Chapter 1

Behaviorisrelativelystrong,Intense,andpersistent.

Behaviorisaimedtowardachievingaparticularpurposeorgoal.

Applications; Recommendations

(How to support and enhance motivation and emotion in

applied settings)

Theory (As created by motivational

psychologists)

Hypotheses (As derived from the

theory)

Data (To test the adequacy of

each hypothesis)

Representation

Application

Motivational Science

Figure1.1illustratesthefunctionandutilityofagoodtheory.

Source of WhyExercise? Motivation Illustration

Fun,enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Childrenexercisespontaneously—theyrunand jumpandchase,andtheydososimplyforthesheerfunofit.Personalchallenge Flow Athletesget“inthezone”whentheirsport

optimallychallengestheirskills.Forcedtodoso External regulation Studentsexercisebecausetheircoachtellsthemtodoso.

Paidtodoso Extrinsic Motivation Acoachorinstructorispaidtoexerciseandtohelpothersexercise.

Accomplishagoal Goal Runnersseeiftheycanrunamilein6minutesorless.

Valueitshealth Value Peopleexercisetoloseweightortostrengthenthebenefitsstrengthen theheart.

Inspiredtodoso Possible self Peoplewatchothersexercisingandbecomesinspiredtodothesame.

Astandardof Achievement Snowskiersracetothebottomofthemountaintryingtobeattheirexcellence strivings previousbesttime.

Satisfactionfrom Perceived competenceAsexercisersmakeprogress,theyfeelmorecompetent,moreeffective.ajobwelldone Anemotionalkick Opponent process Vigorousjoggingcanproducearunner’shigh(areboundtothepain).

Goodmood Positive affect Beautifulweathercanpickupexercisers’moodsandinvigorateexercise spontaneously,astheyskipalongwithoutknowingwhy.

Alleviateguilt Introjection Peopleexercisebecausetheythinkthatiswhattheyshould,oughtto,or havetodotofeelgoodaboutthemselves.

Relievestress Personal control Afterastressfulday,peoplegotothesilencedepressiongym,whichthey seeasastructured,controllableenvironment.

Hangoutwithfriends Relatedness Exerciseisoftenasocialevent,atimesimplytoenjoyhangingoutwith friends.

Table1.1MotivationalReasonstoExercise

Whatcausesbehavior?

“Why did she do that?” “Why do people do what they do?”

Whydoesbehaviorvaryinitsintensity?

“Why does a person behave one way in a particular situation at one time yet behave in a different way at another time?”

“What are the motivational differences among individuals, and how do such differences arise?”

Two Perennial Questions

What starts behavior?

How is behavior sustained over time?

Why is behavior directed toward some ends but away from others?

Why does behavior change its direction?

Why does behavior stop?

Specificquestionsthatconstitute

thecoreproblemstobesolvedin

motivationstudy

Needs

Cognition

Emotions

External events

Thesubjectmatterofmotivationconcernsthoseprocessesthatgivebehavioritsenergyanddirection.

Thefourprocessescapableofgivingbehaviorstrengthandpurpose—itsenergyanddirection—

Motivation

Internal Motives External Motives

Needs Cognition Emotions

Hierarchy of the Four Sources of Motivation

Figure 1. 2

Behavior Brain &

Physiology Activations

Self-report Engagement

Attention

Effort

Latency

Persistence

Choice

Probability of response

Facial expressions

Bodily gestures

Behavioral Expressions of Motivation

.

Engagement

BehavioralEngagement

EmotionalEngagement

CognitiveEngagement Voice

• Attention • Effort • Persistence

• Interest • Enjoyment • Low Anger • Low Frustration

• Sophisticated Learning Strategies • Active Self-Regulation

• Offers Suggestions • Makes Contributions • Asks Questions

Four Interrelated Aspects of engagement

Figure 1.3

Brain activity Activationofbrainstructuressuchastheamygdala(fear)or prefrontalcortex(settinggoals).

Hormonal activity Chemicalsinsalivaorblood,suchascortisol(stress)or catecholamines(fight‑or‑flightreaction).

Cardiovascular Contractionandrelaxationoftheheartandbloodvesselsactivity (attractiveincentives,difficult/challengingtasks).

Ocular activity Eyebehavior—pupilsize(extentofmentalactivity),eyeblinks (changingcognitivestates),andeyemovements(reflective thought).

Electrodermal Electricalchangesonthesurfaceoftheskin(expressionofthreatactivity orstimulussignificance).

Skeletal activity Activityofthemusculature,aswithfacialexpressions(specific emotion)andbodilygestures(desiretoleave).

Brain & Physiological Activity as Expressions of Motivation

Table 1.3

Themes in the Study of Motivation

Typesofmotivationexist.

Motivationincludesbothapproachand

avoidancetendencies.

Motives vary over time & Influence The Ongoing Stream of Behavior

EnvironmentalEvent

ArousedMotive

Motive‐RelevantCourseofAction

Motive’sUrgencyAttention‐GettingStatus

Book Interest Readchapter. *Cola Thirst Drinkbeverage. *Familiar Voices Affiliation Talkwithfriends. ***Headache Painavoidance Takeaspirin. *****Lack Of Sleep Rest Liedown,nap. *Upcoming Competition

Achievement Practiceskill. **

Table1.4HowMotivesInfluenceBehaviorforaStudentSittingataDesk

Note:Thenumberofasterisksincolumn4representstheintensityofthearousedmotive.Oneasteriskdenotesthelowestintensitylevel,whilefiveasterisksdenotethehighestintensitylevel.

Motivation is a dynamic process-always changing, always rising and falling— rather than a discrete event or static condition.

Figure 1.4 Stream Of Behavior And The Changes In The Strength Of

Its Underlying Motives

Antecedent Conditions

Motive Status

Sense of “Wanting to”

Urge to Approach vs.

Avoid

Energizing & Directing

•  Behavior

•  Engagement

•  Physiology

•  Self-Report

Needs Cognitions Emotions

Framework To Understand The Study Of Motivation

Figure1.5

PracticalProblem

GivenWhatIknowAboutHumanMotivation&Emotion

ProposedSolution/Intervention,ifany

*Studentdropout

*MediocrePerformance

*Theories

*Empiricalfindings

*Practicalexperience

*DoIhaveastrongreasontobelievethatmyproposedinterventionwillproduce

positivebenefits?

*Donoharm

Using Motivational Theories to Solve Practical Problems

Framing The Practical Problem: Understanding The Motivational Agent

What is the phenomena?

What is its opposite?

Where does it come from?

Is it malleable or fixed?

What does it related to, or predict?

Identifying the motivational agent underlying the problem (e.g., goals, efficacy, or helplessness)

Theoretical Understanding of Problem

to Be solved: Theory

Why does it work?

How does it work? (Draw a diagram)

How does it change? What causes it to change?

Under what conditions does it change?

Where do high and low levels come from?

Theory: Set of variables and a specification of how they related to one another

End of Chapter 1