CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA_ Pragmatism.pdf

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6/6/2015 CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:Pragmatism

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Pragmatism,asatendencyinphilosophy,signifiestheinsistenceonusefulnessorpracticalconsequencesasatestoftruth.Initsnegativephase,itopposeswhatitstylestheformalismorrationalismofIntellectualisticphilosophy.Thatis,itobjectstotheviewthatconcepts,judgments,andreasoningprocessesarerepresentativeofrealityandtheprocessesofreality.Itconsidersthemtobemerelysymbols,hypothesesandschematadevisedbymantofacilitateorrenderpossibletheuse,orexperience,ofreality.Thisuse,orexperience,isthetruetestofrealexistence.Initspositivephase,therefore,Pragmatismsetsupasthestandardoftruthsomenonrationaltest,suchasaction,satisfactionofneeds,realizationinconduct,thepossibilityofbeinglived,andjudgesrealitybythisnormtotheexclusionofallothers.

AlthoughthePragmatiststhemselvesproclaimthatPragmatismisbutanewnameforoldwaysofthinking,theyarenotagreedastotheimmediatesourcesofthePragmaticmovement.Nevertheless,itisclearthatKant,whoisheldresponsibleforsomanyoftherecentdevelopmentsinphilosophyandtheology,hashadadecidinginfluenceontheoriginofPragmatism.Descartes,byreasonoftheemphasishelaidonthetheoreticalconsciousness,"Ithink,thereforeIexist",maybesaidtobethefatherofIntellectualism.FromKant'ssubstitutionofmoralfortheoreticalconsciousness,fromhisinsistenceon"Iought"insteadof"Ithink",cameawholeprogenyofVoluntaristicornonrationalphilosophies,especiallyLotze'sphilosophyof"valueinsteadofvalidity",whichwerenotwithoutinfluenceonthefoundersofPragmatism.BesidestheinfluenceofKant,thereisalsotobereckonedthetrendofscientificthoughtduringthelasthalfofthenineteenthcentury.Inancientandmedievaltimesthescientistaimedatthediscoveryofcausesandtheestablishmentoflaws.Thecausewasafactofexperience,ascertainablebyempiricalmethods,andthelawwasageneralizationfromfacts,representingtherealcourseofeventsinnature.Withtheadventoftheevolutiontheoryitwasfoundthatanunprovedhypothesisorhypotheticalcause,ifitexplainsthefactsobserved,fulfilsthesamepurposeandservesthesameendsasatruecauseoranestablishedlaw.Indeed,ifevolution,asahypothesis,explainsthefactsobservedinplantandanimallife,orifahypotheticalmedium,likeether,explainsthefactsobservedinregardtolightandheat,thereisno



reason,saythescientists,whyweshouldconcernourselvesfurtheraboutthetruthofevolutionortheexistenceofether.Thehypothesisfunctionssatisfactorily,andthatisenough.Fromthisequalizationofhypothesiswithlawandofprovisionalexplanationwithprovedfactarosethetendencytoequalizepostulateswithaxioms,andtoregardastrueanyprinciplewhichworksoutwell,orfunctionssatisfactorily.Moreover,evolutionhadfamiliarizedscientistswiththenotionthatallprogressisconditionedbyadjustmenttonewconditions.Itwasnatural,therefore,toconsiderthataproblempresentedtothethinkingmindcallsfortheadjustmentofthepreviouscontentofthemindtothenewexperienceintheproblempondered.Aprincipleorpostulateorattitudeofmindthatwouldbringaboutanadjustmentwouldsatisfythemindforthetimebeing,andwould,therefore,solvetheproblem.Thissatisfactioncame,consequently,tobeconsideredatestoftruth.Thisaccount,however,wouldbeincompletewithoutamentionofthetemperamental,racial,and,inasense,theenvironmentaldeterminantsofPragmatism.ThemenwhorepresentPragmatismareofthemotoractivetypethecountry,namelytheUnitedStates,inwhichPragmatismhasflourishedmostispreeminentlyacountryofachievement,andtheageinwhichPragmatismhasappearedisonewhichbestowsitshighestpraiseonsuccessfulendeavour.ThefirstofthePragmatistsdeclaresthatPragmatismrestsontheaxiom"Theendofmanisaction",anaxiom,headds,whichdoesnotrecommenditselftohimatsixtyasforciblyasitdidwhenhewasthirty.

Thepragmatists

Inapapercontributedtothe"PopularScienceMonthly"in1878entitled"HowtomakeourIdeasclear",Mr.C.S.PeircefirstusedthewordPragmatismtodesignateaprincipleputforwardbyhimasaruletoguidethescientistandthemathematician.Theprincipleisthatthemeaningofanyconceptioninthemindisthepracticaleffectitwillhaveinaction."Considerwhateffectswhichmightconceivablyhavepracticalbearingsweconsidertheobjectofourconceptiontohave.Thenourconceptionoftheseeffectsisthewholeofourconceptionoftheobject."Thisruleremainedunnoticedfortwentyyears,untilitwastakenupbyProfessorWilliamJamesinhisaddressdeliveredattheUniversityofCaliforniain1898."Pragmatism",accordingtoJames,"isatemperofmind,anattitudeitisalsoatheoryofthenatureofideasandtruthandfinally,itisatheoryaboutreality"(JournalofPhil.,V,85).Asheusestheword,therefore,itdesignates

(a)anattitudeofmindtowardsphilosophy,(b)anepistemology,and(c)ametaphysics.

James'sepistemologyandmetaphysicswillbedescribedinsectionsIIIandIV.TheattitudewhichhecallsPragmatismhedefinesasfollows:"Thewholefunctionofphilosophyoughttobetofindoutwhatdefinitedifferenceitwillmaketoyouandme,atdefiniteinstantsofourlives,ifthisworldformulaorthatworldformulabethetrueone"(Pragmatism,p.50).Thus,whenoneisconfrontedwiththeevidenceinfavourofthe



formula"thehumansoulisimmortal",andthenturnstotheconsiderationsputforwardbythescepticinfavouroftheformula"thehumansoulisnotimmortal",whatishetodo?IfheisaPragmatist,hewillnotbecontenttoweightheevidence,tocomparethecaseforwiththecaseagainstimmortalityhewillnotattempttofittheaffirmativeorthenegativeintoa"closedsystem"ofthoughthewillworkouttheconsequences,thedefinitedifferences,thatfollowfromeachalternative,anddecideinthatwaywhichofthetwo"works"better.Thealternativewhichworksbetteristrue.TheattitudeofthePragmatistis"theattitudeoflookingawayfromfirstthings,principles,categories,supposednecessitiesandoflookingtowardslastthings,fruits,consequences,facts"(op.cit.,55).

ThisviewofthescopeandattitudeofphilosophyissustainedinProfessorJames'snumerouscontributionstotheliteratureofPragmatism(seebibliography),inlectures,articles,andreviewswhichobtainedforhimthedistinctionofbeingthemostthoroughgoingandthemosteminent,ifnotthemostlogical,ofthePragmatists.NextinimportancetoJamesisProfessorJohnDewey,whoinhis"StudiesinLogicalTheory"andinanumberofarticlesandlectures,defendsthedoctrineknownvariouslyasInstrumentalism,orImmediateEmpiricism.AccordingtoDewey,weareconstantlyacquiringnewitemsofknowledgewhichareatfirstunrelatedtothepreviouscontentsofthemindor,inmomentsofreflection,wediscoverthatthereissomecontradictionamongtheitemsofknowledgealreadyacquired.Thisconditioncausesastrainortension,theremovalofwhichgivessatisfactiontothethinker.Anideais"aplanofaction",whichweusetorelievethestrainifitperformsthatfunctionsuccessfully,thatis,satisfactorily,itistrue.Theadjustmentisnot,however,onesided.Boththeoldtruthsinthemindandthenewtruththathasjustenteredthemindmustbemodifiedbeforewecanhavesatisfaction.Thusthereisnostatictruth,muchlessabsolutetruththerearetruths,andtheseareconstantlybeingmadetrue.Thisistheviewwhich,underthenamesPersonalism,andHumanism,hasbeenemphasizedbyProfessorF.S.Schiller,theforemostoftheEnglishexponentsofPragmatism."Humanism",and"StudiesinHumanism"arethetitlesofhisprincipalworks.Pragmatism,Schillerthinks,"isinrealityonlytheapplicationofHumanismtothetheoryofknowledge"(Humanism,p.xxi),andHumanismisthedoctrinethatthereisnoabsolutetruth,butonlytruths,whichareconstantlybeingmadetruebythemindworkingonthedataofexperience.

OntheContinentofEurope,PragmatismhasnotattainedthesameprominenceasinEnglishspeakingcountries.Nevertheless,writerswhofavourPragmatismseeintheteachingsofMach,Ostwald,Avenarius,andSimmelatendencytowardsthePragmaticdefinitionofphilosophy.James,forinstance,quotesOstwald,theillustriousLeipzigchemist,assaying,"Iamaccustomedtoputquestionstomyclassesinthisway:inwhatrespectswouldtheworldbedifferentifthisalternativeorthatweretrue?IfIcanfindnothingthatwouldbecomedifferent,thenthealternativehasnosense"(Pragmatism,p.48).Avenarius's"CriticismofExperience",andSimmel's"PhilosophiedesGeldes"tendtowardsestablishingthesamecriterion.InFrance,Renouvier'sreturntothepointofview



ofpracticalreasoninhisneoCriticism,thesocalled"newphilosophy"whichminimizesthevalueofscientificcategoriesasinterpretationsofreality,andwhichhasitschiefrepresentativeinPoincar,who,asJamessays,"missesPragmatismonlybythebreadthofahair",and,finally,Bergson,whomthePragmatistseverywhererecognizeasthemostbrilliantandlogicaloftheirleaders,representthegrowthanddevelopmentoftheFrenchSchoolofPragmatism.SidebysidewiththisFrenchmovement,andnotuninfluencedbyit,istheschoolofCatholicImmanentApologists,beginningwithOllLapruneandcomingdowntoBlondelandLeRoy,whoexaltaction,life,sentiment,orsomeothernonrationalelementintothesoleandsupremecriterionofhigherspiritualtruth.InItaly,GiovanniPapini,authorof"Introduzionealpragmatismo",takeshisplaceamongthemostadvancedexponentsoftheprinciplethat"themeaningoftheoriesconsistsuniquelyintheconsequenceswhichthosewhobelievethemtruemayexpectfromthem"(Introd.,p.28).Indeed,heseemsattimestogofartherthantheAmericanandEnglishPragmatistswhen,forinstance,inthe"PopularScienceMonthly"(Oct.,1907),hewritesthatPragmatism"islessaphilosophythanamethodofdoingwithoutphilosophy".

Pragmatictheoryofknowledge

InfairnesstothePragmatistsitmustberecordedthat,whentheyclaimtoshiftthecentreofphilosophicinquiryfromthetheoreticaltothepractical,theyexplainthatby"practical"theydonotunderstandmerelythe"breadandbutter"consequences,butincludealsoamongpracticalconsequencessuchconsiderationsaslogicalconsistency,intellectualsatisfaction,andharmonyofmentalcontentandJamesexpresslyaffirmsthatby"practical"hemeans"particularandconcrete".IndividualismorNominalismis,therefore,thestartingpointofthePragmatist.IndeedDr.Schillerassuresusthattheconsequenceswhicharethetestoftruthmustbetheconsequencestosomeone,forsomepurpose.TheIntellectualismagainstwhichPragmatismisarevoltrecognizeslogicalconsistencyamongthetestsoftruth.ButwhileIntellectualismrefersthetruthtobetreatedtouniversalstandards,tolawsprinciples,andtoestablishedgeneralizations,Pragmatismusesastandardwhichisparticular,individual,personal.Besides,realisticIntellectualism,suchaswastaughtbytheScholastics,recognizesanorderofrealthings,independentofthemind,notmadebythemind,butgiveninexperience,andusesthatasastandardoftruth,conformitytoitbeingatestoftruth,andlackofconformitybeingaproofoffalseness.Pragmatismregardsthisrealismasnaive,asarelicofprimitivemodesofphilosophizing,andisobliged,therefore,totestnewlyacquiredtruthbythestandardoftruthalreadyinthemind,thatis,bypersonalorindividualexperience.Again,thereunderliesthepragmaticaccountofknowledgeaSensistpsychology,latent,perhaps,sofarastheconsciousnessofthePragmatistisconcerned.ForthePragmatist,althoughhedoesnotaffirmthatwehavenoknowledgesuperiortosenseknowledge,leavesnoroominhisphilosophyforknowledgethatrepresentsuniversallyandnecessarilyand,atthesametime,validly.



Knowledgebeginswithsenseimpressions.AtthispointthePragmatistfallsintohisinitialerror,anerror,however,ofwhichtheidealisticIntellectualistisalsoguilty.Whatweareawareof,sayboththePragmatistandtheIdealist,isnotathing,oraqualityofanobject,butthestateofself,thesubjectivecondition,the"sensationofwhiteness",the"sensationofsweetness"etc.Thiserror,fatalasitis,neednotdetainushere,because,ashasbeensaid,itiscommontoIdealistsandPragmatists.Itis,infact,thelucklessCartesianlegacytoallmodernsystems.Next,wecometopercepts,concepts,orideas.Incidentally,itmayberemarkedthatthePragmatist,incommonwiththeSensist,thistime,failstodistinguishbetweenapercept,whichisparticularandcontingent,andanideaorconcept,whichisuniversalandnecessary.Letustakethewordconcept,anduseitashedoes,withoutdistinguishingitsspecificmeaning.Whatisthevalueoftheconcept?TheRealistanswersthatitisarepresentationofreality,that,asinthecaseoftheimpression,sohere,too,thereisasomethingoutsidethemindwhichtheconceptrepresentsandwhichistheprimarytestofthetruthoftheconcept.ThePragmatistrejectsthenotionthatconceptsrepresentreality.HoweverthePragmatistsmaydifferlateron,theyareallagreedonthispoint:James,Schiller,Bergson,Papini,theneoCriticsofscienceandtheImmanentists.What,then,doestheconceptdo?Concepts,wearetold,aretoolsfashionedbythehumanmindforthemanipulationofexperience.James,forexample,says"ThenotionsofoneTime,oneSpace...thedistinctionsbetweenthoughtsandthings...theconceptionsofclasseswithsubclasseswithinthem...surelyallthesewereoncedefiniteconquestsmadeathistoricdatesbyourancestorsintheirattemptstogetthechaosoftheircrudeindividualexperiencesintoamoreshareableandmanageableshape.TheyprovedofsuchsovereignuseasDenkmittelthattheyarenowapartoftheverystructureofourmind"(MeaningofTruth,p.62).

Aconcept,therefore,istrueif,whenweuseitasatooltomanipulateorhandleourexperience,theresults,thepracticalresults,aresatisfactory.Itistrueifitfunctionswellinotherwords,ifit"works".Schillerexpressesthesamenotioninalmostidenticalwords.Concepts,hetellsus,are"toolsslowlyfashionedbythepracticalintelligenceforthemasteryofexperience"(StudiesinHumanism,p.64).Theyarenotstaticbutdynamictheirworkisneverdone.Foreachnewexperiencehastobesubjectedtotheprocessofmanipulation,andthisprocessimpliesthereadjustmentofallpastexperience.Hence,asSchillersays,therearetruthsbutthereisnotruthor,asJamesexpressesit,truthisnottranscendentbutambulatorythatistosay,notruthismadeandsetaside,oroutsideexperience,forfuturereferenceofnewtruthtoitexperienceisastreamoutofwhichwecanneverstepnoitemofexperiencecaneverbeverifieddefinitelyandirrevocablyitisverifiedprovisionallynow,butmustbeverifiedagaintomorrow,whenIacquireanewexperience.Verificabilityandnotverificationisthetestofexperienceand,therefore,thefunctionoftheconcept,ofanyconceptorofallofthem,goesonindefinitely.

ProfessorDeweyagreeswithJamesandSchillerinhisdescriptionofthemeaningofconcepts.Heappearstodifferfromthemmerelyinthegreateremphasiswhichhelayson



thestrainorstresswhichtheconceptrelieves.Ourfirstexperience,hesays,isnotknowledgeproperlysocalled.Whentothisisaddedasecondexperiencethereislikelytoariseinthemindasenseofcontradiction,or,atleast,aconsciousnessofthelackofcordination,betweenthefirstandthesecond.Hencearisesdoubt,oruneasiness,orstrain,orsomeotherformofthethroesofthinking.Wecannotrestuntilthispainfulconditionisremedied.Thereforeweinquire,andcontinuetoinquireuntilweobtainananswerwhichsatisfiesbyremovingtheinconsistencywhichexisted,orbybringingabouttheadjustmentwhichisrequired.Inthisinquiryweusetheconceptasa"planofaction"iftheplanleadstosatisfaction,itistrue,ifitdoesnot,itisfalse.ForDewey,asforJamesandSchiller,eachadjustmentmeansagoingoverandadoingoverofallthepreviouscontentsofexperience,or,atleast,ofthosecontentswhichareinanywayrelevantorreferrabletothenewlyacquireditem.Here,therefore,wehaveoncemorethedoctrinethattheconceptisnotstaticbutdynamic,notfixedbutfluentitsmeaningisnotitscontentbutitsfunction.ThesamedoctrineisbroughtoutveryforciblybyBergsoninhiscriticismofthecategoriesofscience.Therealitywhichscienceattemptstointerpretisastream,acontinuum,morelikealivingorganismthanamineralsubstance.Truthinthemindofthescientistis,therefore,avitalstream,asuccessionofconcepts,eachofwhichflowsintoitssuccessor.Tosaythatagivenconceptrepresentsthingsastheyarecanbetrueonlyinthefluentorfunctionalsense.Aconceptcutoutofthecontinuumofexperienceatanymomentnomorerepresentstherealityofsciencethanacrosssectionofatissuerepresentsthespecificvitalfunctionofthattissue.Whenwethinkwecutourconceptsoutofthecontinuum:touseourconceptsastheywereintendedtobeused,wemustkeeptheminthestreamofreality,thatis,wemustlivethem.

Ifwepassnowfromtheconsiderationofconceptstothatofjudgmentandreasoning,wefindthesamecontrastbetweentheintellectualRealistandthePragmatistasinthecaseofconcepts.TheintellectualRealistdefinesjudgmentasaprocessofthemind,inwhichwepronouncetheagreementordifferencebetweentwothingsrepresentedbythetwoconceptsofthejudgment.Thethingsthemselvesarethestandard.Sometimes,asinselfevidentjudgments,wedonotappealtoexperienceatthemomentofjudging,butperceivetheagreementordifferenceafterananalysisoftheconcepts.Sometimes,asinempiricaljudgments,weturntoexperiencefortheevidencethatenablesustojudge.Selfevidenttruthsareaxiomatic,necessary,anduniversal,suchas"Alltheradiiofagivencircleareequal",or"Thewholeisgreaterthanitspart".Truthsthatarenotselfevidentmaychange,ifthefactschange,as,forinstance,"ThepenIholdinmyhandissixincheslong".Therearenecessarytruths,whicharealegitimatestandardbywhichtotestnewtruthsandtherearetruthsoffact,which,aslongastheyremaintrue,arealsolegitimatetestsofnewtruth.Thus,systemsoftrutharebuiltup,andpartofthesystemmaybeaxiomatictruths,whichneednotberemadeormadeoverwhenanewtruthisacquired.

AllthisissweptasidebythePragmatistwiththesamecontemptasthenaiverealismwhichholdsthatconceptsrepresentreality.Therearenonecessarytruths,thereareno



axioms,saysPragmatism,butonlypostulates.Ajudgmentistrueifitfunctionsinsuchawayastoexplainourexperiences,anditcontinuestobetrueonlysolongasitdoesexplainourexperiences.Theapparentselfevidenceofaxioms,saysthePragmatist,isdue,nottotheclearnessandcogencyoftheevidencearisingfromananalysisofconcepts,muchlessisitduetothecogencyofrealityitisduetoalongestablishedhabitoftherace.ThereasonwhyIcannothelpthinkingthattwoandtwoarefouristhehabitofsothinking,ahabitbegunbyourancestorsbeforetheywerehumanandindulgedinbyalltheirdescendantseversince.Alltruthsare,therefore,empirical:theyareall"manmade"henceHumanismisonlyanothernameforPragmatism.Ourjudgmentsbeingallpersonal,inthissense,andbasedonourownexperience,subjecttothelimitationsimposedbythehabitsoftherace,itfollowsthattheconclusionswhichwedrawfromthemwhenwereasonareonlyhypothetical.Theyarevalidonlywithinourexperience,andshouldnotbecarriedbeyondtheregionofverifiableexperience.Pragmatism,asJamespointedout,doesnotlookbackwardtoaxioms,premises,systems,butforwardtoconsequences,results,fruits.Inpointoffact,then,weare,ifwebelievethePragmatist,obligedtosubscribetothedoctrineofJohnStuartMillthatalltruthishypothetical,that"canbe"and"cannotbe"havereferenceonlytoourexperience,andthat,forallweknow,theremaybeinsomeremoteregionofspaceacountrywheretwoandtwoarefive,andathingcanbeandnotbeatthesametime.

Pragmatictheoryofreality

TheattitudeofPragmatismtowardsmetaphysicsissomewhatambiguous.ProfessorJameswasquotedabove(Sec.II)assayingthatPragmatismis"finally,atheoryofreality".Schiller,too,althoughheconsidersmetaphysicstobe"aluxury",andbelievesthat"neitherPragmatismnorHumanismnecessitatesametaphysics",yetdecidesatlastthatHumanism"impliesultimatelyavoluntaristicmetaphysics".Papini,asiswellknown,putsforwardthe"corridortheory",accordingtowhichPragmatismisamethodthroughwhichonemaypass,ormustpass,toenterthevariousapartmentsindicatedbythesigns"Materialism","Idealism",etc.,althoughheconfessesthatthePragmatist"willhaveanantipathyforallformsofMonism"(Introduzione,p.29).Asamatteroffact,themetaphysicsofthePragmatistisdistinctlyantiMonistic.Itdeniesthefundamentalunityofrealityand,adoptingawordwhichseemstohavebeenfirstusedbyWolfftodesignatethedoctrinesoftheAtomistsandtheMonadismofLeibniz,itstylesthePragmaticviewofrealityPluralistic.Pluralism,thedoctrine,namely,thatrealityconsistsofapluralityormultiplicityofrealthingswhichcannotbereducedtoabasicmetaphysicalunity,claimstoofferthemostconsistentsolutionofthreemostimportantproblemsinphilosophy.Theseare:

(1)Thepossibilityofrealchange(2)thepossibilityofrealvarietyordistinctionamongthingsand(3)thepossibilityoffreedom(seeart."Pluralism"inBaldwin,"Dict.ofPhilosophy



andPsychology").

ItistruethatMonismfailsonthesepoints,since

(1)itcannotconsistentlymaintaintherealityofchange(2)ittendstothePantheisticviewthatalldistinctionsaremerelylimitationsoftheonebeingand(3)itisinevitablyDeterministic,excludingthepossibilityoftrueindividualfreedom(seeMONISM).

Atthesametime,Pluralismgoestotheoppositeextreme,for:

(1)whileitexplainsonetermintheproblemofchange,iteliminatestheotherterm,namelytheoriginalcausalunityofallthingsinGod,theFirstCause(2)whileitaccountsforvariety,itcannotconsistentlyexplainthecosmicharmonyandthemultitudinousresemblancesofthingsand(3)whileitstrivestomaintainfreedom,itdoesnotdistinguishwithsufficientcarebetweenfreedomandcausalism.

James,thechiefexponentofPragmaticPluralism,contrastsPluralismandMonismasfollows:"Pluralismletsthingsreallyexistintheeachformordistributively.Monismthinksthattheallformorcollectiveunitformistheonlyformthatisrational.Theallformallowsofnotakingupanddroppingofconnexions,forinthe'all'thepartsareessentiallyandexternallycoimplicated.Intheeachform,onthecontrary,athingmaybeconnectedbyintermediatethings,withathingwithwhichithasnoimmediateoressentialconnexion....Iftheeachformbetheeternalformofrealitynolessthantheformoftemporalappearance,westillhaveacoherentworld,andnotanincarnateincoherence,asischargedbysomanyabsolutists.Our'multiverse'stillmakesa'universe'foreverypart,thoughitmaynotbeinactualorimmediateconnexion,isneverthelessinsomepossibleormediateconnexionwitheveryotherpart,howeverremote"(APluralisticUniverse,324).ThistypeofunionJamescallsthe"strungalongtype",thetypeofcontinuity,contiguity,orconcatenation,asopposedtothecoimplicationorintegrationtypeofunityadvocatedbytheabsoluteMonists.IfoneprefersaGreekname,hesays,theunitymaybecalledsynechism.Others,however,prefertocallthistychism,ormerechancesuccession.Peirce,forinstance,holdsthattheimpressionofnoveltywhichanewoccurrenceproducesisexplicableonlyonthetheoryofchance,andBergsonseemstobeinnobettercasewhenhetriestoexplainwhathecallsthedevenirrel.

ThegistofPluralismisthat"Thingsare'with'oneanotherinmanyways,butnothingincludeseverythingordominatesovereverything"(ibid.,p.321).Oneoftheconsequencesofthisviewisthat,asSchillersays("PersonalIdealism",p.60),"theworldiswhatwemakeit"."Sicksouls",and"tenderminded"peoplemay,asJamessays,becontenttotaketheirplacesinaworldalreadymadeaccordingtolaw,dividedoffinto



categoriesbyanAbsoluteMind,andreadytoberepresentedinthemindofthebeholder,justasitis.ThisisthepointofviewoftheMonist.But,the"strenuous",andthe"toughminded"willnotbecontenttotakeareadymadeworldastheyfindittheywillmakeitforthemselves,overcomingalldifficulties,fillinginthegaps,sotospeak,andsmoothingovertheroughplacesbyestablishingactualandimmediateconnexionsamongtheeventsastheyoccurinexperience.TheMonisticview,Jamesconfesses,hasamajestyofitsownandacapacitytoyieldreligiouscomforttoamostrespectableclassofminds."But,fromthehuman(pragmaticPluralist)pointofview,noonecanpretendthatitdoesnotsufferfromthefaultsofremotenessandabstractness.ItiseminentlyaproductofwhatIhaveventuredtocalltheRationalistictemper....Itisdapper,itisnobleinthebadsense,inthesenseinwhichitisnobletobeinaptforhumbleservice.Inthisrealworldofsweatanddirt,itseemstomethatwhenaviewofthingsis'noble',thatoughttocountasapresumptionagainstitstruth,andasaphilosophicdisqualification"(Pragmatism,pp.71and72).Moreover,Monismisaspeciesofspirituallaziness,ofmoralcowardice."They[theMonists]meanthatwehavearighteverandanontotakeamoralholiday,tolettheworldwagitsownway,feelingthatitsissuesareinbetterhandsthanoursandarenoneofourbusiness"(ibid.,p.74).Pluralisticstrenuositysuffersnosuchrestraintsitrecognizesnoobstaclethatcannotbeovercome.ThetestofitsaudacityisitstreatmentoftheideaofGod.ForthePluralist,"Godisnottheabsolute,butisHimselfapart....Hisfunctionscanbetakenasnotwhollydissimilartothoseoftheothersmallerpartsassimilartoourfunctions,consequently,havinganenvironment,beingintime,andworkingoutahistoryjustlikeourselves,Heescapesfromtheforeignnessfromallthatishuman,ofthestatic,timeless,perfectabsolute"(APluralisticUniverse,p.318).God,then,isfinite.Weare,indeed,internalpartsofGod,andnotexternalcreations.Godisnotidenticalwiththeuniverse,butalimited,conditioned,partofit.WehavehereanewkindofPantheism,aPantheismofthe"strungalong"type,andifJamesiscontenttohavehisphilosophicaldemocraticstrenuosityjudgedbythisresult,hehasveryeffectivelycondemnedhisowncase,notonlyintheestimationofaristocraticAbsolutistsbutalsointhatofeveryChristianphilosopher.

Pragmatismandreligion

IthasbeenpointedoutthatoneofthesecretsofthepopularityofPragmatismisthebeliefthatinthewarfarebetweenreligionandAgnosticismthePragmatistshave,somehow,cometotherescueonthesideofreligioustruth(Pratt,"WhatisPragmatism",p.175).Itshouldbeadmittedatoncethat,bytemperamentaldisposition,ratherthanbyforceoflogic,thePragmatistisinclinedtoupholdthevitalandsocialimportanceofpositivereligiousfaith.Forhim,religionisnotamereattitudeofmind,anilluminationthrownonfactsalreadyascertained,orastateoffeelingwhichdisposesonetoplaceanemotionalvalueonthetruthsrevealedbyscience.Itaddsnewfactsandbringsforwardnewtruthswhichmakeadifference,andleadtodifferences,especiallyinconduct.Whetherreligionsareprovedornot,theyhaveapprovedthemselvestothePragmatist(VarietiesofReligious



Experience,p.331).Theyshouldbejudgedbytheirintentandnotmerelybytheircontent.Jamessaysexpressly:"OnPragmaticprinciples,ifthehypothesisofGodworkssatisfactorilyinthewidestsenseoftheword,itistrue"(Pragmatism,p.299).Thisisopentotwoobjections.Inthefirstplace,whatfunctionsor"workssatisfactorily"isnottheexistenceofGod,butbeliefintheexistenceofGod.InthestrugglewithAgnosticismandreligiousscepticismthetaskoftheChristianapologistisnottoprovethatmenbelieveinGodbuttojustifythatbeliefbyprovingthatGodexistsandinthistasktheassistancewhichhereceivesfromthePragmatistisofdoubtfulvalue.Inthesecondplace,itwillberememberedthatthePragmatistmakesexperiencesynonymouswithreality.Theconsequences,therefore,whichfollowfromthe"hypothesisofGod"mustfallwithinactualorpossiblehumanexperience,notoftheinferentialordeductivekind,butexperiencedirectandintuitional.ButitisclearthatifweattachanydefinitemeaningatalltotheideaofGod,wemustmeanaBeingwhoseexistenceisnotcapableofdirectintuitionalexperience,exceptinthesupernaturalorder,anorderwhich,itneedhardlybesaid,thePragmatistdoesnotadmit.WedonotneedthePragmatisttotellusthatbeliefinGodfunctionsforgood,thatitbringsorderintoourintellectualchaos,thatitsustainsusbyconfidenceintherationalityofthingshere,andbuoysusupwithhopewhenwelooktowardsthethingsthatarebeyond.Whatweneedisassistanceinthetaskofshowingthatthatbeliefisfoundedoninferentialevidence,andthatthe"hypothesisofGod"maybeprovedtobeafact.

Estimateofpragmatism

Inawellknownpassageofhisworkentitled"Pragmatism",ProfessorJamessumsuptheachievementsofthePragmatistsandoutlinesthefutureoftheschool."Thecentreofgravityofphilosophymustalteritsplace.Theearthofthings,longthrownintoshadowbythegloriesoftheupperether,mustresumeitsrights....Itwillbeanalterationinthe'seatofauthority'thatremindsonealmostoftheProtestantReformation.Andas,topapalminds,Protestantismhasoftenseemedameremessofanarchyandconfusion,such,nodoubt,willPragmatismoftenseemtoultraRationalistmindsinphilosophy.Itwouldseemsomuchtrash,philosophically.Butlifewagson,allthesame,andcompassesitsends,inProtestantcountries.IventuretothinkthatphilosophicProtestantismwillcompassanotdissimilarprosperity"(Pragmatism,p.123).Itis,ofcourse,toosoontojudgetheaccuracyofthisprophecy.Meantime,tomindspapal,thoughnotultraRationalistic,theparallelheredrawnseemsquitejust,historicallyandphilosophically.PragmatismisIndividualistic.Despitethedisclaimersofsomeofitsexponents,itsetsuptheProtagoreanprinciple,"Manisthemeasureofallthings".ForifPragmatismmeansanything,itmeansthathumanconsequences,"consequencestoyouandme",arethetestofthemeaningandtruthofourconcepts,judgments,andreasonings.PragmatismisNominalistic.Itdeniesthevalidityofcontentofuniversalconcepts,andscornfullyrejectsthemerepossibilityofuniversal,allincludingorevenmanyincluding,reality.Itis,byimplication,Sensistic.Forindescribingthefunctionalvalueofconceptsitrestrictsthat



functiontoimmediateorremotesenseexperience.ItisIdealistic.For,despiteitsdisclaimerofagreementwiththeintellectualIdealismoftheBradleytype,itisguiltyofthefundamentalerrorofIdealismwhenitmakesrealitytobecoextensivewithexperience,anddescribesitsdoctrineofperceptionintermsofCartesianSubjectivism.Itis,inasense,Anarchistic.DiscardingIntellectualisticlogic,itdiscardsprinciples,andhasnosubstituteforthemexceptindividualexperience.LiketheReformers,whomisunderstoodormisrepresentedthetheologyoftheSchoolmen,ithasnevergraspedthetruemeaningofScholasticRealism,alwaysconfoundingitwithIntellectualRealismoftheAbsolutisttype.Finally,bybringingalltheproblemsoflifewithinthescopeofPragmatism,whichclaimstobeasystemofphilosophy,itintroducesconfusionintotherelationsbetweenphilosophyandtheology,andstillworseconfusionintotherelationsbetweenphilosophyandreligion.ItconsistentlyappealstofutureprosperityasaPragmatictestofitstruth,thusleavingtheverdicttotimeandafuturegeneration.Butwiththeelementsoferroranddisorganizationwhichithasembodiedinitsmethodandadoptedinitssynthesis,ithasdonemuch,sotheIntellectualistthinks,toprejudgeitscase.

Sources

JAMES,VarietiesofReligiousExperience(NewYork,1902)IDEM,Pragmatism(NewYork,1908)IDEM,APluralisticUniverse(NewYork,1909)IDEM,TheMeaningofTruth(NewYork,1910)DEWEY,OutlinesofEthics(Chicago,1891)IDEM,StudiesinLogicalTheory(Chicago,1903)articlesinJournalofPhilosophy,etc.SCHILLER,PersonalIdealism(London,1902)IDEM,Humanism(London,1903)IDEM,StudiesinHumanism(NewYork,1907)BERGSON,L'Evolutioncratrice(Paris,1907)IDEM,Matireetmmoire(Paris,1897)BAWDEN,PrinciplesofPragmatism(NewYork,1910).

AntiPragmatist:PRATT,WhatisPragmatism?(NewYork,1909)SCHINZ,AntiPragmatism(NewYork,1909)WALKER,TheoriesofKnowledge(NewYork,1910)FARGES,Lacrisedelacertitude(Paris,1907)LECLRE,Pragmatisme,modernisme,protestantisme(Paris,1909).

Articles:Rivistadifilosofianeoscolastica(AprilandOct.,1910)Revuenoscolastique(1907).pp.220sq.(1909),pp.451sq.Revuedessciencesphil.etthol.(1907),pp.105Sq.,giveanuptodatebibliographyofPragmatism.OfthemanyarticleswhichappearedonthesubjectfromtheCatholicpointofview.cf.TURNER,NewYorkReview(1906)SHANAHANinCatholicUniversityBulletin(1909)SAUVAGE,ibid.(1906)



MOORE,CatholicWorld(Dec.,1909).ArticlescriticizingPragmatismhaveappearedinthePhilosophicalReview,CREIGETONinvols.XIII,XV,XVIIHIBBENinvol.XVIIBAKEWELLinvol.XVIIMonist,CARUSinvols.XVIII,XIX,etc.IndefenceofPragmatismmanyarticleshaveappearedintheJournalofPhil.Psychol.etc.,andinMind.ArecentarticleontheFrenchSchoolofPragmatismisentitledLepragmatismedel'colefranaiseinRev.dephil.(April,1910).

Aboutthispage

APAcitation.Turner,W.(1911).Pragmatism.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12333b.htm

MLAcitation.Turner,William."Pragmatism."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.12.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1911.6Jun.2015.

Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyDouglasJ.Potter.DedicatedtotheSacredHeartofJesusChrist.

Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.June1,1911.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.

Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressiswebmasteratnewadvent.org.Regrettably,Ican'treplytoeveryletter,butIgreatlyappreciateyourfeedbackespeciallynotificationsabouttypographicalerrorsandinappropriateads.

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