 ^ ^
17 8 19 4
Jan, 08
Feb
5 3^ 146
Mar
2 2 7 .
204
Apr
2 5 ^- ^ ^ H
34 ^ ^ ^ 1
164
• Cladocera Ostracod
• Oligochaets • Plecoptera • Oiptera
^ ^ ^ ^ 1 5 4
• Copepod - Rotifer
Ephemeroptera • Coleoptera
1 5 '
4 5
182
Fig.la Showing monthly Percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in Medical Pond
Jul
May, 07
109
June
Sept Oct
Nov
102
Dec Jan, 08
Feb
19 2
Mar Apr
• Cladocera Ostracod
• Oljgochaets • Plecoptera • Diptera
• Copepod Rotifer Ephemeroptera
• Coleoptera
Fig.1b Showing monthly Percent composition of different groups of Zoobenthos in La! diggi Pond
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