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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Time symbolizes perhaps the most important resource of life. Time
involves multiple disciplines and is the most precious resource of mankind
without which every existence is questionable. Time is one of the most
precious asset available to everybody in their life1. The increasing pace of life
occasioned by such factors as growing competition in all spheres is creating
increased time pressure on mankind2
. This is often expressed by doing thing
faster, contracting time expenditure and compressing action3. Muse
4 confirms
that the productive capacity of individuals and organizations and the
development processes of creativity depends largely on the ability to achieve
efficiency in the investment of time available for work. It increases the use of
other human and material potential with high efficiency as time is considered
as limited resource that must be invested efficiently. It has become an
important dimension to be invested using it effectively for the future.
Ramsey 5stated that “The ability to take control of time and to make the
most of every moment on and off the job is the key to being successful and
surviving in today’s world of work.” Thus, the time and timing issues has
become a critical factor for employees and professional and one of the best
ways to use limited and valuable time is conscious and permanent application
of time management.
Time management can be considered as taking into account every
minute, eliminating unnecessary tasks. The basis for time management rests on
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effectiveness of time spending and dominance on time is the only secret of
human success. Time management is the process of planning every day
activities and knowing how to balance everything that is in life. Time
Management help to manage time with different type of tools and skills and to
accomplish a specific task that has a due date with maximum efficiency.
Time management involves investing time to determine what one wants
out of his day to day activities. Effective time management is the investment of
time in such a way that suitable results are achieved from activities within a
specific time range and it emphasizes an effectiveness rather than efficiency.
One’s ability to choose between the important and the unimportant and be
determined to follow the correctly chosen sequence, is the key determinant of
effectiveness in time management.
The key to successful time management is planning and then protecting
the planned time which often involves reconditioning the environment and
particularly reconditioning the expectation of others. Therefore, time
management can be defined as a period either short or long which involves
how people use their time judiciously to produce result.
Better time management can be achieved, if goals have been set and
then all future work is prioritized based on how it moves the individual towards
meeting the goals. The value of time management lies in the fact that people
have too many tasks they need to do but not enough time for the things that
they want to do. Time management helps to identify the needs and wants in
terms of their importance and matches them with time and other resources.
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Thus, time management brings about orderliness and enables one to be more
productive and fulfilled.
2.2 EVOLUTION OF TIME MANAGEMENT
“Time management” refers to making the most productive use of a set
period of time in days, hours, weeks or months. In business, principle of time
management is to use the time available effectively , to complete a project, a
business deal or performed assignment wisely and to work “smarter, not
harder” in order to get more accomplished within the stipulated period.
For centuries, people used the general measurement of sunrise to sunset
to gauge time, but with the development of the clock, attention began to focus
on the hours within a day as well. By the 17th century, the clock had been
perfected and become so well-established in society that the French
mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596 1650) used the clock as a
model for humanity in his writings.
But it was during the Industrial Revolution that the clock really came of
age. Frederick W. Taylor6 an American engineer, undertook the pioneering
time and motion studies. He subjected each aspect of the work process to a
stopwatch measurement, then studied the results to look for ways to reduce the
number of steps needed to accomplish a particular task or job. This concept of
time management as something that managers did for line workers held sway
until the 1930s, when managers began to find their own tasks so overwhelming
that they too sought ways to manage time more efficiently.
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In the 1930s Ivy Lee7, a management consultant, initiated a simple “6-
Step” process that became the standard for measuring the productivity of
managers. Managers needed only to list the six most important things to be
done that day, in order of importance the most important being first. Then, the
manager was to work on those tasks in order, not proceeding from one task to
the next until the preceding task had been accomplished.
Time management was introduced in the 1950s as a means of dealing
with job-related time issues. From the 1950s to the early 1980s, time
management garnered widespread attention. In response, there were numerous
books and programs developed during the ‘60s, ‘70s, and ‘80s promoting
various time saving strategies. But these programs addressed time management
in general terms, without hard data to back up proposed solutions.
After World War II, studies of management began to broaden to look at
time management in all aspects of business and life. Use of time became a
focal area of management seminars in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1967 Peter
Drucker8 proposed a chronological record- keeping method for managers.
2.3 COVEY’S FOUR GENERATIONS OF TIME MANAGEMENT
Another way of perceiving preferences for managing time is to look at
Covey, Merrill, & Merrill’s (1994)9 ‘Four generations’ of managing time.
These authors believed that people approach managing time developmentally
and they did an intensive history of time management which takes the patterns
of the way people manage time through four generations with each generation
building on the next, moving toward greater efficiency and control.
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Four generations range from the more traditional efficiency oriented
approach to the get ‘Organized Approach’, the ‘Warrior Approach’ or the
‘ABC or Prioritization Approach’ and to some of the newer approaches that
are pushing traditional paradigms. “These include the more Far Eastern ‘Go-
with-the-Flow’ approaches which encourages to get in touch with the natural
rhythms of life-- to connect with those timeless moments in time when the tick
of the clock simply fades away in the joy of the moment. 10
First Generation:
Employees in this generation “work on their own timetable and do
whatever they feel they need to do or seems pressing at the time”. The first
generation principal would forget appointments and commitments: But they
had a vision that, “Without an empowering sense of life-time goal setting,
meaningful accomplishment is less than it could be” 11
. Thus, managing the
time is based on reminders and is characterized by simple notes and checklists.
Second Generation:
In the second generation of time management, the emphasis is on
‘planning’ and ‘preparation’. It is characterized by calendars and appointment
books. Managers in this generation prefers to set goals, plan ahead, and
schedule future events. People are viewed as a means to accomplish goals. The
first things done are those related to what is on the schedule. The employees
that operate in this generation have more effective meetings and presentations
because they are usually thoroughly prepared.
Third Generation:
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Third generation approach emphasizes planning, prioritizing and
controlling . Those in this generation spend some time, clarifying values and
setting priorities. Long-range and short-range goals are set to obtain these
values. This generation is characterized by planners and organizers aided by
electronic as well as paper based versions with detailed forms for daily
planning.
Fourth Generation :
In this generation emphasis is given for self management and not for managing
time only. Preplanned priorities are organized and schedule is not prioritized.
This generation recognized that employee relationship is more important than
things and works towards building more capability to produce for the future,
than just doing the job.
All that changed in the late 1980s. Researchers began questioning the
scientific legitimacy of popular time management advice. There was a desire to
more fully explore time management, specifically to identify the requisite
skills. This curiosity triggered a flurry of research that has taken on a life of its
own during the last twenty years. Continued research has led to a richer and
more nuanced understanding. Prior to the late 1980s, time management was
considered a unidimensional concept. Early researchers treated it as a skill
itself. The urge of empirical time management research in the late 1980s and
early 1990s provided information on how to short list the goals plan and
prioritize these goals on a daily basis and avoid work interruptions that inhibit
completion of these goals.
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As the interest in empirical research flourished, much of the research
focused on three groups: (1) employees of different organizations, (2)
psychology students, and (3) employees with double workloads, i.e. working
full-time while studying part-time or working full-time and running a
household of children etc.,.
Critical path accountability, a new time management technique for
managers emerged in the mid-to-late 1990s. Managers making use of critical
path accountability involve all members of a business transaction including
manufacturers, distributors, customers and their employees in the production
and delivery process. Keeping all parties to a transaction informed as to its
progress leads to mutual accountability and the establishment of a system of
checks and balances within the production process. The essentials of time
management involve recognition of goals and organization of one’s efforts, so
that all steps taken follow a path toward achieving that goal and are not wasted
or diverted from that purpose.
Many of the barriers to efficient time management are flaws of human
nature like desire to procrastinate, to pursue pleasure rather than purpose,
perfectionism that will not accept a job as complete and insecurity that does not
allow a person to delegate tasks to others etc., among other things.
In the last half of the 20th century ‘Time’ came to be described as a
“commodity, a resource to be used, hoarded, traded and exploited.” Despite
changes in the way that businesses view time, time management for managers
remains, in large measure, a matter of simplifying and compartmentalizing
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tasks to avoid diffuseness of effort. Making schedules and lists of the type
recommended by Lee12
is still the most common method employed by
managers wishing to improve their time management. Other simple and
commonsense techniques such as keeping meetings to a minimum and keeping
them as short as possible are all that is required in many cases to free a
manager’s time for more productive activities.
2.4 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF TIME MANAGEMENT
The four basic assumptions about time management are:
1. The first assumption: time can be managed
2. The second assumption: The work can be compacted to free the
unavailable time
3. The third assumption: Your effectiveness depends on whether you are
seen as effective, not if you are really effective.
4. The fourth assumption: The secret is in smarter, not harder work.
2.5 TIME MANAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
WORLD:
A study of “a cross-cultural investigation of time management practices
and job outcomes”, explored the generalisability of prior findings of time
management and their influence on key job outcomes in different cultures.13
Time management is used as a competitive tool by both individuals and
organizations in Western cultures, where time is viewed as a commodity to be
controlled. In these cultures, it is commonly believed that time management
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practices will positively influence key job outcomes such as job performance,
job satisfaction, job stress and health. 14
However, empirical evidences on the positive effects of time
management has been limited to Western cultural environment. There are
Asian, African, Middle Eastern and Latin American cultures where perception
of time is conservative in nature and therefore, the meaning of time is defined
as a temporal perception and may be quite different than in Western cultures
such as in the United States. 15
This raises the question of whether or not time
management practices positively impact job outcomes in cultures where time is
viewed differently. In this connection, the ability to generalize the claims of
time management to non-western is yet to be fully investigated.
Additionally, a widely discussed cultural dimension of temporal
perception that is theorized to lead directly to temporal behavior is whether
time is viewed as either “monochromic time” (M-time) or ‘polychronic time”
(P-time)16
.
M-time cultures view time as linear and separable capable of being
divided into units and therefore emphasize doing "one thing at a time." In
contrast, P –time cultures view time as naturally re-occurring, and therefore
emphasize doing "many things at one time."
M-time typifies most North Americans, Swiss, German and
Scandinavians as, individuals with an M-time orientation are task-oriented,
emphasize promptness and a concern for other's privacy, stick to their plans
and are accustomed to short term relationships with other people. P-time
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cultures include Japanese, Middle-Easterners, Latin Americans and people
from South Asia who view time as a system where the same events occur in
natural cycles.
Within the time management literature, time stressors can be highly
detrimental when experienced on a daily basis and they are experienced
differently in different national cultures 17
. Some cultures have an orientation
towards a short time horizon in which time stressors are more prevalent, for
example, in Philippines, the United States, Ireland, Brazil, India and Australia.
In long time horizon areas such as Czech Republic, Hong Kong, Sweden,
Portugal and Austria, the immediacy of time demands is less prevalent. Long
term planning and time extended horizons make time stressors very different.
Americans are more inclined to park a day full of short- term activities, each of
which has a completion point. On the other hand, Polynesian or Japanese
people may have a busy day, but their orientation is less towards immediate
task completion than long term wholeness.
From above, we understand that time management is a perpectual topic
among researchers and specialists. There is no general agreement about what
time mean as it is. Time is seen from psychological perspective as a mental
construct which compares the perception of time to “clock” time. Sociological
research views time as a social construct and a convenience that cultures agree
on. Behavioral research attempts to predict what individuals might do, their
motives for thinking about time in certain ways and their related behavior.
Generally, different countries and cultures have different perceptions and the
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experience and use of time is universal, but the way in which time is
experienced and used differs across individuals and social institutions.
This study attempts to add the existing literature towards expanding our
understanding of time management practices, particularly in India.
2.6 TIME MANAGEMENT PROCESS:
Time management is a process. It can be practiced in four steps. Each
step is a habit in itself and each succeeding step becomes more difficult. The
first step in this process is making a daily schedule. Practitioners of time
management need to chart out all activities that they need to perform each day.
By doing so, a person can allot time slots for each activity. Making a daily
routine or time-table is considered a very useful activity. It is like planning out
each task before actually executing it.
Once employees get accustomed to making and using of time schedules,
they can move on to the next step in the time management process, which is,
use of notes and circulars. Use of notes and circulars ensures that a particular
task is done in the right way and at the right time. Important points to be kept
in mind while undertaking a particular task can be noted down, so that each
task gets done in the best possible way and in the minimum possible time.
The next step in time management encompasses prioritizing the tasks.
Most professionals have a tendency to finish their urgent tasks first, without
realizing a task which appears urgent may be unnecessary. Time management
refers to those tasks that should be done immediately which are both necessary
and urgent. It means that one must prioritize the tasks to save a lot of time.
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The last step is, it is not time that one need to manage, but to manage
self, which calls for leading a disciplined life and following the right habits.
One needs to be aware of it and to follow in their daily lives especially at
work, personal and family atmosphere.
2.7 TIME MANAGEMENT THEORIES
The theories put forth by scholars and philosophers help us to know the
importance of time in every sphere of life. Understanding the importance of
time management is essential for everyone. A conscious control, when imposed
over the amount of time spent in doing day-to-day activities would enable one
to decide on priorities and set deadlines for them. Thus, one would be able to
accomplish them within the set time limit. Time management is possible by
understanding the theories, principles and techniques proposed by scholars and
philosophers who have understood its significance.
The most popular theories that help people to understand the importance
of time management in every sphere of life are:-
Pareto Principle: 80-20 Rule
Vilfredo Pareto18
was an Italian economist and philosopher who
formulated 80-20 rule. His research work became the thumb rule of many
business organizations where 80% of productivity came from 20% of working
employees.
This 20% comprised the most efficient people who conducted their work
within a specific span of time, thereby contributing to high rate of productivity.
Based on this theory, business and quality management pioneer, Dr. Joseph
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Juran19
said that, ‘vital few, trivial many’ build organizations. The 80-20 rule
could be applied everywhere, where time plays a major role to uplift
productivity and success of organizations. The key element of this theory is the
20% that matters the most.
Pickle Jar Theory
The pickle jar theory is very simple to understand and execute. The
experiment is actually a time management model that will aid in prioritizing
work and in reaching the milestones of life. A pickle jar filled with rocks and
spaces in between the rock stones could be filled up with pebbles. The jar
becomes more compact after filling up with pebbles but still there are
inconspicuous spaces that can be compacted with sand and water over it. The
pickle jar is the replica of the life. The major responsibilities of the life or goals
are represented by the rocks that occupy most of the space. This infers that, one
should dedicate more time to such goals. The chipped stones or the pebbles
symbolize the hobbies that require comparatively lesser time than the important
goals. Lastly, the daily chores of your life are the sand particles that get placed
perfectly between the goals and hobbies. The distractive force in the life that
takes away the attention from the path of success is the water. Apart from
teaching us the right way to manage time, this theory also makes us aware of
the fact that distractions that lead to mismanagement should be avoided
completely in order to follow the right track.
Maslow’s Theory
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Also known as the theory of hierarchy of needs, Abraham Harold
Maslow20
, an American professor of psychology, effectively combined time
management with needs. He built a hypothetical pyramid where physiological
level needs (food, water, and shelter), etc., were put at the base of the pyramid
while self actualization was placed on the top of the pyramid. In between these
two extreme levels, safety, human bonding and self-esteem were positioned.
The five levels were examples of different strata of human life. The theory
doesn’t specify the time period required to attain them, but it actually helps to
understand the importance of these elements in life. Once the needs are
understood, it can be differentiated to set a time period during which one can
fulfill them. By referring to the theory of hierarchy of needs with incorporation
of effective time management strategy, one can plan the goals both in personal
and professional life.
2.8 TIME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Current models of time management focus on the achievement of a
balance in personal and professional commitments. Time management
techniques help to establish the priorities of both professional and personal
responsibilities, thereby, leading to a more productive and better balanced life
style.
The essence of time management revolves around two principles,
Pareto’s Principle and Parkinson’s Law. Principles in time management helps
one to achieve the major portion of the goals with a minor portion of the
energy. Parkinson’s Law states that there is a human tendency to spend effort
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and time on more insignificant tasks that are perceived as important rather than
those of true importance. Thus, by being able to identify what is truly
important, one can gain momentum toward achieving true desired goals.
The ABC technique :
The most often cited and fundamental approach to formulating a way of
managing one’s time is a “priority system” first described by Alan Lakein21
. In
the ABC technique, each individual consciously learns how to get control of
one’s time and life by focusing on what is considered truly important. By
focusing on one’s own priorities or making an educated guess, a person makes
a list of goals and writes down those that are deemed worthy of being
accomplished. In formulating a list of goals, or priorities, goals are grouped
together under an assigned letters (ie, category) such as A, B, or C. All “A”
grouped tasks or goals reflect activities of high importance (must be undertaken
and completed soon), “B” grouped tasks signify activities deemed less
important (but need to be accomplished at some point in the future), and “C”
grouped tasks are activities of low or no importance. In using this method, by
identifying and assigning value to one’s activities, each person actively plans
desirable short, intermediate and long-term goals.
Time management matrix technique:
The Time Management Matrix Technique (TMMT) was constructed by
Covey22
to focus on the control of personal actions rather than purely
scheduling time. The technique places all time-consuming actions into one of
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four theoretical quadrants of activity, which enable a person to characterize an
action as being important or urgent, relative to the desired goal. The four
quadrants are:
I - important and urgent
II - important and not urgent,
III - not important and urgent, and
IV - not important and not urgent.
Within quadrant I are activities of crisis, pressing problems, deadlines,
and emergencies. These activities create stress and consume a great deal of
energy, and thus are viewed as time wasters. While physicians are trained to
deal with these activities, their management method frequently spills over into
other areas of their life. Covey emphasizes that it is always better to try to
achieve activities in Quadrant II which focus on planning, prevention,
creativity, building relationships, and maintaining increased productivity to
give long term benefits. Quadrant III activities are characterized by interrupt
ions, involvement with popular interests, and mandatory meetings with
nonproductive results. Quadrant-IV entails activities that are considered
frivolous and non- helpful toward achieving goals.
The matrix of quadrants provides a means of identifying different types
of activities and how the effectiveness of these activities are toward achieving
one’s goals. This model seeks to minimize activity that continuously requires
maximal expenditure of effort and time on non goal-achieving tasks.
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The time matrix centers on achieving results with three basic skills. The
first skill, proactivity is a mind- set to gain control over ineffective lifestyle
situations. Once recognized, the ability to initiate desirable change is acquired.
The second skill is learning to have a clear vision of end results. By learning to
visualize, a person directs oneself in accomplishing the right goals and
momentum is gained in accomplishing important matters. The third skill is
classical prioritizing. The ability to prioritize important responsibilities,
challenges and the demands of life through foresight leads one toward gaining
more control over outcomes that are manageable. These three skills allow a
person to identify the theoretical quadrants by which he or she is operating in
life and adjust those activities that result in a productive lifestyle into activities
that help to achieve one’s goals.
The advantages of this technique revolve around its easy
conceptualization of the matrix flexibility in application and the focus on
actions in achieving goals. By clearly viewing all activities as existing in one of
four quadrants, one can assess intuitively how time is being expended relative
to its importance or urgency in accomplishing events of priority. Rather than
listing items to be achieved, as done in other models, this technique relies on
the ability of users to condition their actions toward accomplishing goals by
making a mental note as to which quadrant the activity belongs, with quadrant
II being the ideal. The major disadvantage of this model is the difficulty faced
by the beginners to use, as a model.
Natural laws technique:-
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This model of time management is based on Benjamin Franklin’s23
principles, which asserts that maximal productivity can be reached by using
time records to help evaluate and plan life. Once goals are identified, long-term
plans, intermediate plans and daily tasks are developed to help attain and
reassure desired future results. This planning system uses quiet time to plan and
develop tasks. Familiar external and internal factors that limit the supply of
time—time robbers—are acknowledged. This model encourages the use of a
daily planner system to record, reassess and reaffirm one’s goals.
The advantage to this popular system is that it has been shown to help
people achieve goals by using basic concepts of Time Management.
2.9 TECHNIQUES AND DIMENSIONS
Notwithstanding the sustained efforts on knowledge-base, much has
been written about techniques for time management. Many of the techniques
are associated with the planning dimension of time management, i.e. with
deliberately setting work goals and personal goals, identifying core tasks and
activities, scheduling and prioritizing these tasks and activities. Calendars and
planners are often used as tools to support all this. They differ in the time
segments they stipulate: some people plan in one-hour blocks per day, while
others divide the day into fifteen- minute blocks. Other tools are, to-do lists on
bits of paper, pocket diaries, e-mail and mobile phones. Some of these can also
be used to strengthen the monitoring dimension of time management. They are
supposed to support ‘prospective remembering of work appointments and to-do
lists24
.
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The other techniques addressed the executive dimension of time
management. They imply a range of behaviors that aim at avoiding work
interruptions, increasing effectiveness of meetings at work, overcoming delay
behavior (also known as procrastination), motivating and regulating oneself in
goal- directed behavior . The techniques addressing executive dimensions seem
to fall into two categories. The first category aims to avoid ‘time wasters’ such
as unexpected telephone calls, visitors, and meetings which interrupt the
execution of work as planned. They essentially consist of protective measures
that prevent these disturbances, bringing them under control by planning or
stopping them from causing interference by isolating the person from them.
The second category aims at the motivation to carry out the plan. People are
normally energized and motivated to execute their work, when they have set
goals for themselves and engaged in planning and prioritizing work tasks. Yet
they may lose the motivation to perform the goals once they are in the
maelstrom of everyday work-life.
From the review, it is noticed that scattered attention has been given to
assessing the dimensions of time management. One technique used to balance
work and private time demands is to make a list of all personal as well as work
commitments and then compare them with respect to their time duration,
importance, urgency or priority. It might also be useful to decide, whether
certain work commitments on one’s list could be performed by others as well.
More techniques might be developed to give people certain insights into their
actual use of time and the effects of newly presented time demands.
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The general idea behind the use of these techniques is that, it allows a
person to focus on a limited number of attainable tasks without losing sight of
the big picture. Instead of being overwhelmed by the complexity or large
number of goals or projects which may discourage one from even starting
work, one should be able to formulate many small tasks that one is able to
perform. In addition, this focus has the effect that energy is directed at the
completion of tasks and enables obstacles to be overcome as they occur.
Some techniques may help one to become more effective in using
private time and to attain a balance between private and work activities. The
technique of listing and comparing all private and work commitments may be
helpful in maintaining the balance between work and home. The list can make
it evident that there are often far too many work commitments compared to
personal ones, after which one may consider eliminating certain work
commitments in order to make more time for a personal life. In addition,
people may make a personal time management chart (time budget) showing
how they spend time on family, recreation, eating, sleeping and getting up. This
may help them to separate perception from reality and make room for actual
improvements in allocating time to these activities. Of course, finding an ideal
balance between personal and work time is different for each individual and
people will have to use these techniques to accommodate their own preferences
and opportunities.
Although these techniques have emerged from practice, it is not difficult
to see how they are rooted in a self-regulation view of time management. They
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aim at improving time assessment (e.g., listing demands and using this list as a
reference point), planning (e.g., clustering activities, using specified time
blocks), monitoring (e.g., creating feedback on task execution with respect to
time) and effectuating changes in activities and the environment in which these
are carried out (e.g., using a contingency plan, withdrawing to a quieter
working space). It would be worth investigating whether and how the current
techniques fulfill these functions and what can be done to optimize their
effects. Time-management theory might also inspire the development of
additional techniques.
2.10 APPLICABILITY OF TIME MANAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT
SETTINGS:
Time management was first introduced for professional managers25
before being made available to anyone in work situations26
. Most of the
examples are set in the workplace — even the charts, figures and worksheets
are applicable only to work or business situations. The traditional techniques
and tips are not always applicable for those working outside a traditional office
situation. Furthermore, to apply time-management techniques, a certain level of
job autonomy is required. One can imagine that in work situations, where there
is no room at all for personal planning and decision-making, time management
might not be implemented to the full extent. However, in these cases,
techniques such as motivating oneself to perform tasks might be helpful.
Generally, managers, directors or job professionals have higher job autonomy
than those working in administrative or staff jobs and as a consequence the low
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autonomy group can only engage in restricted time-management behaviors.
Also, other job characteristics, such as perceived workload, goal clarity or task
complexity play a big role.
A review of past empirical studies find some support for a dispositional
foundation of time-management behavior, suggesting that there are consistent
individual differences in time-management behavior which make some people
more and others less effective. These differences may originate from
personality, motivational or cognitive factors. Personal preferences, such as
working on several tasks simultaneously are also involved. Kaufman27
showed
a relation between monochronic individuals and time management. They
indicated that individuals with monochronic preferences were more likely to do
detailed planning than those with polychronic preferences, yet they experienced
difficulties in sticking to their plan, possibly because they preferred to
concentrate on one thing at a time. Polychronic individuals indicated that they
more often achieved their planned goals than monochronic individuals and
were also better able to cope with interruptions.
2.11 QUALITATIVE TIME MANAGEMENT STUDIES
In reviewing the literature on time management skills and behaviors,
five studies were identified which examined the time management behaviors of
specific populations using qualitative methodologies. Two studies examined
time management techniques in relation to home-based work28
. Of these two
studies, one study exclusively examined women29
. Two studies examined
university populations including the time management strategies of medical
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residents30
and the time management of undergraduate english project
students31
. The fourth study examined the work habits of successful general
managers32
. There were several common time management techniques
identified by these populations including time manipulation, planning ahead,
task delegations prioritization, synchronization and routinization of activities,
reallocation of personal time, goal setting, agenda making and the utilization of
a time diary. Many of the time management strategies were identified in studies
related to samples of dual career women, medical residents, home based
workers in parallel employment and university student samples.
2.12 QUANTITATIVE TIME MANAGEMENT STUDIES
The literature search identified 27 studies that examined the relationship
between time management behaviors and other variables such as academic
achievement, stress and creativity. Most studies were conducted with university
or college student populations and utilized some form of questionnaire or self-
report measure to assess time management. Alternatives to self-report measures
included self-reported time usage questions (e.g., how many hours during a
typical weekday, do you) and observational checklists33
. Results from these
studies showed that self-reports of time management behaviors or skills were
often related to academic achievement, effective time management, lower
stress and strain. Good time managers preferred planning and organising, older
subjects and women are engaged more frequently in planning and time
management behaviors. Individuals who indicated that they set goals and
priorities tended toward the Type A behavior pattern, where as, individuals
57
who had previous time management training engaged more frequently in time
management behaviors. In addition, inefficient time use, lack of control over
time demands and inadequate amounts of time appeared to have a negative
impact on individuals’ psychological resources.
The recent literature review34
gives an overview of time- management
research since its inceptions and summarizes what is currently known about it.
In general, a positive relationship was found between people’s self-report of
time management behaviors with perceived control of time, academic
performance 35
and well-being (operationalized as low strain or health) 36
. It
demonstrated that one dimension of time management, i.e. planning behavior,
is related to higher job performance. However, use of personal time
management techniques actually contributing to a higher job performance has
not been established yet. Future research could focus on quantifying the effects
of time management.
Some studies have focused on the effectiveness of time management
training. They have shown mixed results, although in most of studies a positive
outcome was found. Green & Skinner 37
for instance, found that participants in
a time management training program increased their knowledge of time
management and on an individual level showed ‘significant observable
improvement in key areas as planning, prioritizing assertiveness, consequent
reductions in their stress levels and median improvements in personal
effectiveness of some 20 percent’.
58
The largest part of the research conducted mainly focused on the
effectiveness of behaviors and the use of particular techniques either in do-it-
yourself settings or in training situations. Many studies have focused on time
management behaviors in relation to perceived control of time 38
, academic
performance 39
, work—family interference 40
, estimation of time duration 41
,
job satisfaction 42
or variables related to well-being 43
. Very little attention has
been given to factors that might influence the actual use of particular behaviors
and techniques or those moderate their relationship between their use and
measures of effectiveness.
A noticeable exception is the study of personality as a factor in effective
time management. In China, a number of studies have recently been devoted to
‘time management disposition’ 44
, a concept referring to a set of traits
associated with the effectiveness of time-management behavior. This ‘multi-
dimensional personality trait’ is captured by the Time Management Disposition
Inventory for Chinese adolescents45
. Research has addressed the presence of
such a trait, its influence on self-confidence, satisfaction with regard to
learning and coping style and the influence of ‘hereditary vs work experience’
factors. Up to now these Chinese studies have not provided any conclusive
answers. There are some evidences of a hereditary influence, but also on the
effects of learning and exposure to other external factors.
Many research efforts on personality traits has focused more particularly
on the conscientiousness trait, which comprises qualities such as being results
oriented, organized, careful in one’s work, ambitious, trustworthy and having a
59
conscience. Several studies have shown that such qualities can have a positive
influence on work, academic schedules and training achievements 46
. Pulford
and Sohal47
demonstrated that students with a certain personality profile like
high scores on conscientiousness performed better on a time-management
scale. They also found that the overall Grade Point Average score of these
students at the end of the first year was predicted by the prevalence of time-
management behavior operationalized as planning and the ability to deal with
deadlines.
There are evidences from other studies showing that personality may
play a role in displaying time-management behavior. Shahani, Weiner and
Streit48
found that the incidence of time-management behavior was quite stable
under varying levels of reported stress. Frese, Stewart and Hannover 49
pointed
to large differences between individuals in goal orientation and planning
behavior.
Further, it was found that time management behaviors are related to
effectiveness in performing tasks in accordance with temporal demands. But,
present knowledge about the mechanisms involved in bringing about these
effects is still very limited. However, there is some scientific support for the
influence of personality on the display of time-management behavior, a so-
called dispositional component.
2.13 POSTULATES OF TIME MANAGEMENT
When time is viewed as a non-renewable resource, it often becomes
easier to understand the importance of managing it wisely. When working
60
under a deadline, then every minute is considered as a non-renewable resource
which, one could feasibly use to the full extent to meet a specific goal.
Mackenzie50
have agreed that time is a valuable resource which
demands effective management. According to Shuler51
, the real importance of
time management lies in the fact that many people have too many tasks they
need to do but not enough time for the things they want to do. Time is a unique
resource which controls and limits all other resources. Therefore, it is
considered the most precious resource available to human beings.
Kohn et.al52
have pointed out that time management plans must be
designed to fit into individual needs and differences, since each individual has
a personal view point about time. Time is the scarcest resource and unless it is
managed nothing else can be managed. Time management is about
effectiveness and efficiency of ‘what you are doing and how you do it’ 53
. In
regard of its importance, primarily, time management is a need, secondly it is a
good goal and third it must be taught.
Good time management has always been an important skill, but it is
arguably now more essential than ever. Factors such as widespread corporate
restructuring, accelerating technological changes, information overload and the
need to balance priority and working lives have put the squeeze on managers.
2.14 TIME MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES:
Time Management is really self management technique as to decide on
what to do and when to do it. Success requires self discipline and self
61
management. Effective self management is predicted upon a correct
understanding of the self, to control and manage consciously. Ferasat 200554
states that time management depends on self consciousness and the application
of time management principles won’t be effective unless the person be aware
of the attitude towards work. This section will summarize the following six
major time management principles :
i. Time use analysis
ii. Identification of time robbers
iii. Setting and prioritizing goals
iv. Formulation of action plans
v. Application of Time Management principles and
vi. Monitoring of progress
i. Time Use analysis:
The first principle in managing time is to analyze how time is utilized. A
time log is be used to find out how much time is consumed on various tasks.
The time inventory or log is necessary because, the painful task of changing
our habits requires far more conviction than learning from the experience of
others. The time log is a procedure which requires the maintaining of a diary of
actual time used for several days. This means that in everything, employees
should develop a habit of recording and analyzing how they spend their time to
meet the work deadlines.
Merill & Danna55
explains that to meet deadlines, eliminate recurring
crises, to create make to do lists, scheduling the most important things,
62
eliminate time wasters, avoid interruptions, prioritize the work and conquer
procrastination, it is important to have a time log. A time log is a list of daily
activities recorded at specified time intervals. The most important tool for time
management is a time audit or time log. By analyzing the use of time, it is
possible to determine more efficient ways of using time in the workplace and
outside it.
Time management means control of time and work, instead that time
controls us. Better usage of time requires a constant, adequate and rational
time management. Successful management of working time, needs to make
better business, perspectives, bigger work creativeness, less work stress, more
own free time and time for family and friends, consistent and systematic
achievement of defined business goals etc., requires managers need to plan
their business duties and tasks. Advantages of appropriate planning of time
management functions are numerous. Some of the most important are: better
preparation of working tasks, increasing efficiency through the coordination of
work tasks, a clear image of the work tasks, saving time and money, increase
the motivation of all employees, self-improvement and self-discipline,
distinguishing important from less important duties and making important
business decisions.
Active time management will allow the control of work and more time
for focusing on the most relevant jobs aspects. Anyone who wants to be
efficient and productive, had to benefit their own time on the most prudent
63
way. The most important is good planning of activities and duties, to separate
important from less important and choose realistic activities.
ii. Identification of Time Robbers :
A time robber may be defined as an activity at which a considerable
amount of time is spent, without an equivalent value or benefit. The next step
in time management is identifying time robbers and it may be done by
analyzing the time log and locating where time has been wasted. The time
robbers will fall into two general categories. They are, external time robbers
and internal time robbers. The external time robbers are generated from outside
sources such as phone calls, drop- in visitors, and other interruptions, whereas
internal time robbers such as lack of self discipline, failure to delegate,
disorganization and procrastination are self generated.
Once the time log has been used to identify time robbers, one can learn
to control them with techniques such as deferring time robbers, shortening the
time spent on time robbers, or eliminating portions of time robbers.
Mackenzie56
has suggested the following efforts to control time robbers:
1) set up a routine that contrasts with time robbers,
2) never let an exception occur until the new habit is firmly rooted, and
3) seize the first possible chance to act on the resolution.
iii. Setting and Prioritizing Goals :
The third principle in managing time is to set and prioritize goals.
Koellner57
has stated that goals provide a focus to help determine beforehand
64
the areas, where resources including time should be spent. The effectiveness of
use of time is determined by the goals set. Goal setting is the process of
prioritizing and selecting healthy behaviour outcomes specific to an
individual’s unique needs. ‘Without goals, time management is like a hammer
without a nail’. With goal, however, time management becomes a magic key to
success. Time can simply be managed by creating proportionality between the
short-term goals and long term goals. For example to minimize a gap between
short term and long term goals, a master to-do list and a deadline schedule for
each work with a estimate of the time needed to complete the project is
required.
Thus, Goal setting works through focusing on individuals attention and
efforts in achieving the desired outcomes on specific goals considering the
level of difficulty or complexity and the designated time frame for goal
attainment.
iv. Formulation of Action Plans :
Once goals are determined, a plan of action should be developed to
guide individuals in achieving established goals and to identify the factors or
conditions that will help or hinder in achieving established goals. Further,
action planning can be used to assess the appropriateness of goals over
progress. In achieving the goals, action plans should be evaluated for necessary
success. Problem solving, identifying helpful resources, skill building activities
and adjustment of goals, requires continuous monitoring of action plans. It
needs to be recognized that effective planning actually saves time.
65
Mackenzie58
has added that, “Managers resist planning because they
don’t have time or failing to look ahead to the significant long-range savings in
time as well as the improved performance that usually results”. So Action
plans should be set and a deadline for completing each step should be specified
that can produce a measurement of progress. Planning is the basis for
successful time management, since control starts with planning. Planning is
bringing the future into the present so that something can be done about it. An
hour of planning will save several hours of doing the wrong things, fighting
crises and avoiding the unimportant. According to Harper, effective short-term
planning will help save time. Time management necessitates planning, while it
is obvious to use it regularly. One of the basic planning guides for time
management is the ‘To Do List’. One of the real secrets of getting more done is
to make a To Do List everyday, keep it visible and use it as a guide to action
throughout the day . ‘To Do List’ is a list of items to be worked on which are
crossed off as items are completed and other items added as they arise. The
items on the ‘To Do List’ may be arranged according to function or similarity
of work content, location, and/or person and it must be prioritized.
v. Application of Time Management Principles :
The next main issue in time management is application of its operative
principles. A carefully thought-out plan with well defined goals and priorities is
a giant step toward getting control of time. Such a plan like a tool is valuable
only when if it’s used. The best plans remain daydreams until they are brought
to life through action.
66
a. Avoidance of Procrastination:
The first key to effective Time Management is to avoid procrastination.
Procrastination has been defined as a self-regulation style that involves delay in
the start and/or completion of a task and is described as the thief of time.
Procrastination can be the root of the many evils surrounding time
management. Emmett59
contended that every person has been guilty of
procrastinating for one reason or another.
Planning and doing may be close enough together that the plan draws
immediate action on high-priority items. However, he has noted that the
transition from planning to action may be less smooth, when procrastination
occurs. Procrastination is putting off a high priority task and doing a task of
lower priority. Time management experts have stated that a major key to
eliminating procrastination is to get started immediately.
b. Concentration on High-Priorities:
A second key to effective time management is to concentrate on high -
priorities. The effectiveness of time use is often weakened because time is
spent doing a high percentage of low-priority tasks. Low-priority tasks are done
before high-priority tasks because, they are easy to do and require less time.
Low-priority items are sometimes performed before high payoff ones because
they are easier to do, where in it is easy to see many items in ‘to do the list’ are
cleared. But, this tendency will harm the execution of high priority tasks, when
postponed.
67
Time management consultants have noted that the significance of
focusing on high-priorities is emphasized with Pareto’s 80/20 Law. Pareto’s
Law posits that in any given group the number of significant items will
normally be small. Inversely, the number of less significant items will
constitute the vast majority. 20 percent of one’s activities will produce 80
percent of the results.
c. Control of Perfectionism:
“Perfectionism is worth approaching when 80 percent of the value
comes from the last 20 percent of the effort”. It is easy to lose control of time
when striving for perfectionism. Perfectionism is often set as a goal for low-
priority activities.
d. Setting proper Deadlines:
A principle suggestion to help control perfectionism and procrastination
is setting deadlines, because they force action and serve as targets or goals. But
these deadlines must be realistic to appraise performance. The imposition of
due dates is mandatory for time management since just as goals and objectives,
realistic deadlines will also create enthusiasm to pursue the activity. Deadlines
work best when they are self—imposed and are viewed as reasonable and
equitable.
Combining rewards with deadlines will also increase enthusiasm and
motivation and rewards can be planned at various points throughout a large
project, as well as after the final completion.
68
e. Energy Level consideration:
Energy level should also be considered in managing time and difficult
jobs should be performed, when a person’s energy level is high. Doing a
difficult task is much easier, when a person is fresh than when he or she is
tired. During high energy periods, a person can often solve a problem in
minutes instead of the hours he or she might labor over the same problem when
energy level is down. A chart can be made to record energy peaks and lows
which could be used to plan specific projects and functioning at peak hours
enables an individual to achieve more effectively.
f. Control of Interruptions :
Controlling interruptions, crises and routine activities are essential for
effective time management. The goal is not to eliminate all interruptions, but
to control them by balancing the time spent with the value of the interruption.
Defer interruptions temporarily to more appropriate times. Eliminate medium
and low-priority interruptions by handling them more efficiently, delegating
them or deferring them indefinitely. Controlling interruptions and crises can
begin in the planning stages of a schedule and when making a schedule the
unexpected should be taken into consideration.
g. Monitoring of Progress :
The next step after applying important principles for effective time
management is monitoring the progress. A frequent monitoring of progress
helps to prevent the tendency to slip back as an analysis of interruptions is
69
necessary before controlling them. A log of interruptions is to be kept, which
includes what caused the interruption, when it occurred, how long it took, its
purpose and what was accomplished. Once interruptions have been identified,
they can be analyzed and prioritized according to their importance.
The three guidelines to handling interruptions are, reducing the time
spent on medium and low priority interruptions. Weekly time inventory may be
used to determine, if various time management principles have been successful
in eliminating and controlling routine interruptions and forecasting new
interruptions. The positive results identified with the follow-up are also
beneficial in reinforcing effective time use.
VI. Time Traps and effective Techniques to Manage Time:
It is possible to classify time traps in two headings as “time traps that are
sourced from individual” and “time traps that are sourced from management”.
Time management is a struggle of productively spending time which is an
important source in reaching both organizational and personal aims.
a. Time Traps that are sourced from lndividuals:
Time traps that are sourced from individuals can be summarized as
follows: lack of self discipline, undescribed individual aims, postponement,
unhealthy and non ergonomic working environment, untidy table and
disordered office, bureaucracy, difficultness at saying “no”, excessive social
relationships, high level doubts about decisions, open office politics,
ambiguousness of priorities, stress, time impression and rashness.
b. Time Traps in Work environment :
70
Time traps that are originated from work atmosphere can be summarized
as: telephone conversations, unexpected visitors, unwillingness in devolution of
authority, unnecessary gatherings, crisis, inadequate communication, uncertain
in managing aims and lack of coordination.
Tracy60
stated that people are surrounded by others and circumstances
that waste time and undermine effectiveness all day along. The only way to
combat this is to practice rigorous self discipline to steer clear from these time
thieves. She provided a list of seven major time wasters in the world of work
that she has derived from hundreds of time management studies and opinion
surveys on telephone interruptions. They are unexpected visitors, meetings, fire
fighting and emergencies, procrastination, socializing and idle conversations,
indecision and delay.
Best approach in dealing with time wasters is simple and
straightforward; get focused and stay focused. Ramsey 61
stated that, “The
ability to take control of time and to make the most of every moment on and off
with the job is the key to being successful and surviving in today’s world of
work.” For most people, the four greatest time-wasters on the job to be: (1)
paperwork (2) interruptions (3) meetings and (4) “worry-time.”
c. Discretionary time usage:
It is important to define discretionary time as time that is left over after
all necessary work is completed. While almost everyone knows how to plan,
prioritize and get organized, the problem that remains is that very few actually
71
do what they know they should be doing. Therefore, creating discretionary
time without a strong foundation is difficult because the important tasks may
still remain at the end of the day. Hager62
provided a list of items designed
specifically for creating discretionary time:
1. Anticipate interruptions
2. Schedule office hours specifically for drop-ins
3. Schedule break times
4. Schedule response/reading time
5. Meet in other areas rather than the office
6. Conduct stand-up meetings
7. Set time frames for conferences, meetings, phone calls, etc..
8. Master the art of delegation
9. Get in the habit of one-thing-at-a-time
2.15 TIME MANAGEMENT OBSERVATION
The work of Drucker(1966)63
formalized the concept and approach of
time management in terms of the workplace. From that foundation, time
management actions have typically focused on the prioritization of activities.
He emphasized deliberate concentration on the prioritized actions until they are
completed and development of a plan for work which uses the prioritization
scheme as an organising structure.64
While early attempts at time management
focused on organization and goal-setting, contemporary approaches require the
individual to assess the relative importance of their activities through the
development of a prioritization plan65
.
72
2.16 PLANNING BEHAVIORS
Since time management is a management process just like any other, it
must planned, monitored and regularly reviewed. Planning behavior can be
conceived as part of people’s work strategy. Several studies have been devoted
to the effects of planning behavior. Macan (1994)66
found that planning
behavior had a significant relationship with ‘perceived control of time,’ which
in turn was positively related to job satisfaction and negatively to job-induced
and somatic tensions. Thus, a direct relationship of planning behavior with
performance and work strain may exist, in addition to an indirect one, via
perceived control of time.
Prioritisation : Time management is a process of constantly asking what
is more important and arranging priorities to reflect each choice. Time
management techniques help establish to priorities of both professional and
personal responsibilities, thus leading to a more productive and better balanced
life style. Good time management behaviours such a setting goals and priorities
as well as monitoring the use of time67
can facilitate productivity and minimize
stress68
contributing to work effectiveness69
and performance70
. Harry Carter 71
suggests that to use time effectively one must “prepare lists of things to do in
order to identify priorities” and set priorities based on the relative urgency and
importance of the task.
Stephen Covey (1989)72
discusses the importance of setting priorities for
effective time management by advocating “put first things first” and that time
management can be summed up with the phrase “organize and execute around
73
priorities”. Several writers 73,74
suggest a system of prioritizing important tasks
according to predetermined goals as a practice for successful professionals. To
keep priorities in full view, daily priorities can be analyzed at the beginning
and ending of the day and decide which tasks are more important than others
on the “to-do” list and schedule high priority tasks. Setting job priorities,
working on them in order and listing on paper the major tasks for the day in
order of priority were time-management practices. “It’s important to make sure
that whatever system [is used] is aligned with what are trying to do” and keep
in mind the main functions of their job as they prioritize.
2.17 PERSONAL TIME MANAGEMENT:
Benjamin Franklin 75
is considered the father of modern time
management and linked the importance of its success to proper usage of
personal time. The idea of managing personal time as a successful way of
accomplishing important challenges in life introduced the concept of effective
use of time. The use of personal time analysis charts will show the various
activities in which employees spend their ‘time on’ apart from the general
schedule of activities for meeting the organizational activities.
Akomolage76
2005 and Ajayi77
2007 reiterated that the Personal analysis
chart will help individuals to study the use of their time and prepare a more
useful personal time tables for their activities during the day and each week and
it will allow the workers to identify their time wasters.
2.18 WORK LIFE BALANCE
74
In Clark’s78
view, the balance between work and life means satisfaction
and good performance in life with the least conflict on roles. According to
Kofodimge79
, balance means having satisfaction, health and productivity in the
life which includes work, leisure and love. Work-life conflict affects all aspects
of people’s life including their families, work places and even people’s mind
and their physical health. So the issue of work and life conflict includes a broad
and extensive spectrum. Hence, work and life balance is a degree of equality
and coordination in involvement and people’s satisfaction (male or female)
with each of the work and life roles. Work-life conflict happens when work
demands are not consistent with life aspirations. According to a report of
American institute for occupational safety and health, work-life conflict in
nature is one of the ten great stressors in work place.
In Adams and Jakk’s 80
study on time management was integrated in
work-life conflict model. The results showed that time management behaviors
have direct and indirect (Time control perception) relationship with work
interference with family and family interference with work. Green and
Skinner81
in their study expressed that employees need to enhance their
abilities to manage time efficiently to achieve an effective balance of work-life.
Proper time management has a positive influence on people in balancing their
work and life and optimum use of time enhances organizational productivity.
Major findings in the study of time relationship with work, work interference
with family and psychological distress showed that some occupational and
familial characteristics have a significant relationship with work time, and
75
work time had also a positive relationship with work interference with family
and a negative relationship with distress.
2.19 STRESS IDENTIFICATION
Job stress in today’s society is one of the matters that no one can escape
it. In this trend, employees have more stress because of pressure at work
environment with completely different specifications from home environment.
A lot of studies have been done in relation between time management and job
stress. Anittila and et al 82
(2012) surveyed the developing process concept of
stress and tension in industrial and organizational psychology. Shugars and
dimatteo83
, introduces that time management has one of the control
mechanisms to reduce stress.
Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman 84
suggested in 1984 that stress can
be thought of as resulting from an ‘imbalance between demands and resources”
or as occurring when “pressure exceeds one’s perceived ability to cope”. Good
time-management skills are critical for effective stress control. In particular,
learning to prioritize tasks and avoid over-commitment are critical measures to
make sure that work is not overscheduled. Grzywacz, Carlson and Shulkin , 85
(2008) find that employees engaged in formal flexible work schedules
particularly those engaged in an arrangement that allow them to modify their
work schedules around a set number of hours (as compared to compressed
work-week arrangements) experienced lower levels of job stress and burnout.
2.20 TIME MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE OUTCOMES:
76
Organizations are ultimately interested in performance outcomes. While
it is inherently interesting to consider questions surrounding the manner in
which people’s time preferences and construal influence their time use
behaviours, more practical use is how these concepts relate to performance
outcomes. Existing literature lends some support for the relationship between
time use dimensions and performance outcomes. For example, Lim and Seers86
(1993) found that future time perspective, autonomy of time use and allocation
of time together predicted the performance of managers. Moreover, Gersick87
(1989) found that groups with more successful midpoint transitions performed
better than those who less successfully paced their work time. In other words,
the manner in which people use time seems to relate to performance outcomes.
However, proper understanding of the time use and performance relationship
could benefit from additional empirical evidence. Thus, the current study aims
to provide further support relating time use and performance outcomes.
A positive relationship is expected between engaging in time
management behaviors and performance. While the theoretical framework
describing how time management should relate to outcomes is limited,
Classens et al., (2010)88
state that time management is a unique form of self-
regulation89
in which people cycle through a process of goal establishment,
planning, striving and revision. They further explain that a key component of
action regulation theory is the assumption that planning is necessary for
successful action (for goal accomplishment or quality performance). As such,
time management should be positively related to later task performance.
77
Others have found certain dimensions of time management are related to
performances. For instance, Claessens et al. (2004) 90
found that the planning
behaviors dimension of time management was related to higher job
performance. Barling et al. (1996) 91
found that short-range planning interacted
with achievement striving to predict job performance of car salespeople. Thus,
given the weight of the evidence, it is replicated that there is positive
relationship between time management and Performance outcomes.
Identification of research problem
Surprisingly, little research attention has been given to the question of
what time management can contribute in connection with organizational or
work place factor. It is surmised that minimal research is available on using
time effectively and finishing task within deadlines. A concern for the lack of
effective use of time management is the basis for the study under exploration.
The factors or conditions in the work place as the prerequisite for time
management behavior were not included in past research. As planning was
identified to be an important aspect of time management, detailed aspects of
planning such as, planning alternative tasks in case the original plan could not
be executed, has not been research thoroughly. Past studies have not addressed
the social context, such as work relations among individual workers and
supervisors. A large number of past studies used only student samples and not
the employees or professionals. In past research studies related to job
outcomes, only few variables such as work life balance, stress control, higher
sales and higher grade point averages are studied and the variables such as
78
resource planning, work ethics, socializing, achieving the goals or professional
skills are not considered which is the main reason behind this study. In the
same way, many time management studies are based on schools, colleges and
universities only and not in the work places that too in the IT field which
recently emerged as a strong industry. In conclusion, this review of time
management literature demonstrate that there is still lot of work to be done on
the concept of time management.
The above review of many previous research efforts reflect empirical surveys
based on isolated dimensions of time management. Most of the studies
identified the implications of select individual variables affecting time
management concept.
Thus, the present study focused on a comprehensive approach, covering the
core variables integrated with the demographic characteristics of sample IT
respondents.
Figure No.1
Model of the present study
TIME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
LEVEL OF TIME MANAGEMENT
TECHNIQUES ADOPTED
DAILY WORK
SCHEDULE
PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
OUTCOMES
IMPEDIMENTS OF TIME MANAGEMENT
PERSONAL TIME
PLANNING
79
This model of present research enquiry explains that the implications of
Time Management techniques, level of time management adopted, daily work
schedule, personal time planning and impediments of time management leads
to effects on professional development outcomes.
Conclusion:
In the next chapter, an attempt is made to analyze factors influencing
time management and perceptions of IT professionals on time management and
professional development outcomes based on demographic, social and
economic variables.
END NOTES
1. North.Y 2004 God’s Clock Maker . Richard of Wallingford and the
invention of time Ox Bow Books
2. Hisrich and Peters 2002 If I only had time – The Canadian Manager –
Vol.5 No.4 (14- 18)
3. Classens et.al., 2007 Time Management Logic Effectiveness and
Challenges. Time in Organizational Research, London Rovtledgevk-23-
41
4. Moos.R. 1994 Work Environment Scale Manual 3rd
Edition, 54
5. Ramsey R.D. 1994 Work Smarter and Save time – Supervision 55(7)
14-26
6. Taylor.F.W., 1978, Principles of Scientific Management. Classics of
Organizational theory (9) 23
7. Ive Lee 1930 Management Consultant Time Management Encyclopedia
of Business 369
8. Drucker.P. 1967 The Effective Execution – Hememann, London, 107
9. Covey.S. Merill.R. & Merill.R. 1994 First Things First Newyork Simon-
Sehuster
10. Ibid 22-23
11. Ibid 24
12. Lee.E. 2005 The relationship of Motivation and flow experienced to
academic procrastination. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 166(1) 5-14
13. Nonis S.A. & Teng (2005) A cross cultural investigation of time
management practices and job outcomes. The journal of psychology, Vol.31,
18-29
14. Luecke.R. 2005 Time Management increase your personal productivity
and effectiveness. Harvard Business School, 34
15. Kaufman and Lane 1991 Time Congruity in the organization. Journal of
Business Psychology 6 79-106
16.Kaufman and Scarborough 1999 Time Management and polychronity.
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END NOTES
1. Classens.et.al. (2007) A review of time management literature.
Personnel review Vol.36, 255-276
2. Ojokuku.R.M. & Ubasankehinde (2011) Time management and
organizational performance-A casual analysis Pakistan Journal of
Business and economic review Vol.2(1) 60-76
3. Shepeer (2010) Time management. McGraw Hill Publishers, 37
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work on perceived job performance in private and public sectors. Nigerian
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techniques that will work for you, 16
6. Adejo (2012) The effective time management for high performance in
an organization. Journal of managerial psychology, Vol.10(2). 58-70
7. Lucy Karim (2012) Time Management and job performace in selected
parastatals in Kenya. Australian Journal of Business and Management research
Vol.2(5) 19-29
8. Ibid Adejo (2012) The effective time management for high performance
in an organization. Journal of managerial psychology, Vol.10(2). 58-70
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relations between stressors and employee strain. Work and stress 3, 182-
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environment. The journal of psychology, Vol.31, 18-29
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effective factors and time management. World Applied Science Journal,
2(3), 168-174
12. Ibid, Hassanzabeh, R., & Ebadi, a.G. (2007). Measure the share of the
effective factors and time management. World Applied Science Journal,
2(3), 168-174
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