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Inabroadsense,ThomismisthenamegiventothesystemwhichfollowstheteachingofSt.ThomasAquinasinphilosophicalandtheologicalquestions.InarestrictedsensethetermisappliedtoagroupofopinionsheldbyaschoolcalledThomistic,composedprincipally,butnotexclusively,ofmembersoftheOrderofSt.Dominic,thesesameopinionsbeingattackedbyotherphilosophersortheologians,manyofwhomprofesstobefollowersofSt.Thomas.
ToThomisminthefirstsenseareopposed,e.g.,theScotists,whodenythatsatisfactionisapartoftheproximatematter(materiaproxima)oftheSacramentofPenance.AntiThomists,inthissenseoftheword,rejectopinionsadmittedlytaughtbySt.Thomas.ToThomisminthesecondsenseareopposed,e.g.theMolinists,aswellasallwhodefendthemoralinstrumentalcausalityofthesacramentsinproducinggraceagainstthesystemofphysicalinstrumentalcausality,thelatterbeingadoctrineoftheThomisticSchool.
AntiThomisminsuchcasesdoesnotnecessarilyimplyoppositiontoSt.Thomas:ItmeansoppositiontotenetsoftheThomisticSchool.CardinalBillot,forinstance,wouldnotadmitthatheopposedSt.ThomasbyrejectingtheThomistictheoryonthecausalityofthesacraments.IntheThomisticSchool,also,wedonotalwaysfindabsoluteunanimity.BaezandBilluartdonotalwaysagreewithCajetan,thoughallbelongtotheThomisticSchool.ItdoesnotcomewithinthescopeofthisarticletodeterminewhohavethebestrighttobeconsideredthetrueexponentsofSt.Thomas.
Thesubjectmaybetreatedunderthefollowingheadings:
I.Thomismingeneral,fromthethirteenthcenturydowntothenineteenthII.TheThomisticSchoolIII.NeoThomismandtherevivalofScholasticism.IV.EminentThomists
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Thedoctrineingeneral
Earlyoppositionovercome
AlthoughSt.Thomas(d.1274)washighlyesteemedbyallclasses,hisopinionsdidnotatoncegaintheascendancyandinfluencewhichtheyacquiredduringthefirsthalfofthefourteenthcenturyandwhichtheyhavesincemaintained.Strangeasitmayappear,thefirstseriousoppositioncamefromParis,ofwhichhewassuchanornament,andfromsomeofhisownmonasticbrethren.Intheyear1277StephenTempier,BishopofParis,censuredcertainphilosophicalpropositions,embodyingdoctrinestaughtbySt.Thomas,relatingespeciallytotheprincipleofindividuationandtothepossibilityofcreatingseveralangelsofthesamespecies.InthesameyearRobertKilwardby,aDominican,ArchbishopofCanterbury,inconjunctionwithsomedoctorsofOxford,condemnedthosesamepropositionsandmoreoverattackedSt.Thomas'sdoctrineoftheunityofthesubstantialforminman.KilwardbyandhisassociatespretendedtoseeinthecondemnedpropositionssomethingofAverroisticAristoteleanism,whilsttheseculardoctorsofParishadnotfullyforgivenonewhohadtriumphedovertheminthecontroversyastotherightsofthemendicantfriars.Thestormexcitedbythesecondemnationswasofshortduration.BlessedAlbertusMagnus,inhisoldage,hastenedtoParistodefendhisbeloveddisciple.TheDominicanOrder,assembledingeneralchapteratMilanin1278andatParisin1279,adoptedseveremeasuresagainstthememberswhohadspokeninjuriouslyofthevenerableBrotherThomas.WhenWilliamdelaMare,O.S.F.,wrotea"CorreptoriumfratrisThom",anEnglishDominican,RichardClapwell(orClapole),repliedinatreatise"ContracorruptoriumfratrisThomae".Aboutthesametimethereappearedawork,whichwasafterwardsprintedatVenice(1516)underthetitle,"CorrectoriumcorruptoriiS.Thomae",attributedbysometogidiusRomanus,byotherstoClapwell,byotherstoFatherJohnofParis.St.ThomaswassolemnlyvindicatedwhentheCouncilofVienna(131112)defined,againstPeterJohnOlivi,thattherationalsoulisthesubstantialformofthehumanbody(onthisdefinitionseeZigliara,"DementeConc.Vicnn.",Rome,1878).ThecanonizationofSt.ThomasbyJohnXXII,in1323,wasadeathblowtohisdetractors.In1324StephendeBourret,BishopofParis,revokedthecensurepronouncedbyhispredecessor,declaringthat"thatblessedconfessorandexcellentdoctor,ThomasAquinas,hadneverbelieved,taught,orwrittenanythingcontrarytotheFaithorgoodmorals".ItisdoubtfulwhetherTempierandhisassociatesactedinthenameoftheUniversityofParis,whichhadalwaysbeenloyaltoSt.Thomas.Whenthisuniversity,in1378,wrotealettercondemningtheerrorsofJohndeMontesono,itwasexplicitlydeclaredthatthecondemnationwasnotaimedatSt.Thomas:"Wehavesaidathousandtimes,andyet,itwouldseem,notoftenenough,thatwebynomeansincludethedoctrineofSt.Thomasinourcondemnation."Anaccountoftheseattacksanddefenceswillbefoundinthefollowingworks:Echard,"Script.ord.prad.",I,279(Paris,1719)DeRubeis,"Diss.crit.",Diss.xxv,xxvi,I,p.cclxviiiLeonineedit.WorksofSt.ThomasDenifle,"Chart.univ.Paris"(Paris,189091),I,543,558,566II,6,280
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Duplessisd'Argentr,"Collectiojudiciorumdenoviserroribus"(3vols.,Paris,173336),1,175sqq.DuBoulay,"Hist.univ.Par.",IV,205,436,618,622,627Jourdain,"Laphil.deS.Thomasd'Aquin"(Paris,1858),II,iDouais,"Essaisurl'organizationdestudesdansl'ordredesff.prcheurs"(ParisandToulouse,1884),87sqq.Mortier,"Hist.desmatresgn.del'ordredesff.prch.",II,115142,571"Actacap.gen.ord.praed.",ed.Reichert(9vols.,Rome,18931904,IITurner,"Hist.ofPhil."(Boston,1903),xxxix.
ProgressofThomism
ThegeneralchapteroftheDominicanOrder,heldatCarcassonnein1342,declaredthatthedoctrineofSt.Thomashadbeenreceivedassoundandsolidthroughouttheworld(Douais,op.cit.,106).Hisworkswereconsultedfromthetimetheybecameknown,andbythemiddleofthefourteenthcenturyhis"SummaTheologica"hadsupplantedthe"Libriquatuorsententiarum",ofPeterLombardasthetextbookoftheologyintheDominicanschools.WiththegrowthoftheorderandthewideningofitsinfluenceThomismspreadthroughouttheworldSt.Thomasbecamethegreatmasterintheuniversitiesandinthestudiaofthereligiousorders(seeEncyc."AeterniPatris"ofLeoXIII).ThefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiessawThomisminatriumphalmarchwhichledtothecrowningofSt.ThomasasthePrinceofTheologians,whenhis"SummawaslaidbesidetheSacredScripturesattheCouncilofTrent,andSt.PiusV,in1567,proclaimedhimaDoctoroftheUniversalChurch.Thepublicationofthe"Piana"editionofhisworks,in1570,andthemultiplicationofeditionsofthe"Operaomnia"andofthe"Summa"duringtheseventeenthcenturyandpartoftheeighteenthshowthatThomismflourishedduringthatperiod.Infactitwasduringthatperiodthatsomeofthegreatcommentators(forexample,FranciscoSurez,Sylvius,andBilluart)adaptedhisworkstotheneedsofthetimes.
DeclineofScholasticismandofThomism
Gradually,however,duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,therecameadeclineinthestudyoftheworksofthegreatScholastics.Scholarsbelievedthattherewasneedofanewsystemofstudies,and,insteadofbuildinguponandaroundScholasticism,theydriftedawayfromit.ThechiefcauseswhichbroughtaboutthechangewereProtestantism,Humanism,thestudyofnature,andtheFrenchRevolution.PositivetheologywasconsideredmorenecessaryindiscussionswiththeProtestantsthanScholasticdefinitionsanddivisions.EleganceofdictionwassoughtbytheHumanistsintheGreekandLatinclassics,ratherthanintheworksoftheScholastics,manyofwhomwerefarfrombeingmastersofstyle.ThediscoveriesofCopernicus(d.1543),Kepler(d.1631),Galileo(d.1642),andNewton(d.1727)werenotfavourablyreceivedbytheScholastics.TheexperimentalscienceswereinhonourtheScholasticsincludingSt.Thomas,wereneglected(cf.Turner,opcit.,433).Finally,theFrenchRevolutiondisorganizedallecclesiasticalstudies,dealingtoThomisnablowfromwhichitdidnotfullyrecoveruntilthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury.AtthetimewhenBilluart(d.
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1757)publishedhis"SummaSanctiThomahodiernisacademiarummoribusaccomodata"Thomismstillheldanimportantplaceinalltheologicaldiscussion.ThetremendousupheavalwhichdisturbedEuropefrom1798to1815affectedtheChurchaswellastheState.TheUniversityofLouvain,whichhadbeenlargelyThomistic,wascompelledtocloseitsdoors,andotherimportantinstitutionsoflearningwereeitherclosedorseriouslyhamperedintheirwork.TheDominicanOrder,whichnaturallyhadsuppliedthemostardentThomists,wascrushedinFrance,Germany,Switzerland,andBelgium.TheprovinceofHollandwasalmostdestroyed,whilsttheprovincesofAustriaandItalywerelefttostrugglefortheirveryexistence.TheUniversityofManila(1645)continuedtoteachthedoctrinesofSt.ThomasandinduetimegavetotheworldCardinalZephyrinusGonzlez,O.P.,whocontributedinnosmalldegreetotherevivalofThomismunderLeoXIII.
DistinctivedoctrinesofThomismingeneral
(1)InPhilosophy
Theangelsandhumansoulsarewithoutmatter,buteverymaterialcompositebeing(compositum)hastwoparts,primematterandsubstantialform.Inacompositebeingwhichhassubstantialunityandisnotmerelyanaggregateofdistinctunits,therecanbebutonesubstantialform.Thesubstantialformofmanishissoul(animarationalis)totheexclusionofanyothersoulandofanyothersubstantialform.Theprincipleofindividuation,formaterialcomposites,ismatterwithitsdimensions:withoutthistherecanbenomerelynumericalmultiplication:distinctionintheformmakesspecificdistinction:hencetherecannotbetwoangelsofthesamespecies.TheessencesofthingsdonotdependonthefreewillofGod,butonHisintellect,andultimatelyonHisessence,whichisimmutable.Thenaturallaw,beingderivedfromtheeternallaw,dependsonthemindofGod,ultimatelyontheessenceofGodhenceitisintrinsicallyimmutable.SomeactionsareforbiddenbyGodbecausetheyarebad:theyarenotbadsimplybecauseHeforbidsthem[seeZigliara,"Sum.phil."(3vols.,Paris,1889),ccx,xi,II,M.23,24,25].Thewillmovestheintellectquoadexercitium,i.e.initsactualoperation:theintellectmovesthewillquoadspecificationem,i.e.bypresentingobjectstoit:nilvolitumnisipraecognitum.Thebeginningofallouractsistheapprehensionanddesireofgoodingeneral(bonumincommuni).Wedesirehappiness(bonumincommuni)naturallyandnecessarily,notbyafreedeliberateact.Particulargoods(bonaparticularia)wechoosefreelyandthewillisablindfaculty,alwaysfollowingthelastpracticaljudgmentoftheintellect(Zigliara,51).Thesensesandtheintellectarepassive,i.e.recipient,facultiestheydonotcreate,butreceive(i.e.perceive)theirobjects(St.Thomas,I,Q.lxxviii,a.3Q.lxxix,a.2Zigliara,26,27).IfthisprincipleisborneinmindthereisnoreasonforKant's"CritiqueofPureReason".Ontheotherhandthosefacultiesarenotlikewax,orthesensitiveplateusedbyphotographers,inthesensethattheyareinertandreceive
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impressionsunconsciously.Thewillcontrolstheexerciseofthefaculties,andtheprocessofacquiringknowledgeisavitalprocess:themovingcauseisalwayswithinthelivingagent.ThePeripateticaxiom:"Nihilestinintellectuquodnonpriusinsensu"(Nothingisintheintellectthatwasnotfirstinthesenses),isadmittedbutSt.Thomasmodifiesitbysaying:first,that,oncethesenseobjectshavebeenperceived,theintellectascendstotheknowledgeofhigherthings,evenofGodand,secondly,thatthesoulknowsitsownexistencebyitself(i.e.byitsownact),althoughitknowsitsownnatureonlybyreflectiononitsacts.Knowledgebeginsbysenseperception,buttherangeoftheintellectisfarbeyondthatofthesenses.Inthesoulassoonasitbeginstoactarefoundthefirstprinciples(primaprincipia)ofallknowledge,notintheformofanobjectiveillumination,butintheformofasubjectiveinclinationtoadmitthemonaccountoftheirevidence.Assoonastheyareproposedweseethattheyaretruethereisnomorereasonfordoubtingthemthanthereisfordenyingtheexistenceofthesunwhenweseeitshining(seeZigliara,op.cit.,pp.3242).Thedirectandprimaryobjectoftheintellectistheuniversal,whichispreparedandpresentedtothepassiveintellect(intellectuspossibilis)bytheactiveintellect(intellectusagens)whichilluminatesthephantasmata,ormentalimages,receivedthroughthesenses,anddiveststhemofallindividuatingconditions.Thisiscalledabstractingtheuniversalideafromthephantasmata,butthetermmustnotbetakeninamaterialisticsense.Abstractionisnotatransferringofsomethingfromoneplacetoanothertheilluminationcausesallmaterialandindividuatingconditionstodisappear,thentheuniversalaloneshinesoutandisperceivedbythevitalactionoftheintellect(Q.lxxxiv,a.4Q.lxxxv,a.1,adlum,3um,4um).Theprocessthroughoutissovital,andsofarelevatedabovematerialconditionsandmodesofaction,thatthenatureoftheactsandoftheobjectsapprehendedprovesthesoultobeimmaterialandspiritual.Thesoul,byitsverynature,isimmortal.NotonlyisittruethatGodwillnotannihilatethesoul,butfromitsverynatureitwillalwayscontinuetoexist,therebeinginitnoprincipleofdisintegration(Zigliara,p.9).Hencehumanreasoncanprovetheincorruptibility(i.e.immortality)ofthesoul.TheexistenceofGodisnotknownbyaninnateidea,itcannotbeprovedbyargumentsaprioriorasimultaneobutitcanbedemonstratedbyaposterioriarguments.OntologismwasnevertaughtbySt.ThomasorbyThomists(seeLepidi,"Exam.phil.theol.deontologismo",Louvain,1874,c.19Zigliara,ThesesI,VIII).Therearenohuman(i.e.deliberate)actsindifferentinindividuo.
(2)InTheology
Faithandscience,i.e.knowledgebydemonstration,cannotcoexistinthesamesubjectwithregardtothesameobject(Zigliara,O,32,VII)andthesameistrueofknowledgeandopinion.
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ThemetaphysicalessenceofGodconsists,accordingtosomeThomists,intheintelligereactualissimum,i.e.fulnessofpureintellection,accordingtoothersintheperfectionofaseitas,i.e.independentexistence(Zigliara,Th.VIII,IX).Thehappinessofheaven,formallyandintheultimateanalysis,consistsinthevision,notinthefruition,ofGod.TheDivineattributesaredistinguishedfromtheDivinenatureandfromeachotherbyavirtualdistinction,i.e.byadistinctiorationiscumfundamentoaparterei.ThedistinctioactualisformalisofScotusisrejected.InattemptingtoexplainthemysteryoftheTrinityinasfarasmancanconceiveittherelationsmustbeconsideredperfectionessimplicitersimplices,i.e.excludingallimperfection.TheHolyGhostwouldnotbedistinctfromtheSonifHedidnotproceedfromtheSonaswellasfromtheFather.Theangels,beingpurespirits,arenot,properlyspeaking,inanyplacetheyaresaidtobeintheplace,orintheplaces,wheretheyexercisetheiractivity(Summa,I,Q.lii,a.1).Strictlyspeaking,thereisnosuchthingasanangelpassingfromplacetoplacebutifanangelwishestoexerciseitsactivityfirstinJapanandafterwardsinAmerica,itcandosointwoinstants(ofangelictime),andneednotpassthroughtheinterveningspace(Q.liii).St.Thomasdoesnotdiscussthequestion"Howmanyangelscandanceonthepointofaneedle?"Heremindsusthatwemustnotthinkofangelsasiftheywerecorporeal,andthat,foranangel,itmakesnodifferencewhetherthesphereofhisactivitybethepointofaneedleoracontinent(Q.lii,a.2).Manyangelscannotbesaidtobeinthesameplaceatthesametime,forthiswouldmeanthatwhilstoneangelisproducinganeffectotherscouldbeproducingthesameeffectatthesametime.Therecanbebutoneangelinthesameplaceatthesametime(Q.lii,a.3).Theknowledgeoftheangelscomesthroughideas(species)infusedbyGod(QQ.lv,a.2,lvii,a.2,lviii,a.7).Theydonotnaturallyknowfuturecontingents,thesecretsofsouls,orthemysteriesofgrace(Q.lvii,aa.3,45).Theangelschooseeithergoodorevilinstantly,andwithfullknowledgehencetheirjudgmentisnaturallyfinalandirrevocable(Q.lxiv,a.2).Manwascreatedinthestateofsanctifyinggrace.Gracewasnotduetohisnature,butGodgrantedittohimfromthebeginning(I,Q.xcv,a.1).Sogreatwastheperfectionofmaninthestateoforiginaljustice,andsoperfectthesubjectionofhislowerfacultiestothehigher,thathisfirstsincouldnothavebeenavenialsin(III:89:3).ItismoreprobablethattheIncarnationwouldnothavetakenplacehadmannotsinned(III,Q.i,a.3).InChristtherewerethreekindsofknowledge:thescientiabeata,i.e.theknowledgeofthingsintheDivineEssencethescientiainfusa,i.e.theknowledgeofthingsthroughinfusedideas(species),andthescientiaacquisita,i.e.acquiredorexperimentalknowledge,whichwasnothingmorethantheactualexperienceofthingswhichhealreadyknew.OnthislastpointSt.Thomas,inthe"Summa"(Q.ix,a.4),explicitlyretractsanopinionwhichhehadonceheld(IIISent.,d.14,Q.iii,a.3).
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AllsacramentsoftheNewLaw,includingconfirmationandextremeunction,wereinstitutedimmediatelybyChrist.CircumcisionwasasacramentoftheOldLawandconferredgracewhichremovedthestainoforiginalsin.ThechildrenofJewsorofotherunbelieversmaynotbebaptizedwithouttheconsentoftheirparents(III,Q.lxviii,a.10IIII,Q.x,a.12DenzingerBannwart,n.1481).Contrition,confession,andsatisfactionaretheproximatematter(materiaproxima)oftheSacramentofPenance.Thomistshold,againsttheScotists,thatwhenTransubstantiationtakesplaceintheMasstheBodyofChristisnotmadepresentpermodumadduclionis,i.e.isnotbroughttothealtar,buttheydonotagreeinselectingthetermwhichshouldbeusedtoexpressthisaction(cf.Billuart,"DeEuchar.",Diss.i,a.7).CardinalBillotholds("Deeccl.sacr.",Rome,1900,Th.XI,"Deeuchar.",p.379)thatthebest,andtheonlypossible,explanationistheonegivenbySt.Thomashimself:Christbecomespresentbytransubstantiation,i.e.bytheconversionofthesubstanceofbreadintothesubstanceofHisbody(III,Q.lxxv,a.4Sent.,d.XI,Q.i,a.1,q.1).Aftertheconsecrationtheaccidents(accidentia)ofthebreadandwinearepreservedbyAlmightyGodwithoutasubject(Q.lxxxvii,a.1).ItwasonthisquestionthatthedoctorsofParissoughtenlightenmentfromSt.Thomas(seeVaughan,"LifeandLaboursofSt.Thomas",London,1872,II,p.544).TheearlierThomists,followingSt.Thomas(Suppl.,Q.xxxvii,a.2),taughtthatthesubdiaconateandthefourminororderswerepartialsacraments.SomerecentThomistse.g.,Billot(op.cit.,p.282)andTanquerey(Deordine,n.16)defendthisopinionasmoreprobableandmoreinconformitywiththedefinitionsofthecouncils.ThegivingofthechalicewithwineandofthepatenwithbreadThomistsgenerallyheldtobeanessentialpartofordinationtothepriesthood.Some,however,taughtthattheimpositionofhandswasatleastnecessary.OnthequestionofdivorceundertheMosaicLawthedisciplesofSt.Thomas,likethesainthimself(Suppl.,Q.lxvii,a.3),wavered,someholdingthatadispensationwasgranted,othersteachingthatdivorcewasmerelytoleratedinordertoavoidgreaterevils.
TheThomisticschool
Thechiefdoctrinesdistinctiveofthisschool,composedprincipallyofDominicanwriters,arethefollowing:
Inphilosophy
1.
Theunityofsubstantialformincompositebeings,appliedtoman,requiresthatthesoulbethesubstantialformoftheman,soastoexcludeeventheformacorporeitatis,admittedbyHenryofGhent,Scotus,andothers(cf.Zigliara,P.13DenzingerBannwart,innoteton.1655).
2.
Increatedbeingsthereisarealdistinctionbetweentheessentia(essence)andtheexistentia(existence)betweentheessentiaandthesubsistentiabetweentherealrelationanditsfoundationbetweenthesoulanditsfacultiesbetweentheseveral
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faculties.Therecanbenomediumbetweenadistinctiorealisandadistinctiorationis,orconceptualdistinctionhencethedistinctioformalisapartereiofScotuscannotbeadmitted.ForThomisticdoctrinesonfreewill,God'sknowledge,etc.,seebelow.
Intheology
1.
InthebeatificvisionGod'sessencetakestheplacenotonlyofthespeciesimpressa,butalsoofthespeciesexpressa.
2.
Allmoralvirtues,theacquiredaswellastheinfused,intheirperfectstate,areinterconnected.
3.
AccordingtoBilluart(Depecc.,diss.vii,a.6),ithasbeenamatterofcontroversybetweenThomistswhetherthemaliceofamortalsinisabsolutelyinfinite.
4.
InchoosingamediumbetweenRigorismandLaxism,theThomisticschoolhasbeenAntiprobabilisticandgenerallyhasadoptedProbabiliorism.SomedefendedEquiprobabilism,orProbabilismcumcompensatione.MedinaandSt.AntoninusareclaimedbytheProbabilists.
5.
Thomistictheologiansgenerally,whilsttheydefendedtheinfallibilityoftheRomanpontiff,deniedthatthepopehadthepowertodissolveamatrimoniumratumortodispensefromasolemnvowmadetoGod.Whenitwasurgedthatsomepopeshadgrantedsuchfavours,theycitedotherpontiffswhodeclaredthattheycouldnotgrantthem(cf.Billuart,"Dematrim.",Diss.v,a.2),andsaid,withDominicSoto,"Factumpontificiumnonfacitarticulumfidei"(Theactionofapopedoesnotconstituteanarticleoffaith,in4dist.,27,Q.i,a.4).Thomistsoftodayareofadifferentmind,owingtothepracticeoftheChurch.
6.
Thehypostaticunion,withoutanyadditionalgrace,renderedChristimpeccable.TheWordwashypostaticallyunitedtothebloodofChristandremainedunitedtoit,evenduringtheintervalbetweenHisdeathandresurrection(DenzingerBannwart,n.718).DuringthatsameintervaltheBodyofChristhadatransitoryform,calledformacadaverica(Zigliara,P.16,17,IV).
7.
ThesacramentsoftheNewLawcausegracenotonlyasinstrumentalmoralcauses,butbyamodeofcausalitywhichshouldbecalledinstrumentalandphysical.IntheattritionrequiredintheSacramentofPenancethereshouldbeatleastabeginningoftheloveofGodsorrowforsinspringingsolelyfromthefearofhellwillnotsuffice.
8.
ManytheologiansoftheThomisticSchool,especiallybeforetheCouncilofTrent,opposedthedoctrineofMary'sImmaculateConception,claimingthatinthistheywerefollowingSt.Thomas.This,however,hasnotbeentheopinioneitheroftheentireschooloroftheDominicanOrderasabody.FatherRouarddeCard,inhisbook"L'ordredesfreresprecheursetl'ImmaculeConception"(Brussels,1864),calledattentiontothefactthattenthousandprofessorsoftheorderdefendedMary'sgreatprivilege.AttheCouncilofTrenttwentyfiveDominicanbishopssignedapetitionforthedefinitionofthedogma.ThousandsofDominicans,intakingdegreesattheUniversityofParis,solemnlypledgedthemselvestodefendtheImmaculate
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Conception.9.
TheThomisticSchoolisdistinguishedfromotherschoolsoftheologychieflybyits
doctrinesonthedifficultquestionsrelatingtoGod'sactiononthefreewillofman,God'sforeknowledge,grace,andpredestination.Inthearticlesonthesesubjectswillbefoundanexpositionofthedifferenttheoriesadvancedbythedifferentschoolsintheirefforttoexplainthesemysteries,forsuchtheyareinreality.Astothevalueofthesetheoriesthefollowingpointsshouldbeborneinmind:
NotheoryhasasyetbeenproposedwhichavoidsalldifficultiesandsolvesalldoubtsonthemainandmostdifficultofthesequestionssomewhoareattimeslistedasMolinistsnotablyBellarmine,FranciscoSurez,FrancisdeLugo,and,inourowndays,CardinalBillot("Dedeounoettrino",Rome,1902,Th.XXXII)agreewiththeThomistsindefendingpredestinationantepraevisamerita.Bossuet,afteralongstudyofthequestionofphysicalpremotion,adaptedtheThomisticopinion("Dulibrearbitre",c.viii).Thomistsdonotclaimtobeabletoexplain,exceptbyageneralreferencetoGod'somnipotence,howmanremainsfreeundertheactionofGod,whichtheyconsidernecessaryinordertopreserveandexplaintheuniversalityofGod'scausalityandtheindependentcertaintyofHisforeknowledge.Nomancanexplain,exceptbyareferencetoGod'sinfinitepower,howtheworldwascreatedoutofnothing,yetwedonotonthisaccountdenycreation,forweknowthatitmustbeadmitted.InlikemannerthemainquestionputtoThomistsinthiscontroversyshouldbenot"Howwillyouexplainman'sliberty?"but"WhatareyourreasonsforclaimingsomuchforGod'saction?"Ifthereasonsassignedareinsufficient,thenonegreatdifficultyisremoved,butthereremainstobesolvedtheproblemofGod'sforeknowledgeofman'sfreeacts.Iftheyarevalid,thenwemustacceptthemwiththeirnecessaryconsequencesandhumblyconfessourinabilityfullytoexplainhowwisdom"reacheth...fromendtoendmightily,andorderethallthingssweetly"(Wisdom8:1).Mostimportantofall,itmustbeclearlyunderstoodandrememberedthattheThomisticsystemonpredestinationneithersavesfewernorsendstoperditionmoresoulsthananyothersystemheldbyCatholictheologians.InregardtothenumberoftheelectthereisnounanimityoneithersidethisisnotthequestionindisputebetweentheMolinistsandtheThomists.Thediscussions,toooftenanimatedandneedlesslysharp,turnedonthispoint:Howdoesithappenthat,althoughGodsincerelydesiresthesalvationofallmen,somearetobesaved,andmustthankGodforwhatevermeritstheymayhaveamassed,whilstotherswillbelost,andwillknowthattheythemselves,andnotGod,aretobeblamed?ThefactsinthecaseareadmittedbyallCatholictheologians.TheThomists,appealingtotheauthorityofSt.AugustineandSt.Thomas,defendasystemwhichfollowstheadmittedfactstotheirlogicalconclusions.TheelectaresavedbythegraceofGod,whichoperatesontheirwillsefficaciouslyandinfallibly
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withoutdetrimenttotheirlibertyandsinceGodsincerelydesiresthesalvationofallmen,Heispreparedtograntthatsamegracetoothers,iftheydonot,byafreeact,renderthemselvesunworthyofit.ThefacultyofplacingobstaclestoDivinegraceistheunhappyfacultyofsinningandtheexistenceofmoralevilintheworldisaproblemtobesolvedbyall,notbytheThomistsalone.Thefundamentaldifficultiesinthismysteriousquestionaretheexistenceofevilandthenonsalvationofsome,betheyfeworbetheymany,undertheruleofanomnipotent,allwise,andallmercifulGod,andtheymissthepointofthecontroversywhosupposethatthesedifficultiesexistonlyfortheThomists.ThetruthisknowntoliesomewherebetweenCalvinismandJansenismontheonehand,andSemipelagianismontheother.TheeffortsmadebytheologiansandthevariousexplanationsofferedbyAugustinians,Thomists,Molinists,andCongruistsshowhowdifficultofsolutionarethequestionsinvolved.Perhapsweshallneverknow,inthisworld,howajustandmercifulGodprovidesinsomespecialmannerfortheelectandyetsincerelylovesallmen.ThecelebratedCongregatiodeAuxiliisdidnotforeverputanendtothecontroversies,andthequestionisnotyetsettled.
NeoThomismandtherevivalofScholasticism
WhentheworldinthefirstpartofthenineteenthcenturybegantoenjoyaperiodofpeaceandrestafterthedisturbancescausedbytheFrenchRevolutionandtheNapoleonicWars,closerattentionwasgiventoecclesiasticalstudiesandScholasticismwasrevived.ThismovementeventuallycausedarevivalofThomism,becausethegreatmasterandmodelproposedbyLeoXIIIintheencyclical"AeterniPatris"(4Aug.,1879)wasSt.ThomasAquinas....TheThomisticdoctrinehadreceivedstrongsupportfromtheolderuniversities.AmongthesetheEncyclical"AeterniPatris"mentionsParis,Salamanca,AlcalDouai,Toulouse,Louvain,Padua,Bologna,Naples,andCoimbraas"thehomesofhumanwisdomwhereThomasreignedsupreme,andthemindsofall,teachersaswellastaught,restedinwonderfulharmonyundertheshieldandauthorityoftheAngelicDoctor".IntheuniversitiesestablishedbytheDominicansatLima(1551)andManila(1645)St.Thomasalwaysheldsway.ThesameistrueoftheMinervaschoolatRome(1255),whichrankedasauniversityfromtheyear1580,andisnowtheinternationalCollegioAngelico.ComingdowntoourowntimesandtheresultsoftheEncyclical,whichgaveanewimpetustothestudyofSt.Thomas'sworks,themostimportantcentresofactivityareRome,Louvain,Fribourg(Switzerland),andWashington.AtLouvainthechairofThomisticphilosophy,establishedin1880,became,in188990,the"Institutsuprieurdephilosophie"or"EcoleSt.Thomasd'Aquin,"whereProfessorMercier,nowCardinalArchbishopofMechlin,ablyandwiselydirectedthenewThomisticmovement(seeDeWulf,"ScholasticismOldandNew",tr.Coffey,NewYork,1907,append.,p.261"IrishEcel.Record",Jan.1906).ThetheologicaldepartmentoftheUniversityofFribourg,Switzerland,establishedin1889,hasbeenentrustedtotheDominicans.Bythe
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publicationofthe"Revuethomiste"theprofessorsofthatuniversityhavecontributedgreatlytoanewknowledgeandappreciationofSt.Thomas.TheConstitutionoftheCatholicUniversityofAmericaatWashingtonenjoinsspecialvenerationforSt.ThomastheSchoolofSacredSciencesmustfollowhisleadership("Const.Cath.Univ.Amer.",Rome,1889,pp.38,43).TheUniversityofOttawaandLavalUniversityarethecentresofThomisminCanada.TheappreciationofSt.Thomasinourdays,inEuropeandinAmerica,iswellsetforthinPerrier'sexcellent"RevivalofScholasticPhilosophyintheNineteenthCentury"(NewYork,1909).
EminentThomists
AfterthemiddleofthefourteenthcenturythevastmajorityofphilosophicalandtheologicalwriterseitherwrotecommentariesontheworksofSt.Thomasorbasedtheirteachingsonhiswritings.Itisimpossible,therefore,togivehereacompletelistoftheThomists:onlythemoreimportantnamescanbegiven.Unlessotherwisenoted,theauthorsbelongedtotheOrderofSt.Dominic.Thosemarked(*)weredevotedtoThomismingeneral,butwerenotoftheThomisticSchool.Amorecompletelistwillbefoundintheworkscitedattheendofthisarticle.
Thirteenthcentury
ThomasdeCantimpr(1270)HughofSt.Cher(1263)VincentofBauvais(1264)St.RaymonddePennafort(1275)PeterofTarentaise(PopeInnocentV1276)GilesdeLassines(1278)ReginalddePiperno(1279)WilliamdeMoerbeka(1286)RaymondMarti(1286)BernarddeTrilia(1292)BernardofHotun,BishopofDublin(1298)TheodoricofApoldia(1299)ThomasSutton(1300).
Fourteenthcentury
PeterofAuvergne(1301)NicholasBoccasini,BenedictXI(1304)GodfreyofFontaines(1304)WalterofWinterburn(1305)gidiusColonna(AigidiusRomanus),O.S.A(12431316)WilliamofParis(1314)GerardofBologna,Carmelite(1317)fourbiographers,vizPeterCalo(1310)WilliamdeTocco(1324)BartolommeoofLucca(1327)BernardGuidonis*(1331)Dante(1321)NatalisHervieus(1323)PetrusdePalude(Paludanusi1342)ThomasBradwardin,ArchbishopofCanterbury(1349)RobertHolkott(1349)JohnTauler(1361)Bl.HenrySuso(1365)ThomasofStrasburg,O.S.A.(1357)JacobusPassavante(1357)NicholasRoselli(1362)DurandusofAurillac(1382),sometimescalledDurandulus,becausehewroteagainstDurandusaS.Portiano*,whowasfirstaThomist,afterwardsanindependentwriter,attackingmanyofSt.Thomas'sdoctrinesJohnBromyard(1390)NicholasEymeric(1399).
Fifteenthcentury
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ManuelCalecas(1410)St.VincentFerrer(1415)Bl.JohnDominici(1419)JohnGerson*,chancelloroftheUniversityofParis(1429)LuisofValladolid(1436)RaymondSabunde(1437)JohnNieder(1437)Capreolus(1444),calledthe"PrinceofThomists"JohndeMontenegro(1445)FraAngelico(1455)St.Antoninus(1459)NicholasofCusa*,oftheBrothersoftheCommonLife(1464)JohnofTorquemada(deTurrecrematai,1468)Bessarion,Basilian(1472)AlanusdeRupe(1475)JohnFaber(1477)PetrusNiger(1471)PeterofBergamo(1482)JeromeSavonarola(1498).
Sixteenthcentury
FelixFaber(1502)VincentBandelli(1506)JohnTetzel(1519)DiegodeDeza(1523)SylvesterMazzolini(1523)FrancescoSilvestrodiFerrara(1528)ThomasdeVioCajetan(1534)(commentariesbythesetwoarepublishedintheLeonineeditionoftheworksofSt.Thomas)ConradKoellin(1536)ChrysostomJavelli(1538)SantesPagnino(1541)FranciscodeVitoria(1546)Franc.Romseus(1552)AmbrosiusCatherinus*(LancelotPoliti,1553)St.IgnatiusofLoyola(1556)enjoineddevotiontoSt.ThomasMatthewOry(1557)DominicSoto(1560)MelchiorCano(1560)AmbrosePelargus(1561)PeterSoto(1563)SixtusofSiena(1569)JohnFaber(1570)St.PiusV(1572)BartholomewMedina(1581)VincentJustiniani(1582)Maldonatus*(JuanMaldonado,1583)St.CharlesBorromeo*(1584)Salmern*(1585)Ven.LouisofGranada(1588)BartholomewofBraga(1590)Toletus*(1596)Bl.PeterCanisius*(1597)ThomasStapleton*,DoctorofLouvain(1598)Fonseca(1599)Molina*(1600).
Seventeenthcentury
Valentia*(1603)DomingoBaez(1604)Vsquez*(1604)Bart.Ledesma(1604)Snchez*(1610)Baronius*(1607)CapponiaPorrecta(1614)Aur.Menochio*(1615)Petr.Ledesma(1616)FranciscoSurez*(1617)DuPerron,aconvertedCalvinist,cardinal(1618)Bellarmine*(1621)St.FrancisdeSales*(1622)HieronymusMedices(1622)Lessius*(1623)Becanus*(1624)Malvenda(1628)ThomasdeLemos(1629)AlvarezLaymann*(1635)Joann.Wiggers*,doctorofLouvain(1639)Gravina(1643)JohnofSt.Thomas(1644)Serra(1647)Ripalda*,S.J.*(1648)Sylvius(DuBois),doctorofDouai(1649)Petavius*(1652)Goar(1625)Steph.Menochio,S.J.*(1655)Franc.Pignatelli*(1656)DeLugo*(1660)Bollandus*(1665)Jammy(1665)Vallgornera(1665)Labbe*(1667)Pallavicini*(1667)Busenbaum*(1668)Nicolni*(1673)Contenson(1674)Jac.Pignatelli*(1675)Passerini*(1677)Gonet(1681)Bancel(1685)Thomassin*(1695)Goudin(1695)Sfrondati*(1696)Quetif(1698)Rocaberti(1699)Casanate(1700).TothisperiodbelongtheCarmeliteSalmanticenses,authorsofthe"Cursustheologicus"(163172).
Eighteenthcentury
Guerinois(1703)Bossuet,BishopofMeauxNorisins,O.S.A.(1704)Diana(1705)
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ThyrsusGonzlez*(1705)Massouli(1706)Duhamel*(1706)Wigandt(1708)Piny(1709)Lacroix*(1714)Carrires*(1717)NatalisAlexander(1724)Echard(1724)Tourney*,doctoroftheSorbonne(1729)LivariusdeMeyer*(1730)BenedictXIII*(1730)Graveson(1733)Th.duJardin(1733)HyacinthaSerry(1738)Duplessisd'Argentr*(1740)Gotti(1742)Drouin*(1742)Antoine*(1743)Lallemant*(1748)Milante*(1749)Preingue(1752)Concina(1759)Billuart(1757)BenedictXIV*(1758)Cuiliati(1759)Orsi(1761)Charlevoix*(1761)Reuter*(1762)Baumgartner*(1764)Berti*(1766)Patuzzi(1769)DeRubeis(1775)Touron(1775)ThomasdeBurgo(1776)Gener*(1781)Roselli(1783)St.AlphonsusLiguori(1787)Mamachi(1792)Richard(1794).
Nineteenthcentury
InthiscenturytherearefewnamestoberecordedoutsideofthosewhowereconnectedwiththeThomisticrevivaleitherastheforerunners,thepromoters,orthewritersoftheNeoScholasticperiod.
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APAcitation.Kennedy,D.(1912).Thomism.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14698b.htm
MLAcitation.Kennedy,Daniel."Thomism."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.14.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyKevinCawley.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.July1,1912.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
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