Post on 09-Jul-2020
transcript
Commonwealth of Australia
Copyright Act 1968
Notice for paragraph 135ZXA (a) of the Copyright Act 1968
Warning
This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of Charles Sturt University under Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).
The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act.
Do not remove this notice.
Reading Description:
Hamilton, C. (2014). Conflict, culture, and relationships. In Communicating for results : a guide for business and the professions (10th ed.) (pp. 65-107). Boston, MA. : Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Reading Description Disclaimer:
(This reference information is provided as a guide only, and may not conform to the required referencing standards for your subject)
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
©India Picture!Corbis
C NF IC , C LTURE,
types of conflict and strategies for managing conflict in the workplace; explain when each strategy works best.
individualistic and col/ectivistic cultures and lowcontext and high-context cultures; explain how different cultures view and react to conflict.
the role that interpersonal relationships play in organizational success.
AND RELATIONSHIPS
your personal communication style by taking the Survey of Communication Styles, both long and short forms, discussed in this chapter.
the terms clear expectations, reciprocal relationships, self-fulfilling prophecy, and trust cycles, and explain what role each plays in developing and maintaining relationships.
the four main communication styles typically used in the workplace and summarize tips for relating with people of different styles.
65
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
111 m m m m m m e1 m m m 111 m m m m l!l !li' m
• Today is my last day at Goldman Sachs. After almost 12 years
• at the firm-first as a summer intern while at Stanford, then • in New York for 10 years, and now in London-1 believe I have
• worked here long enough to understand the trajectory of its • culture, its people and its identity. And I can honestly say that
the environment now is as toxic and destructive as I have • ever seen it.
To put the problem in the simplest terms, the interests
• of the client continue to be sidelined in the way the firm oper-• ates and thinks about making money. Goldman Sachs is one of
the world's largest and most important investment banks and
it is too integral to global finance to continue to act this way.
• The firm has veered so far from the place I joined right out
of college that I can no longer in good conscience say that I
• identify with what it stands for.
lt might sound surprising to a skeptical public, but •
culture was a lways a vital part of Goldman Sachs's success.
lt revolved around teamwork, integrity, a spirit of humi l-· • ity, and always doing right by our cl ients. The culture was
• the secret sauce that made this place great and a l lowed
us to earn our cl ients' trust for 143 years. lt wasn't just
about making money; this alone will not sustain a firm for • so long. lt had something to do with pride and belief in the
• organization. I am sad to say that I look around today and
• see virtual ly no trace of the culture that made me love •
working for this firm for many years. I no longer have the • pride, or the belief.
But this was not always the case. For more than a
decade I recruited and mentored candidates through our • grueling interview process. I was selected as one of 10
people (out of a firm of more than 30,000) to appear on our
recruiting video, which is played on every col lege campus
• we visit around the world. In 2006 I managed the summer
intern program in sales and trading in New York for the 80
• college students who made the cut, out of the thousands
who applied.
I knew it was time to leave when I realized I could no
longer look students in the eye and tell them what a great • place this was to work ....
How did we get here? The firm changed the way it • thought about leadership. Leadership used to be about ideas,
llt i!J ll m !ll lil lll lll 'l!l !ll i! m ll'l m m l!l ll lll ill lJ !!I ll l!l M! Iil lll m m m
l'ia Getty Images
setting an example, and doing the right thing. Today, if you
make enough money for the firm (and are not currently an ax
murderer) you will be promoted into a position of influence.
What are three quick ways to become a leader? a) Ex
ecute on the firm's "axes," which is Goldman-speak for
persuading your cl ients to invest in the stocks or other
products that we a re trying to get rid of because they
a re not seen as having a lot of potential profit. b) "Hunt
Elephants." In Engl ish: get your clients-some of whom are
sophisticated, and some of whom aren't-to trade what
ever will bring the biggest profit to Goldman. Call me old
fashioned, but I don't l ike sel l ing my cl ients a product that
is wrong for them. c) Find yourself sitting in a seat where
your job is to trade any i l l iqu id , opaque product with a
three-letter acronym ....
lt astounds me how little senior management gets a ba
sic truth: If clients don't trust you they will eventually stop do
ing business with you. lt doesn't matter how smart you are ....
*This is a shortened version of the resignation letter by Sachs executive director Greg Smith that appeared on page A27 of the New York Times on
March 14, 2012. 66
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
I hope this can be a wake-up call to the board of direc
tors. Make the client the focal point of your business again.
Without clients you wil l not make money. In fact, you will
not exist. Weed out the morally bankrupt people, no mat
ter how much money they make for the firm. And get the
culture right again, so people want to work here for the
right reasons. People who care only about making money •
wil l not sustain this firm-or the trust of its cl ients-for very •
much longer.
Greg Smith is resigning today (March 14, 2012) as a Go/dman •
Sachs executive director and head of the firm's United States eq
uity derivatives business in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.
1 m D lll li ii D IIJ m !!I 111 111 m Ill: 111 il lll lll ll m 1!1 11 18 11 • lll lil lll l!l a m m m m m u m lB w • Bl lll ll!l llf UJ ill m 111 lll lll lil lll ll lll m 11
areas of importance that affect organizations in the workplace, regardless of their size or the organization model they prefer, are conflict, cultural differences, and interpersonal relationships. Employees who han
dle conflict positively, realize that cultural differences add variety and depth to decisions and products, and develop and maintain strong interpersonal relationships with their bosses, coworkers, and customers are more productive and have a higher level of employee satisfaction. Lack of employee satisfaction was apparent from the resignation letter by Sachs executive director Greg Smith presented in this chapter's case study. As we discuss tips for handling conflict, cultural differences, and interpersonal relationships, see if you can apply them to the information presented in Smith's letter as well as to your own personal work experiences.
MANAGING CONFLICTS IN THE WORKPLACE Conflict is impossible to avoid. Whenever we deal with individuals or teams for any length of time, some kind of conflict is sure to occur. According to a survey conducted in 2000, "handling conflicts and managing workplace relationships were the issues that most seriously threatened productivity" (Murtha, 2005, p. 42) . Fortunately, if managed effectively, conflict can result in improved team relationships, communication, and productivity ( Chen, Liu, & Tjosvold, 2005; Frantz & Jin, 1995) . The discussion of conflict will begin by looking at two types of conflict, then move on to five conflict strategies and how to use each. To compare U.S. responses to conflict with strategy preferences of other countries see the section on "Cultural Differences in the Workplace;' below.
Teams experience two basic types of conflict: A-type and C-type (Amason et al., 1995). A-type conflict is relationship conflict and sidetracks the team from the issues and creates defensiveness and anger; the A stands for affective (emotional). C-type conflict is task conflict and improves team productivity and relationships and creates a feeling of satisfaction; the C stands for cognitive. Although it seems obvious that teams should strive for C-type and avoid A-type, it's not as easy as it sounds. If team members have a strong relationship and trust each other, C-type conflict works well. During cognitive conflict, team members are open to serious debate and disagreement on the issues. They come prepared to support their 67
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
ideas with facts, experiences, and solutions but don't take it personally when someone disagrees with them. A basic ground rule for successful C-type conflict is "ideas are separate from the person:' Another ground rule is that feedback that is often in the form of a question should be descriptive (tactfully honest and objective), not evaluative (judgmental and accusatory); see Chapter 1 for more details. Comments might include "How will this design work for someone in a wheelchair?" or "This idea is a good start to our problem; can it be designed to stay in our limited budget?" C-type groups can experience negative conflict occasionally; when this happens, one of the conflict strategies discussed in the next section can be used.
When team members do not have a strong relationship and trust is weak, A-type conflict will likely occur, especially when group members are emotionally attached to the topic. In affective conflict, members may
feel awkward giving and receiving feedback, and disagreements often become personal with people getting angry or avoiding comments entirely. When anger occurs, it distracts us from "relevant cognitive processing" (Zillmann, 1 994) . And, of course, making no comments at all is nonproductive. Feedback in A-type conflict tends to be evaluative, and cornments might include "You apparently have no compassion for people in wheelchairs" or "You obviously haven't looked at our budget careful�y enough-that design will be way too expensive!" or "No one likes my idea, as usual:'
Teams with A-type conflict spend most of their energy dealing with emotions instead of solving complex problems and arriving at innovative ideas.
Daniel Acker/Bloom/Jerg l'ia Gctty Images Although the conflict strategies dis-cussed next might help, the chance that
A-type teams will be productive is slim unless definite steps are taken to provide change. Suggestions include bringing in a new leader from outside the team, replacing some of the members with people who work well with C-type conflict, or providing relationship and trust-building training for the team (the last one probably has the best chance of working) . An excellent story of how this can be done is included in The Five Dysfunctions of a Team by Patrick Lencioni (2002) .
Take a moment and think how you typically handle conflict. When conflict occurs, are you more likely to (a) withdraw from it, (b) give in to others' wishes, (c) implement compromise, (d) convince others your way is best, or
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
::!:::: Q) Vl L... 0 -c L... Q) u c 0 u I
Ill Ill IV !: IV .�
-'-(!j VI VI <(
(j) > -+-'
'(j) Vl Vl <{
(j) > -+-'
'(j) Vl Vl m c
::l
F IGURE 3.1
Uncooperative
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONS H I PS 1 69
Accommodating
Cooperative
Cooperativeness-concern for others
Conflict styles Adapted from K. W. Thomas (1992). Conflict and Conflict Management: Reflections and Update. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, pp. 265-274.
(e) search for a solution agreeable to all? Each of these methods of handling conflict is called a conflict strategy. Figure 3 . 1 illustrates these five strategies of avoidance, accommodation, compromise, competition, and collaboration (Kilmann & Thomas, 1975; Rahim & Magner, 1 995; see also Thomas, 1992a, 1992b ). Other researchers use slightly different terms. For example, in their well-known conflict grid, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1985) refer to the five strategies as withdrawal, smoothing, compromising, forcing, and problem solving. Compromise may be used by communicators of any style; the other four strategies correspond to specific communication styles to be discussed at the end of this chapter.
As Figure 3 . 1 illustrates, the way you deal with conflict depends on the extent of your concern for self (low to high assertiveness) and for others (low to high cooperativeness). Which of the following methods ofhandling conflict best describes the way you typically resolve conflict? The way your manager, employees, or team resolve conflict?
Avoiding/Withdrawal By employing the avoiding strategy, this person:
• Feels equally little concern for others and for self; places low value on both assertiveness and cooperation.
• Maintains neutrality at all costs; views conflict as a worthless and punishing experience.
• Removes self either physically or mentally from groups experiencing any type of conflict; stays away from any situation that might possibly produce conflict.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Accommodating/Smoothing By employing the accommodating strategy, this person:
Feels a higher concern for others than for self and, therefore, values cooperation over assertiveness.
• Views open conflict as destructive; gives in to the will of others when necessary.
• Believes that surface harmony is important to maintain good relationships and receive personal acceptance; tries to smooth over or ignore conflicts in an attempt to keep everyone happy.
Compromising By employing the compromising strategy, this person:
• Takes a middle-of-the-road stance on assertiveness and cooperation and believes that a high-quality solution is not as important as a workable or agreeable solution.
• Views conflict as solvable but uses voting and other methods of compromise as a way to avoid direct confrontation.
• Tries to find a solution that everyone can live with, although all parties must sacrifice something important to reach a compromise. Usually views compromise as a second, backup choice.
Competing/Forcing By employing the competing strategy, this person:
• Views personal goals as much more important than the goals of others; therefore, values assertiveness (even force when necessary) over cooperation.
• Views conflict as a win-lose situation or as a contest of power: One person must fail so the other can succeed; compromise is not acceptable.
• Has great respect for power and will submit to arbitration only because the arbitrator's power is greater.
Collaborating/Problem Solving By employing the collaborating strategy, this person:
• Gives equal consideration to others and self; values high cooperation and assertiveness.
• Views conflict as beneficial if handled openly; lays all cards on the table. • Guides groups through the basic problem-solving procedure (see
Chapter 9). • Attempts to reach a consensus; willing to spend a great deal of time and
effort to achieve consensus.
Although individuals (regardless of their cultural background) may use any of the preceding methods to resolve conflict, it is interesting to note that Western cultures (like the United States and Canada) often select strategies different from those of Eastern cultures (like Japan, China, and Taiwan) when solving conflict (Ting-Toomey et al., 1 991) . Ting-Toomey ( 1988) found that competition was preferred by Americans, accommodation by the Chinese, and avoidance by the Taiwanese.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE, AND R ELATIONSHIPS j T
When selecting a conflict strategy for a specific situation, consider (a) the strategy you feel the most comfortable using, (b) the strategy your organization or team prefers, and (c) the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy. Each conflict strategy is productive in some cases and best avoided in others (Amason, 1996; Conrad & Poole, 2012; Thomas, 1992a, 1992b). In the words of Johnston and Gao (2009), "No one seems to benefit if they stick to one style" (p. 106)meaning that to achieve the best results, different situations require different methods of conflict resolution.
Avoiding Avoiding (withdrawal) may be the best response to conflict when:
The issue is trivial. * Power relationships make successful resistance impossible. ® Parties lack the communication skills necessary to prevent destructive
escalations. ® Potential losses from an open conflict outweigh potential gains. • There is insufficient time to gather needed information or to work through
the issue adequately (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 323).
The drawback to handling conflict by avoidance is that the confrontation is usually only delayed or transferred to another issue.
Accommodating Accommodating (smoothing) may be the best response to conflict when:
• The issue is minor. • The damage to the relationship would harm both parties. • A temporary reduction in conflict is needed to give time for additional
research or information. • Tempers are too hot for productive discussion.
The drawback to handling conflict by accommodation is that it solves the problem only temporarily; it's like putting a bandage on a cut that requires stitches.
Competing Competing (forcing) may be the best response to conflict when:
• A decision or action must be immediate. • The parties in the conflict expect and appreciate the force and power neces
sary in a win-lose situation. • The combatants recognize the power relationship between themselves.
The drawbacks to handling conflict by force are (a) the real cause of the conflict is usually not resolved, and (b) the solution may be only temporary; when the losers gain more power, they may reinstate the conflict.
Compromising Compromising may be the best response to conflict when:
Both parties stand to gain. • An "ideal" or "quality" solution is not required.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
71 1 COMMUNICA Tl NG FOR R ESUlTS' A GUIDE fOR BUSINESS AND T H E P ROfESSIONS
If managed effectively, conflict can result in improved group communication and productivity.
Time is short. • A temporary solution is needed for a corn
plex problem (with a problem-solving discussion held later to determine the best solution).
• The parties in the conflict are equals.
The drawbacks to handling conflict by compromise are that everyone loses something and the best solution is probably not reached.
Collaborating Collaborating (problem solving) may be the best response to conflict when:
• Members are trained in problem solving. * The parties have common goals that require
everyone's cooperation. • The conflict has arisen from misunderstandings or communication break
down and parties are willing to reframe their conflict in a new manner. • The conflict occurs during a crisis.
One drawback to collaboration is that it may not be successful when the parties have different values or goals. For example, a person who feels that conflict should be resolved in a competitive manner has goals and values completely opposed to the "everyone wins" view of the collaborator. Another drawback to the collaboration is that it usually takes longer to achieve than other strategies.
One final thought about choosing the best conflict strategy comes from Raymond Friedman and his colleagues (Friedman et al., 2000) whose research combined A-type (task) and C-type (affective or relationship) conflict with conflict strategies. They found that:
• Collaborating reduces both C-type conflict and A-type conflict. However, because C-type conflict usually creates A-type conflict, it must be handled carefully. Simons and Peterson (2000) suggest that high levels of trust can keep A-type conflict from developing when group members are emotionally involved in the task outcome.
• Avoiding and competing increase C-type conflict, which almost always results in an increase in A-type conflict as well.
• Accommodating decreases A-type conflict and the stress that goes with it; however, because people who use this strategy do not assert their own needs, C-type conflict remains.
The five conflict strategies discussed above can be divided among three categories according to type of outcome (Gelfand, et al., 2010; Weaver, 1984):
• Win-lose. Only one party achieves objective. Competition and voting are examples of the win-lose category. Organizations that use these methods
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CUlTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS j 13
view conflict resolution as open confrontation in a setting resembling a battle or war.
® Lose-lose. Neither party achieves their objective, or both get only a small part of what they wanted. Compromise, arbitration, accommodation, and avoidance are examples of the lose-lose category. Even in compromise situations, no one gets exactly what they wanted-therefore, everyone loses something. Organizations that use these methods view conflict as a dangerous thing and tend to avoid or ignore conflict when at all possible.
® Win-win. All parties receive acceptable gains. Collaboration and consensus are examples of the win-win category. Organizations that use these methods view conflict resolution as a normal, collaborative procedure that occurs openly. Southwest Airlines uses collaboration and views it as a way to learn and build relationships (Gittell, 2005, p. 1 13) .
Although all of these strategies can be used to handle conflict, the most productive and satisfying over the long run is usually collaboration (Friedman et al., 2000; Thomas, 1992b) . The collaborating problem solver (who values both assertiveness and cooperation) helps the group reach a consensus; that is, all members agree to accept a specific decision even though some members originally preferred a different choice. They agree to this final decision either because they have come to like it better than their original choice or because they feel that their original choice, although not selected, was given a fair hearing.
Of course, sometimes it is impossible to reach a consensus. But keep in mind that settling for just any solution could be worse than reaching no solution. If the group seems to have reached a stalemate-that is, if collaboration appears impossible-try the following procedure before yielding to compromise or force:
1 . Clarify the situation. Include such comments as "We seem to have reached an impasse. Further discussion along the same lines would be a waste of time. Let's try a new approach:'
2. Urge the person or group to set the two conflicting solutions aside temporarily and to pretend they do not exist.
3. Guide the person or group to seek new solutions through brainstorming or the two-step nominal group technique. (The rules for these procedures are covered in Chapter 9.) Once a new list has been created, work with the person or group to evaluate these solutions and select the best one.
4. Finally, join the person or group in comparing the original two solutions with the new solution to see which of the three is now the best. Often, the new solution is more creative and effective than either of the original conflicting solutions and is selected as the new best solution.
This four-step procedure is not a compromise because no concessions are required to reach a consensus agreement. The discussants believe that the new solution is better than the original solutions and usually wonder why they didn't think of it sooner. If a consensus is still not possible, the conflict will have to be resolved by another method-perhaps compromise, mediation, or even force.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Tom Selleck's character in the movie Mr. Baseball, is an excellent example of communication problems that can occur when different cultures with little understanding of the other try to interact. Selleck plays Jack Elliot-a base-
Global teams don't always view conflict in the same way as Western teams. Even so, C-type conflict is possible.
ball player with an attitude-who is unex
::J pectedly traded by the New York Yankees
.f to a Japanese team, the Chunichi Dragons £' in Tokyo. Selleck shows up in Japan know'-' >:: ing nothing about the Japanese culture; he .� � is unaware of the ritual of exchanging busi-j ness cards, shows no respect for elders,
6 rebuffs attempts at friendship, and makes � inappropriate jokes. He has no idea how to
communicate with the Japanese players and, at first, doesn't really care. Thr,ough many humorous situations, the movie shows how Selleck learns to understand and respect the Japanese culture while becoming a better player with a future in baseball. Two other movies with similar communication problems are Gung Ho, in which the character played by Michael Keaton flies to Japan to try to persuade a Japanese company to invest in a joint venture to save a failing automobile assembly factory in Pennsylvania. and Lost in Translation, 'in which the character played by Bill Murray visits Tokyo to film a commercial and experiences a variety of communication problems.
Not all cultures view the conflict and conflict strategies discussed earlier in the same way. In fact, it's probably safe to say that no two cultures (even those within our own country) are identical in how they view conflict and conflict resolution. Yet, understanding these differences, as well as similarities, is crucial to business and team success. It would be impossible to discuss every culture's differences, but we can identify several similarities and differences by looking at three dimensions: individualistic-collectivistic cultures, lowcontext-high-context cultures, and monochromic-polychromic cultures.
Western cultures like the United States tend to be individualistic cultures because the individual and individual rights are valued more highly than group identity or group rights. Asian cultures like Japan tend to be collectivistic cultures because they put more value on group membership, group obligations, and group goals than on the individual. Individualistic cultures are problem-oriented; collectivistic cultures are more relationship-oriented. Individualistic cultures value autonomy,
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
United States 91 India
Australia 90 Argentina
Great Britain 89 Japan
Canada 80 I ran
Netherlands 80 Brazil
New Zealand 79 Greece
Italy 76 Phil ippines
Denmark 74 Mexico
Sweden 71 Portugal
France 71 Hong Kong
Switzerland 68 Chi le
Germany 67 Thailand
South Africa 65 Taiwan
Finland 63 Peru
Austria 55 Pakistan
Israel 54 Colombia
Spain 51 Venezuela
*Higher scores are more individualistic; lower scores are more collectivistic.
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 75
48
46
46
41
38
35
32
30
27
25
23
20
17
16
14
13
12
Source: Geert Hofstede, Gert fan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Third Revised Edition, McGrawHill2010, ISBN 0-07-166418-1. ©Geert Hofstede B. V. quoted with permission.
assertiveness, and democracy and prefer competing strategies ( Croucher et al., 2012; Triandis, 1995), although they also use collaborating and compromising to solve problems. Collectivistic cultures value empathy and listening and prefer avoiding and accommodating strategies to preserve friendships and save face for themselves and others (Choi, 1991; Croucher et al., 2012; Morris, et al., 1994). Notice in Table 3 .1 (which includes a list of countries and an individualistic score for each on a lOO-point scale) that the United States, Australia, Great Britain, and Canada rank the highest on individualism while Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan, and Peru rank the lowest and are, therefore, more collectivistic.
The second dimension that enriches our understanding of cultural differences deals with high and low context (Hall, 1 976; Hall & Hall, 1 990). Context does not refer to the words in a message; it is defined as "the information that surrounds an event" (Hall & Hall, 1 990, p. 6) . Ting-Toomey (2000) notes that people who communicate with low-context messages tend to come from individualistic cultures; people whose messages are high-context tend to come from collectivistic cultures. In low-context cultures, messages are clearly spelled out-that is, they are direct and explicit. It is the speaker's responsibility to
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via GetfJ' Images
make sure the meaning is provided by the words and to be well organized and structured. The person's gestures, facial expressions, status, and so on may add subtle meaning but are not considered to be of major importance. On the other hand, high-context cultures rely only minimally on spoken words that tend to be brief, indirect, and implicit. Words have the power to hurt, so they are used very carefully (Cohen, 1991). This is the reason high-context nations like Japan find it hard to say and receive a direct "no:' It seems like the person, not the idea, is being rejected (Stefani et al., 1997). Therefore, disagreeing publicly causes loss of face and is considered rude and immature. Instead of the speaker, it is the receiver's responsibility to determine the meaning-usually from the setting, the speaker's face and nonverbal gestures, the speaker's friends, family background, age, status, silence, and so on. High-context cultures are
homogeneous, tightly bound by experiences, family, and tradition; messages and responses are basically consistent (Hofstede, 2001; Samovar & Porter, 2004).
Companies or individuals who design websites for international audiences should note the finding by Usunier and Roulin (2010), who analyzed 597 websites in 57 countries: Global websites designed using a high-context communication style were generally harder to locate using a search engine, were more difficult to navigate and read, provided less information about products and prices, were less effective when using colors and graphics, and
had fewer opportunities for interaction than low-context websites (pp. 214-217). Even so, websites designed from a low-content perspective still need to implement different -language versions "to make full use of the Internet as a global communication tool for doing business worldwide" (p. 222).
The third dimension that enriches our understanding of cultural differences deals with the time dimension called monochromic-polychromic. Monochromic (m-time) cultures, such as those in the United States, Switzerland, and Germany, view time as a "scarce resource which must be rationed and controlled through the use of schedules and appointments" (Smith & Bond, 1994, p. 149), "Saving" time is good; "wasting" time is not. When a business meeting is set for a specific time, people from m-time cultures will do their best to be "on time" and may even be early. They want to get right down to business and will likely view people who are "late" and/ or want to socialize before beginning the meeting as "time wasters:' People from m-time cultures are likely to thank you for your "time" when you do a favor for them.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS
On the other hand, polychromic (p-time) cultures, such as those in African, Arabic, Asian, and Latin American countries, see "the maintenance of harmonious relationships as the important thing, so that the use of time needs to be flexible in order that we do right by the various people to whom we have obligations" (Smith & Bond, 1 994, p. 149) . "Saving" time is not as important in these cultures, where arriving late is expected and rarely deserves an apology. P-time people generally feel the need to get to know you and even socialize before starting a meeting. M-time relates closely to low-context, individualistic cultures, whereas p-time corresponds more to high-context, collectivistic cultures. Of course, not everyone in a particular culture views time in the same way, which is probably a source of irritation to their colleagues and friends.
So, what do these three dimensions tell us about how different cultures handle conflict? The preceding information is summarized in Table 3 .2, which includes important cultural assumptions about conflict. Research continues to support these assumptions. For example, research by Croucher et al. (2012) found that India and Thailand-both high-context countries-preferred handling conflict by withdrawing and accommodating whereas the United States and Ireland showed a preference for competing, collaborating, and compromising.
Remember that the information in this section should be used as a starting point only; behaviors vary greatly within each country. As more and more cornparries expand into other nations, we are likely to experience intercultural conflict. Individualistic, low-context team members need to be aware that solving intercultural conflicts requires some careful reframing such as, "It is not a conflict that is resolved but a relationship that is mended" (Cohen, 1991, p. 51) . Collectivistic, high-context team members also need careful reframing, such as "It is not just a relationship that was mended but a conflict that was resolved:' Chen, Liu, and Tjosvold (2005) indicated that Chinese management teams, rather than avoiding
• Conflict viewed from "problem-solving " model. • Conflict viewed from "face-maintenance" model.
• Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional. • Conflict is mainly dysfunctional.
• Conflict is dysfunctional when not confronted openly.
• Conflict shows lack of self-discipline and emotional immaturity and is cause for ]
"' embarrassment and distress. � !���������-��-�����-��--�----·----�------·---------��.���
• Conflict is functional and exciting when it • Conflict, when forced upon one, provides � provides open opportunity to solve problems. testing g round for skillful "facework." �
""' •. �
C�o
�nt
�e
�xt
�u
-'a·l--a
�n
�d
c.cr._e_l�at
�io--
n�a�l
�is
�su
·-�e
�s
�s
�ho
�u�l d�
be��+�
. �C
�o
�nt
�e�x-'tu
-a
�1 a
�n-d
�r
�e
�1 a
�ti�o�na
�l
�fa
�c
-e-is�s-u
�es
-a-
r�e�-1 ·�
>-1 handled separately. intertwined. � i2" • Conflict should be handled openly and directly. • Conflict should be handled discreetly and subtly. <.':l
Source: Ting-Toomey, S. (2000), Managing Intercultural Conflicts Effectively. In L. A Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (9th ed., pp. 388-400). Belmont, CA: Wads worth; Stefani, L. A, Samovar, L. A, & Hellweg, S. A (1997), "Culture and Its Impact on Negotiation." In L. A Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (8th ed., pp. 307-317). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
@
L
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
781 COMMUNICA liNG FOR RESULTSo A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFFSSI ONS
conflict as many collectivistic countries do, have learned to approach conflict in a cooperative manner.
Regardless of the culture, team members could improve communication by using the following tips from Hall (2002):
Realize that there is more than one reasonable position in a conflict. • Look for the "trigger" to the conflict (triggers are "small acts or comments
that push already difficult situations into open conflict;' p. 255). Use storytelling as a way to talk about conflict when a direct approach is undesirable.
• Use a neutral third party to mediate really serious conflicts.
INTE PERSONAL RELATI NSHIPS IN THE
Conflict and culture definitely affect the success of organizations in the workplace. But just as important to success are the development and maintenance of relationships, which are mutual liking and interests between people. Regardless of your status in it, your organization's success is influenced by the quality of your relationships with your coworkers (Williams, 201 1), supervisors, and customers. The quality of employee relationships affects (a) job satisfaction, (b) trust, (c) ability to meet others' communication needs, (d) absenteeism and turnover, (e) creativity and innovation, (f) productivity, and (g) commitment to and knowledge of the organization (Conrad & Poole, 2012, pp. 142-146; Feeley et al., 2008; Yager, 1997).
The quality of supervisors' relationships is equally important. Studies conclude that 40% of newly hired managers remain less than 18 months in their jobs mainly because of their "failure to build good relationships with peers and subordinates" (Fisher, 1998, p. 3) . Managerial characteristics that are important to "high-quality" boss-subordinate relationships include praise, understanding, trust, friendliness, honesty, and openness to subordinates' disagreement (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 1 1 ) . The need for strong interpersonal relationships is especially important in the new organization models-the multiunit and the virtual organizations-in which electronic commerce, globalization, cyberspace offices, and constant change can cause employees to feel both physically and emotionally isolated. In Organizational Communication, Eisenberg, Goodall, and Trethewey (2010) note the following:
It is highly likely that the development of virtual teams will increase exponentially with the development of more realistic telepresence and absorption of younger people into the workplace . . . . From an employee perspective, members of the "millennial" generation are much more comfortable than their predecessors with multitasking and multiple, mediated forms of communication. (p. 218)
Although technology-driven organizations often believe that the key to success is the number of messages sent, the key is actually using the media to build relationships and trust (Tapscott, Tiscoll, & Lowy, 2000), which in turn affects our work environments and may even influence our lives at home. Research analyzed up to 1991 concluded that job satisfaction spills over into life
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, ANO RELATIONSH I PS j 79
satisfaction (Rain, Lane, & Steiner, 1991). Thus, you need to be careful in selecting the organization for which you work because its atmosphere can directly affect your communication style, your relationships, and your communication behavior. Likewise, the organization must be careful about the type of person it hires because the way employees relate to others can affect the organization's communication success and even its culture, as Southwest Airlines indicated in the discussion in Chapter 2.
The strong, lasting relationships that we develop with people at work (or anywhere, for that matter) fulfill a need for us. As long as the relationships are mutually satisfying, they will endure; if not, they will deteriorate. In developing and maintaining relationships, it is important to keep in mind several relationship keys, which include expectations, the reciprocal nature of relationships, trust, and technology.
Make Expectations Clear Every person in a relationship has certain expectations of other people and the job. If employers, employees, and even customers make their expectations clear from the start, job satisfaction and quality relationships have a better chance of developing (Chell & Tracey, 2005). For example, if we join an organization expecting a warm, social working environment but find a task -oriented, no-talking environment, we are likely to react with frustration and anger, and the quality of our working relationships will deteriorate or never develop and we may leave the job or even get fired. This is illustrated by a UPS distribution center in Buffalo, New York, that had an unexplained turnover rate of 50% until they discovered the problem and took steps to solve it. The job was part-time with almost no chance for full-time employment, yet this information was not given to job candidates-most of whom were really looking for full-time employment. When they realized that their expectations couldn't be met by the warehouse job, they quit-sometimes after only a few weeks. Once the job was offered to people who really wanted part-time work (like students and mothers), the turnover rate dropped to 6% (Daft, 2008). Apparently, most of our "expectations remain unspoken until they are violated" (Kreps, 1990, p. 150) because we assume that others know our expectations, as well as what is expected of them, without being told. Also according to Kreps, not only do most expectations remain unspoken until violated, but also our expectations "continually change, making the potential for the fulfillment of these expectations less likely" (p. 150) .
Making expectations clear is also important in virtual organizations, where virtual team members and telecommuters are physically isolated from others. Email, instant messaging (IM), blogs, teleconferencing, and social networldng "enable 'virtual coworkers' to become 'virtual friends"' (Sias et al., 2002, p. 634). One woman who works on a virtual team said the following:
"We've had more challenges than your typical office team. However, we've also had advantages over other teams, including improved relationships and the ability to avoid endless, pointless meetings." (Carter-]ackson, n.d.)
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
80 j COMMUN ICA liNG fOR RESULTSo A GIIIOE fOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Make Use of the "Reciprocal Nature" of Relationships Interpersonal relationships are reciprocal-which means that a favor from one person is usually returned in kind. For example, if a coworker helps you with a problem, you will most likely "reciprocate" and help out the coworker at a later time. No one actually said, "If you help me, I'll help you;' but because of the reciprocal nature of relationships, "people communicate with others in accord with the way they perceive these others communicating with them'' (Kreps, 1990, p. 153). As long as we continue to reciprocate, the relationship will grow. On the other hand, if you do considerably more for me than I am able to do for you, the reciprocal quality of our relationship is out of balance, and the relationship will deteriorate or at least stagnate until the balance is restored.
Watch Out for Self-Fulfilling Prophecies When you predict that something will happen and it actually occurs, we call it a self-fulfilling prophecyour behavior helped ensure the outcome. For example, if a manager believes that a subordinate is dishonest or ineffective, the manager is likely to unknowingly communicate these feelings to the subordinate through verbal and nonverbal behaviors, such as unwarranted criticism, rejection of ideas, and unfriendly facial expressions. As a result, the subordinate picking up on these cues now realizes that the manager doesn't trust or like him or her and, therefore, hesitates to present new ideas or disclose full and honest information. Seeing this hesitancy, the manager now feels justified in his or her previous assessment -thus, the manager's expectations about the subordinate are fulfilled. Relationships are fragile enough without behaviors that contribute to self-fulfilling prophecies.
Maintain Mutual Trust and Respect Trust may be ·bile of the most important results of manager-employee relationships (Hubbell & ChoryAssad, 2005) . In their article, "Relationship Building in Small Firms;' Chell and Tracey (2005) found trust and mutual respect to be "an intangible bond that secures the relationship in the present and prospectively into the future" (p. 606) . High trust levels can be developed without a long acquaintance if the participants believe that the other is trustworthy based on such things as group membership, reputation, or information gained from a brief interaction about the other's intentions and motives (McKnight et al., 2006). This is fortunate because so many temporary and virtual teams must begin work immediately and have little time to spend developing trust. On the other hand, researchers have found that employees aren't necessarily feeling trust for their employers. For example, Kanter and Mirvis (1990) reported that 72% of employees felt their managers were taking advantage of them, and 66% believed their managers could not be trusted. To create trust in situations like this, relationship-building is a must.
Provide Feedback and Self-Disclosure When Appropriate Without feedback and disclosure, relationships would stagnate. Feedback includes the responses to others' messages in the form of information, opinions, and feelings; self-disclosure includes voluntarily revealing information, opinions, and feelings to others that they would not know otherwise. Too much or too little
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CUlTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS j 81
feedback can hurt communication and relationships, and too much or too little disclosure can hurt communication and relationships.
Guidelines for giving feedback to others as covered in Chapter 1 include that it should (a) be directed toward behavior rather than toward the person, (b) be descriptive rather than evaluative, (c) involve sharing ideas rather than giving advice, (d) include only as much information as the person can handle at one time, and (e) be well timed. Because an unusual interest in feedback may be viewed with suspicion by those who don't know you, move slowly, identify the specific type of feedback you want, and tell them why you want it. Remember also that you must accept any feedback in a positive manner. A negative or defensive response will convince others that sharing ideas with you is dangerous.
Although for most people disclosure is more difficult to use effectively than feedback, there are three important guidelines to follow:
• First, disclosure should be mutually shared. All people involved in the relationship must be willing to trust the others and to share openly with them. There is a reciprocal aspect to disclosure-the surest way to get others to disclose with you is to disclose with them. Disclosure normally results in trust and respect (Wheeless & Grotz, 1977), and people who trust each other are more likely to disclose (McAllister, 1980).
• Second, disclosure should be a gradual process. Most people don't disclose too much, they just disclose too soon. To maintain a good image when you are the new member of a team, you should begin with conservative disclosures. Relationships do not happen overnight. A truly open relationship may take months or years to develop fully. It would be a mistake to open up suddenly and dump your feelings on someone; the other person would probably wonder what game you were playing. Be cautious-lead up to disclosure slowly (Miell & Duck, 1986). Pay attention to others' nonverbal reactions. They will tell you if you are moving too fast or disclosing inappropriate information. Wait for your disclosures to be reciprocated before you disclose more.
• Third, communication is generally best at a moderate level of disclosure. High levels of disclosure occur in relatively few communication transactions (Bochner, 1984) and even less in the business environment (Pearce & Sharp, 1973). According to Gilbert (1976), the relationship between disclosure and satisfaction is a curvilinear relationship, meaning that satisfaction is low when disclosure is both low and high; it is best when disclosure is at a moderate level (Figure 3.2). Not all cultures view self-disclosure (even moderate disclosure) as a positive influence on relationships. For example, Chinese people tend to view disclosure as rude or in poor taste, whereas Japanese people often prefer to "put on a 'good face'" rather than risk displeasing another and may actually say yes when they really mean no (Caputo et al., 2000, p. 108).
Use Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) Carefully Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have changed the way people "foster relationships in organizations" (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 140) . Not only are personal relationships formed by using ICTs such as email, blogs,
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
821 COMMUNICATING fOR RESULTS' A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
c .� .... u Ill -.!!!
.... Ill V)
ib ::a
<)) 1;! .... <))
"d 0 :;s
;;:: 0
....:!
None Moderate Disclosure
High
FIGURE 3.2 Curvil inear relationship between satisfaction and disclosure
and social media, but in savvy organizations, employee-to-employee and employee-to-customer relationships are formed and maintained as well. Although ICTs will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6, it's important to mention here that using technology requires care. As mentioned earlier, online messages are generally less "rich'' than messages sent face to face. Although "the information exchanged via electronic media does not seem to be any more or less accurate than information exchanged through other media" '( Conrad & Poole, p. 140), it is easy to misinterpret the intent and tone of online messages. Also, online relationships take longer to develop than most face-to-face relationships, so be patient.
Strong interpersonal relationships are not only the heart of a successful organization but they are also the foundation of our own business successes. To mal<e relationships work, we need to understand our communication styles. Our communication styles affect relationships with bosses, coworkers, teams, and customers. Each of us has a distinct communication style that we feel the most comfortable using. Many professions and businesses also seem to have preferred communication styles. The strategies we use to solve conflict also depend on our communication styles .
In this section, we will look at four styles that managers, employees, and customers typically use when communicating: the private, dominant, sociable, and open styles. Few people are ever completely one style. Although a person may have some characteristics of all four styles, most people have one or sometimes two central styles they typically use when things are going well and another style (or styles) they use under stress. None of these styles is totally good or totally bad; each has its "best" and "worst" side.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
, Elder Relationships
A poll by "PBS NewsHour" found that 43% of Americans considered living in a nursing home "totally unacceptable"
' for themselves, and 45% felt that elders are actually worse off after moving into a nursing home (Dentzer, 2002).
• According to William Thomas, physician, author (1999 and 2004), and creator of Eden Alternative-the typical nurs
, ing home is "utterly devoid of hope, love, humor, [and] meaning" (Salter, 2002, para. 2). He claims that America's
• institutionalized elders who live in nursing homes resemble ' convicted criminals who live in our prisons (Bell, 2002, , para. 4).
What's the answer? "Relationships are the foundation of
• good health care," says Thomas (Bell, 2002). For relationships • to flourish, elders need a sanctuary that feels like home-a
place that is warm, uses smart technology, is connected with a green environment (Thomas, 2004, p. 221), and has
' a staff interested in relationships. Over 300 nursing homes and 15,000 care providers are now associated with Thomas's
' Garden of Eden approach, which includes well-treated, empowered staff who work in teams, elders who participate
' in personal and nursing-home operations when able, an environment that looks and smells like home (with personal
• furniture, home-baked bread, pets and children from the onsite day-care center), and an inviting garden full of flower and vegetable beds, benches, and shade trees (Bell, 2002; Eden
• Alternative, 2012; Thomas, 2004). Eden Alternative nursing
• homes provide an environment that encourages relationships. Does this approach work? Residents bloom in the new
homes (all the homes have long waiting lists), and research • shows significant drops in the overall number of drug
prescriptions, infection rates, pressure sores, behavioral • incidents, bedfast residents, and mortality rates (NCAOn
l ine.org, 2006; Eden Alternative, 2012; Thomas, 2004).
CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSIIIPS 1 83
Employees, who traditionally have been encouraged not to develop relationships with the residents, are also happy, as indicated by the staff motto at a home in South Bend, Indiana: "Our elders do not live in our facility. We work in their home" (EdenAit.com, 2006). One staff member expressed the value of relationships this way:
Today I had fried chicken and macaroni and cheese for lunch. lt made me miss my friend Foby. She almost made it to her 99th birthday, missing it by only five days . . . . When I held her hand in the hospital bed that last day, I thought how lucky I was to have known her. Five years ago, I would have never thought that I would so dearly love this woman who stuck out her tongue when you walked by and would never let anyone sit with her. Oh, what I would have lost out on. And maybe, just maybe, I gave a little back to her. (CultureChangeNow.com, 2006, para. 9)
Not only are good relationships the foundation of good health care, but they are also good for business. A registered Eden home in Michigan reported staff turnover and absenteeism drops of 75% and 60%, respectively, resulting in savings of approximately $100,000 (Steiner, 2004; Thomas, 2004). Although change is slow and a great deal of work remains, Eden homes seem to be a good alternative.
WHAT DO YOU THINK? • How does the success experienced by the Eden Alterna
tive nursing homes relate to the quality of communica-tion between the elders and the employees who care for , them?
• In general, which communication style should the employees use to communicate with the elderly patients receiving nursing home care? Why?
To communicate more successfully and establish more meaningful working relationships, employees need to (a) determine their personal communication styles, (b) understand the strength and weaknesses of each style, and (c) learn how to communicate effectively with people using styles different from their own (whether they are supervisors, coworkers, or customers).
You should realize that this classification system of four styles is not intended to serve as a method for stereotyping people but as a practical way of understanding your own and others' frames of reference. You will note that these styles are
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A G U I DE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Before reading further in this chapter, complete the following two surveys:
I. The Styles Survey
Short Form on page 85.
2. The Survey of Communi- •
cation Styles (both the Manager and Employee •
sections) located at the •
end of this chapter and •
on line at the CourseMate website for Corn- •
municating for Results •
was first created in 1981 and last updated in May 2011. When you take the survey, it will be automatically scored and plotted for you and will include the option to e-mail the results to your instructor.
very closely aligned with the organization models discussed in Chapter 2. As you read the following sections, remember that the descriptions of these styles are not perfect or even complete; rather, they describe tendencies. As such, I hope you will find them as helpful in your daily business and professional careers as my many students and business seminar participants have over the years.
Note that these four styles are a composite of several different styles approaches as listed in the footnote1 and do not mirror any of them exactly. I have attempted to alter any criticisms or weaknesses of these approaches and have developed a survey located at the end of this chapter to help you determine your main styles used as an employee and your main styles used as a manager. Waldherr and Muck (20 1 1) conducted a literature review of research on communication styles and concluded that two reliable dimensions stand out in the research so far-high and low assertiveness and high and low responsiveness. Although the dimensions used in the Survey of Communication Styles-Long Form use different terms-disclosure and feedback-they are similar in meaning. People who are high in assertiveness are more likely to disclose ·information and feelings, while people who are high in responsiveness are more likely to seek and reply to the feedback of others. The disclosure/assertiveness and the feedback/responsiveness dimensions have been combined in this edition as you can see in Figure 3.3.
When you complete the Survey of Communication Styles, you may find that you use the same style as an employee as you do as a manager, or you may
Low Feedback/ Responsiveness 1--
Low Disclosure/ Assertiveness
] .tl � �
� Private Sociable
.,;, .I
High Feedback/ � ----+-----------1 Responsiveness 15\, c§
Dominant Open
High Disclosure/ Assertiveness
@
FIGURE 3.3 ! Feedback/responsiveness and disclosure/assertiveness d imensions with communication styles
'The manager, employee, and customer styles presented in this section are a composite of Luft and Ingham's
(Luft, 1969) "JoHari window" concept; J. A. Hall's (1975) "interpersonal styles and managerial impacts;" Lefton's
(Lefton, Buzzotta, Sherberg, & Karraker, 1980) "management systems approach;" Bradford and Cohen's (1984) "manager-as-conductor" and "manager-as-developer" middle manager style;" and Merrill & Reid's (1981) "Social Style Model" (SSM). The final result is my own product and, therefore, does not parallel any of the other
approaches exactly.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 85 discover that you use a different style for each. This survey is especially helpful for teams and provides some excellent feedback that you can use to improve your communication with each other. You may want to ask your colleagues, boss, or team members to take the Survey of Communication Styles-Long Form located at the end of this chapter. It can also provide some interesting feedback for spouses, significant others, or family members as well.
When you complete the Long Form survey please note:
1 . Your largest total (or two totals if the totals are only one or two points apart) represents the style( s) that you typically use when things are running smoothly.
2. The next largest total (or two if the totals are only one or two points apart) represents the style(s) you use under stress.
3. You will have a set of totals for both the MTI (Manager Tendency Indicator) and the ETI (Employee Tendency Indicator).
Which style is the most effective in a particular situation depends on (a) which styles you can use comfortably, (b) with which styles you could best handle the conflict or problem, and (c) which styles are preferred by your team,
· Styles Survey-Short Form
• Take this styles survey and compare your results with the results you get when you take the Survey of Communication • Styles-Long Form. You can take both surveys online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication Course
Mate for Communicating for Results.
• DIRECTIONS: Answer each of the following questions by writing on the line a number from 1 to 10 that represents how true or • false each statement is to you: completely false = 1; completely true = 10. This number represents your points for that question.
• POINTS:
1 . I feel more comfortable around things than around people. 2. To keep the peace, I usually give in. 3. I find that I'm usually right on most issues. 4. I make sure that my opinions are known. 5. it's important to me that people l ike me; if they don't, I feel very uncomfortable. 6. I usually withhold my opinions until I know what other people think. 7. I l ike most people I meet. 8. Working on teams is enjoyable and is a productive way to solve problems.
"ti • � • SCORiNG: � . .:E •
Add the points from questions 7 and 8: total = Open Style. � • Add the points from questions 5 and 6: total = Sociable Style. ':;i! • Add the points from questions 3 and 4: total = Dominant Style. <t;, • -� •
Add the points from questions 1 and 2: total = Private Style. iil ' � •
Your largest total represents the communication style you use when things are going smoothly. The next largest total (or two
8: totals if the scores are very close) i s the style o r styles you jump back to under stress.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COM MUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUID E FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
TABLE 3.3 PRIVATE-STYLE MANAGER
supervisor/employees, coworkers, or customers. Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of each style can help you adjust your own style and adapt to the styles of others. 1. Key word:
2. Motivation for being closed:
3. Communicates expectations?:
4. Handles conflict:
The Private Style If you had the choice of a job in a room with five or six other people whom you would work with each day or a job in a room by yourself, working with a machine that only one person could operate at a time, which would you choose? If you selected to work alone, you probably have strong private tendencies. Private-style communicators simply feel more comfortable working with things than with people-does this seem like you? For example, a private-style
�=================-�-�I.,; employee might do well working at restocldng items or finding glitches 5. Handles employee appraisals: j in a software program but be inefficient when handling customers at a
1-·-================-�--l:t complaint window or working in a group. A private-style manager may � enjoy inventory control, ordering supplies, and detail work but be less � successful dealing with employees and employee problem�.
6. Motivates employees by:
1.-=========-·-1 As Figure 3.4 indicates, private-style communicators seek little feed-7. Organization models used: back, which makes them low on the responsiveness continuum, and dis-close little information, which also makes them low on the assertiveness � !.-=================-·--� �
'-"F�il_l_ i._n�th�e�b_l�a�nk_s._w.�hi�le�r_e_a�d�in_g_·�-----·�"'� continuum. In other words, they are noncommunicators, who not only
Rarely seeks
feedback
Rarely discloses
Discloses excessively
feel uncomfortable around people, they may actually fear them. Because private-style people find it difficult to communicate their
expectations to others, they are often disappointed by and disappointing to those around them. For example, the boss who expects private-style employees to actively participate in group meetings and decision making will be disappointed. Asldng their opinion in meetings does not make it easier fot them to participate; instead, it increases their anxiety. Private-style customers are often disappointed by salespeople (they really want to be led by the hand but are afraid to ask) . If the product or service recommended by the salesperson turns out to be poor, rarely will private-style customers openly complain. Instead, they may change stores without letting the store or letting the salesperson know why.
Private-style people spend much of their energy in seeking safety to keep from looking like fools, being blamed for something, or even losing their jobs. They try to avoid conflict and avoid making decisions. When decisions have to be made,
they use safe procedures such as "going by the book;' following tradition, .,; and treating everyone alike. Actions taken by private-style managers in i an attempt to remain safe include treating all employees the same re� gardless of their performance, giving only brief, superficial employee ap-
Seeks <Z praisals (and then only when absolutely necessary), and never initiating excessive � upward communication. feedback �
·� Private-style people can be quite productive as long as only minimal
FIGURE 3.4 � The private communication style
-;; interaction with others is required. However, because of their commu� nication anxiety, relationships with private-style people are difficult� especially in the work environment. As a result, creative employees and
employees who need guidance often become frustrated with the privatestyle manager. On the other hand, other private-style employees and highly trained and motivated employees who like to make their own
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 87
decisions appreciate the private-style manager, who stays out of their way and concentrates on computers, equipment, and other "things:'
TABLE 3.4 DOM INANT-STYLE MANAGER
To summarize, the private style is most successful when little interpersonal interaction is required for the job, when going by the book is the preferred company stance, when subordinates are professionals who need little supervision, and when others in the department are private or prefer things to people. The private style is less successful when the job requires a high level of interpersonal interaction; when the organization is in a high-risk profession with creative, high-strung individuals; when subordinates need or want guidance; and when the profession or business is productivity-oriented.
Motivation for being blind:
Communicates expectations?:
Handles conflict:
The Dominant Style If you are looldng for someone you can depend on to get the job done, someone to train a group of overconfident new hires, someone with the self-assurance to troubleshoot a problem department, or someone who can command authority in a crisis, you couldn't do better than to hire a dominant-style communicator. Whereas private-style communicators would experience disabling anxiety in these situations, dominant -style communicators thrive in situations in which they can demonstrate their expertise and experience-does this sound like you?
Handles employee appraisals:
Motivates employees by:
Organization models used:
in the blanks while reading. As Figure 3 .5 indicates, dominant-style communicators tend to
fall on the low-feedback/responsiveness and high-disclosure/assertiveness ends of the two continuums, which causes others to view them as authoritarian. As with private-style people, dominant-style communicators seldom ask for feedback, and yet they are the opposite of private communicators in several ways. Instead of having a low self-image, dominant-style communicators tend to be very confident (even overly confident) and are not afraid to express their views, expectations, or needs. People know where they stand with a dominant-style communicator. Dominant communicators don't ask for feedback from others because they don't feel they need it; they already know what's best. Instead of avoiding others, dominant-style communicators tend to overuse disclosure, telling others their opinions, how things should be done, and what others are doing wrong, even when their advice may not be wanted. For example, it's very difficult for dominant -style managers to delegate responsibility. They want employees to do the work but to do it the way they themselves would do it. Private and dominant communicators .,; also differ in the way they handle conflict. Instead of ignoring con- ;
"< flict, dominant communicators jump right in and solve the problem � � their way, using force if necessary. Often, dominant -style managers
solve conflicts without asking for employee agreement or input. "< Rarely ':;! seeks '\o feedback
] t', � �
Rarely discloses
Discloses excessively @
FIGURE 3.5 ! The dominant
Seeks excessive feedback
Actually, dominant -style communicators are often right when they say their ideas are better. They are usually experienced and very lmowledgeable on the topic. But when people are not allowed to give feedback, to try things their way, or to make mistakes, they can't develop their potential. Therefore, even though dominant-style managers are good trainers, they don't allow their employees the freedom to develop to the point at which they can take over for the boss. When the manager is
communication style
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
© 2004 Ted Goff E
"I don't have time to write performance reviews, so I'll just criticize
you in public from time to time."
8 � � i " "
promoted or leaves, the organization usually discovers that there is no one ready to fill the position.
Dominant -style communicators are seen as very critical and demanding. For example, although dominant-style managers mention employee strengths in appraisal sessions, they spend the majority of the time on weaknesses. Their comments probably don't include "face supportive" communication (Carson & Cupach, 2000)comments and nonverbal gestures designed to show employee approval and give the employee some choices. In the same way, dominant -style employees (feeling that their ideas are better than those of their bosses) are argumentative and have problems gracefully receiving criticism or orders. Even dominant -style customers are very critical (often knowing more about a product than the salesperson) and are usually the first to tell their
friends when they are unhappy with a particular organization. Vocal unhappiness like Kevin Smith posted on Facebook and Twitter when he was removed from a Southwest flight for being overweight (see Chapter 6) can reduce a company's business (Finkelman & Goland, 1990).
If you have dominant-style tendencies, you have probably discovered that most people are not interested in the perfect way to do things. Most people want the job completed but are not impressed by all the hard work that "perfection'' requires. If you often feel dismayed by the quality of pthers' ideas and think to yourself, "If I want something done right, I've got to do it myself;' you are exhibiting dominant-style tendencies as are often found in the traditional organization.
Occasionally, a person who appears to be dominant is really a very insecure, private-style person who notices that dominant communicators get more desired results (such as more job promotions) than private ones and decides to try the dominant style. Therefore, these people-we'll call them neurotic dominant communicators-hide their insecurity behind an authoritarian mask. Instead of the constructive criticism given by a dominant manager, the neurotic dominant manager's criticism is angry and includes unrealistic personal attacks. To hide the fact that they feel threatened by knowledgeable, hardworking employees, neurotic dominant managers find a minor employee weakness and blow it out of proportion-often in front of other employees. Therefore, don't confuse the true dominant communicator with the neurotic dominant communicator. Dominant-style communicators may be critical and demanding, but they appreciate quality work; neurotic dominant communicators feel threatened by quality and are impossible to please.
To summarize, the dominant style is most successful when untrained subordinates need their expertise, during a crisis or time of organizational change, or when an immediate decision is needed. The dominant style is less successful when the organization has many personnel problems, when subordinates are
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 89 professional people who expect to make their own decisions, or when creativity and risk taking are critical to the organization's success.
The Sociable Style If you had to choose between an efficient, highly productive office in which people were friendly but not social, or a less efficient but social environment in which birthdays were celebrated, employees freely chatted while working, and everyone was treated as a family member, which would you pick? People with sociable tendencies prefer a social environment and want to be friendly with everyone as is found in the human relations model. Sociablestyle communicators are interested in people, are good listeners, and are generally well liked. It's very important to them that everyone gets
1. Key word:
2. Motivation for being hidden:
3. Communicates expectations?:
4. Handles conflict:
along and that conflicts are avoided. However, sociable-style commu- ] 5. Handles employee appraisals:
nicators may limit what they choose to share and may hide their "true" :;; feelings and knowledge from others. � �-
6�.:::M
=ot
=iv=at
=e=s
=em
=p=lo=ye=
e=s
=by
=:==-�---�
As Figure 3.6 indicates, sociable-style communicators fall on the � low-disclosure/assertiveness, high-feedback/responsiveness ends of the ��=========-� two continuums. Although they like social environments, they find it dif- ] 7. Organization models used:
ficult to disclose their opinions and expectations to others. For example, �� �=========:,___-� �r-a sociable-style boss may cover only strengths in an employee appraisal <.':l Fi l l in the blanks while reading. @
-� and skip over weaknesses; a sociable-style employee may be unable to -�- -�----�---
disagree with an unfair comment from the boss during an appraisal; and a sociable-style customer may agree with a salesperson's suggestions even if they don't reflect what the customer prefers.
Don't confuse the sociable communicator with the private communicator. Sociable communicators are not afraid of people, and they don't hide from them like the private-style communicator does. They do listen carefully to others and ask them how they feel, but they tend to keep their own opinions and feelings private-does this sound like you?
Why do sociable-style people hide their opinions and feelings from others? They are motivated by mistrust of people or by the desire for social acceptance-or even both. Sociable people who tend to mistrust others feel more comfortable when they know what people are up to; they want to find out what is going on and to get feedback-someone is bound to let something slip. For example, a sociablestyle customer who is motivated by mistrust will be suspicious that the salesperson is taking advantage in some way and will try to confirm these .,; suspicions by asking questions. j
� .., <Z � Rarely
. seeks \<> feedback
·� >-1
Rarely discloses
Sociable-style people who are motivated by the desire for social acceptance want, above all, to please others. For example, sociablestyle managers feel that keeping people happy is more important than productivity. After all, employee complaints can get you fired; moderate productivity usually doesn't. Sociable-style customers who are motivated by a desire for social acceptance would rather deal with friendly, sociable salespeople even if they have to pay more for the product.
� !1:" \:) Discloses excessively
@ FIGURE 3.6 � The sociable
Seeks excessive feedback
Sociable-style people often appear to be sharing because they ask questions and stimulate others to share, thereby disguising their lack of
communication style
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GU IDE FOR BUSI N ESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
TABLE 3.6
t Key word:
2. Motivation for being open:
3. Communicates expectations?:
4. Handles conflict:
disclosure. Sociable people disclose only on impersonal, safe topics and don't disagree with others. Sociable-style employees often appear overly friendly and eager to please ("yes" people). Sociable-style managers create the facade of being open in meetings when important decisions are to be made, but they usually speak up only after the majority opinion is clear or the top bosses' views are known. Sociable people fear conflict and disagreement and try to smooth over any discord.
As you can see, relationships with sociable-style people are basically one-way; they do most of the listening, while others do most of the sharing. Often, when others realize this, they withdraw their trust or at least stop confiding as much to the sociable-style person.
· To summarize, the sociable style is most successful when a social
] environment is expected; when the climate of the organization makes
.:€ caution and political maneuvering necessary; when teamwork is a so-1-6-.
.::M=ot
=iv=at=
e=s
=em
=p=
lo=y=ee
=s=by
=:==---1 !t cial occasion and rarely involves problem solving; and when adequate � performance is all that is expected. The sociable style is less success-
1--==========---J .s ful when the climate is more work-oriented than social; when tasks
5; Handles employee appraisals:
7. Organiz�tion models used: � require a high degree of trust among workers; when tasks are complex � and involve team problem solving; and when excellent performance
Fill in the blanks while reading. Cl is expected. '------------'------' @
Rarely seeks
feedback
Rarely discloses
The Open Style Open-style communicators tend to use both disclosure and feedback and are equally interested in people's needs and company productivity. Of the four styles, open-style communicators are the ones who most appreciate other people (private communicators are nervous around people, dominant communicators tend to view others as relatively unimportant, and sociable communicators don't always trust people). As Figure 3.7 indicates, openstyle communicators fall on the high-disclosure/assertiveness, high-feedback/ responsiveness ends of the two continuums. In fact, they may disclose too much too often and may ask for too much feedback. This type of forward communication makes many people uncomfortable-like the stranger sitting next to you on an airplane who tells you all about his or her family, latest surgery, and marital affair.
For most open-style people, the problem is not that they are too open but that they are too open too soon. In The Open Organization, Steele ( 1975) warns that the order in which we disclose different aspects of ourselves will determine
how others react to us. For instance, new members of a group should first show their responsible, concerned side. When this stance results in
� � Seeks �
excessive � feedback �
]
their acceptance, then they can start to show their less perfect aspects
1!o &o Discloses excessively c§
I @ FIGURE 3.7 .1. The open communi-
and even make a critical observation. These same aspects or observations could get a nonmember rejected out of hand. For example, mentioning a problem you observed to your colleagues when you are a new hire of less than a week would likely get more of a negative response than if you had worked for the company for 2 to 3 months. In new environments, open-style employees need to listen and observe others to determine the openness of the climate. Openness is most effective when it produces a gradual sharing with others. cation style
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT. CULTURE, ANO RELATIONSHIPS j 91
Open-style people are generally sensitive to the needs of others and realize that conflict can be productive. Open-style managers are more likely to empower employees to take active roles in the affairs of the organization. These empowered employees usually develop quality relationships and increase productivity. Generally, "employees in open, supportive communication climates are satisfied employees" (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 143; see also Daft & Marcic, 2013, Chapter 12) .
Do not assume from what has been said so far that the open style is advocated in all situations. If the organization's climate is open, if upper management favors the open style, if employees and managers are basically open, and if customers appreciate an open style, then the open style is appropriate. Within reason, the more open we are, the better communicators we are likely to be because we are better able to share our frames of reference and expectations with others. Many organizations, however, do not have an open climate. Upper management may not approve of open-style managers and may fail to promote them. Some employees may be uncomfortable around open managers and consider their requests for employee input as proof that they cannot make decisions. Some customers consider open-style salespeople as pushy or even nosy. But keep in mind that what is too open for one group may be just right for another.
In general, a moderately open style is most successful when employee involvement in decision making is desired; when change is welcomed as a new opportunity; when tasks are complex and require teamwork; when quality work is expected; and when the organization is involved in global communication using one of the transformational models. The open style is less successful when upper managers or workers view the open style negatively; when tasks are extremely simple and require no teamwork; and when an immediate decision is needed.
Your communication success and your ability to establish and maintain relationships both at home and in the workplace depends on realizing two important facts about communication styles. First, all communication styles have strengths and all have weaknesses. Realizing this simple fact indicates to all communicators that we should analyze our own strengths and weaknesses to see whether any changes are needed. This knowledge also indicates the need for flexibility when dealing with other people who also have styles with strengths and weaknesses. Second, successful relationships depend on our knowing how to relate to people of different styles. Therefore, this section includes both the best and worst of each style as well as some suggested ways to relate to people in our lives who use different communication styles.
The chances are that you have a boss, a coworker, or a customer with whom you have some difficulty communicating. If their communication style differs from yours, your expectations are probably different, which makes the relationship difficult to develop and maintain and negative
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COM M U NICATING FOR RESULTS: A GU I D E FOR BUSINESS A N D T H E PROFESSI ONS
Private-Style Communicators . . .
At their best are: • Productive as long as they can work in an environment free of
interpersonal demands. • Seen as reserved. ® Considered similar to the laissez-faire leader, who lets employees
do whatever they want. At their worst are: • Likely to spend most of their energy looking for security; there
fore, productivity is fairly low. • Seen as difficult to get to know and unresponsive to needs of
others. Thought to be aloof and noncommunicative.
self-fulfilling prophecies more likely. This section offers some advice on how to communicate with people who have different styles-for additional advice, see the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results. Remember, no one person exemplifies any one style perfectly; therefore, the advice should be taken as a guide to understanding, not as the complete answer to communication problems.
Private Communication Style
How to communicate with private-style managers: Take care-don't threaten them or increase their insecurity. Avoid asking questions-better to ask other
employees or make the decision yourself if you can do so quietly. Don't make waves-better to downplay new procedures you develop. Don't expect any praise, guidance, criticism, or help from the boss-better to provide these for yourself. How to communicate with private-style employees: Put closed employees in environments that feel safe-that require little interaction with others. Give specific instructions about how, what, when, and where. Make the
Dominant-Style Communicators . . .
At their best are: Clear on what they want and where you stand with them-not afraid to exercise authority.
• Usually very loyal, organized, and dependable; others know the job will get done.
• Very helpful to those who want to learn as long as the help is appreciated.
At their worst are: • Unable to delegate effectively. • Very demanding and impatient; insist their way is best. • Quick to offer advice and criticism to others but unable to take it.
By choice, in control at al l times. • Liable to stifle growth and creativity of others by making most of
the decisions. • Predisposed to expect others to mess things up ("To get things
done right, do them yourself"). • Apt to punish failure and mistakes. • Often poor listeners.
chain of command clear-to whom are they responsible? Litnit criticism-they are overcritical of themselves already. Don't expect their participation in meetings or appraisal interviews. • How to communicate with private
style customers: Don't expect them to openly express what they really wantyou must search for it. Help them make good choices and you could have a customer for life. Avoid techni-cal jargon-they may be overwhelmed by it. A flip chart presentation may give them a sense of security-avoid a team presentation-it may increase their insecurity. Treat them with respect.
Dominant Communication Style
How to communicate with dominantstyle managers: Take their criticism well and expect to learn from them. Meet the blind manager's expectations.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
Communicator Styles
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, ANO RELATIONSHIPS j 93
: To check your knowledge of the four communicator styles, take the following quiz. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also take this quiz on line. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.
DIRECTIONS: Identify the communicator style each question describes: (A) private, (B) dominant, (C) sociable, ' or (D) open.
1 . Which style employee prefers not to take any part in office discussions?
2. Which style employee has trouble accepting criticism and is usually argumentative?
3. Which style communicator may make others feel uncomfortable by using too much feedback and too much disclosure?
4. Which style customer prefers to deal with sociable salespeople even at the risk of paying more for the
�� .
5. Which style person more likely communicates expectations to others?
6. Which style communicator is motivated by mistrust of others?
7. Which style communicator uses low feedback/responsiveness and high disclosure/assertiveness?
8. Which style communicator is more likely to take responsibility for his or her mistakes?
9. Which style manager tends to concentrate more on an employee's strengths than on weaknesses during an appraisal session?
10. Which style communicator prefers working with things to working with people?
Accept that your proposals will be changed by the boss. Ask questions to see what information the boss has assumed you already know and to determine whether the boss already has a "correct" solution in mind. If the boss is a neurotic blind type (a closed boss pretending to be blind), expect personal attacks on your ego.
• How to communicate with dominate-style employees: Expect that blind employees are very self-assured, often argumentative, and usually not team players but know the rules of the game and can play when it is to their advantage. Encourage blind employees to deal with others more flexibly because these employees could well become managers in the future. Show them that you will reward team involvement. Let them see that you are in charge but that you appreciate the skills and knowledge of others.
• How to communicate with dominate-style customers: Give a polished, well-supported sales presentation-avoid reading a canned flip chart presentation. A team approach, if professional, will probably impress them. Be prepared for suggestions on how to improve your selling technique. Dominant customers like to feel in control; let them feel that they negotiated an exceptional deal (they probably did) . Don't keep them waiting.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
94 1 COMM U N I CA T ING FOR RESUl TU G U I D E FOR B USIN ESS AND T H E PROFESSIONS
Sociable-Style Communicators . . .
At their best are: • Well l iked, fun to be around, organizers of social events. • Concerned with people and willing to listen. • Busy smoothing over minor conflicts and keeping a happy office. At their worst are: • Suspicious of the motives of others. • Not really interested in quality; adequate performance accepted. • "Yes" people; pretend to agree to be liked. • Unable to disclose opinions and ideas that might be rejected. • Not always loyal and appear to be two-faced.
Sociable Communication Style
• How to communicate with sociablestyle managers: If you are too knowledgeable or have come from another department, you may be considered a spy. You will not always know where you stand. Don't expect the boss to disclose fully-watch for nonverbal signs that the boss could say more. Show how your work or ideas will bring recognition to the department and thus to the boss, who wants social acceptance. Don't be afraid to use tactful confrontation; the boss will often back down.
• How to communicate with sociable employees motivated by d�sire for so
cial acceptance: Expect these employees to be "yes" people because they believe that pleasing you and others is the way to success. Motivate them by public praise (but criticism given in private), posting their names on a wall chart, asking them to give special talks, and other actions that will enhance their social acceptance. Show that you feel positive toward them.
• How to communicate with sociable employees motivated by lack of trust: Realize that sociable-style employees are hard to spot because they have learned how to play the game. Demonstrate (by promotions and performance appraisals) that honest team cooperation is the way to get ahead. Establish a climate in which differing opin1ons will not be
Open-Style Communicators . . .
At their best are: Flexible in meeting needs and using communication styles.
• Able to give and receive both praise and criticism. • Considered genuine and good listeners. • Seen as trusting, friendly, and dependable. • Willing to share feelings, as well as knowledge. • Productive. • Able to empower others through team decisions and feedback. At their worst are: • Seen as ineffective managers, especially by blind bosses. • Frustrated by lack of creative opportunities under nonopen
bosses. • Impatient with the time needed to implement organizational
changes. So open that others feel uncomfortable around them.
• Open at inappropriate times.
penalized. Expect your comments to be searched for a double meaning. Be specific, use examples, don't assume meanings are clear.
• How to communicate with sociablestyle customers: Spend time establishing a friendly feeling before giving your pitch. Use referral-they are more likely to buy if they feel that others they respect are sold on the idea, product, or service. Listen carefully and keep your opinions out of the picture (at least until the client's views are known) because hidden customers may say they agree even if they don't.
Open Communication Style
• How to communicate with open managers: Be honest and open, but use tact. Look at all sides of a problem. Don't
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
Should CFO Be Fired for What He Tweeted? ' Using Facebook, blogging, and Tweeting are some of
the ways that people use technology to create relationships. According to Pewlnternet.org (2012), 80% of American adults (18 or older) use the Internet, 66%
' use social networking sites, 14% maintain a personal journal or blog online (although 32% post comments on other people's blogs), and 12% use Twitter.
Although sharing information about the company, personal experiences, and personal lives with others
' helps relationships grow in the workplace, there is a limit to what should be shared-as indicated in the Zit's cartoon below. As the number of people using social networking sites and blogs grows, so does the number of people getting fired for the information they post-for example, approximately 10% of companies surveyed have fired at least one employee for comments made on a blog (Singel, 2007). Take for example Mark Jen, a new Google employee, who decided to chronicle his experiences, posting both the good and the not so good. He even discussed Google's health benefits package,
' which he said wasn't as good as Microsoft's-he was fired (Palan, 2008). Or Peter Whitney who worked as an administrative assistant for a brokerage owned by Wells
What about the decision to fire these employees? Was ' their desire to relate with others by sharing information
CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE , AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 95
Fargo and wrote about personal and work-related issues on his blog. One thing he remembers including is his unhappiness about being asked to contribute to a birthday card for a manager he disliked-he was fired (Wallack, 2005). Even Gene Morphis, CFO of fashion retailer Francesca's Holdings Corp. was fired for comments about company matters he posted online. He had a blog called "Morph's View," a Twitter account with "theoldcfo" as his handle, and a Facebook profile viewable by the public (Silverman, 2012).
Most individuals are surprised when their blogs are discovered-thinking that only family and friends read them. The Pew/lnternet survey by Lenhart and Fox found that 49% of bloggers "believe that their 'blog readership is mostly made up of people they personally know" (p. 19). How to Blog Safely (2005) warns that the people who find your site "may be the people you'd least want or expect. These include potential or current employers, coworkers, and professional colleagues; your neighbors; your spouse or partner; your family; and anyone else curious enough to type your name, e-mail address or screen name into Google or Feedster and click a few l inks." Because only 55% of bloggers use a pseudonym (lenhart & Fox, 2006, p. 10), more firings,are sure to occur.
"Youa be swrprim,'' I
coolly replied.
by blog a breach of ethics? If so, did it warrant such drastic action? If not, what action would you recommend and why?
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
96 l COMMUNICA l iNG FOR RESULTS' A GUIDE FOR BUSIN ESS A N D THE PROFESSIONS
hesitate to share job feelings, doubts, or concerns. Share part of your personal life; follow the boss's lead. Accept shared responsibility and power.
• How to communicate with open employees: Share confidences-open employees respond well. Place them in an environment in which some friendships can develop. Give them constructive criticism-they usually want to improve and are the first to sign up for special courses offered by the cornpany. Employees who are too open may talk too much, but don't assume that people can't talk and work at the same time-some talkative employees are more productive than quiet ones.
• How to communicate with open customers: Don't be pushy or manipulative. Listen carefully to their needs and wants-they are usually able to articulate them well. Build your persuasive appeals around these needs. Treat them as equals-don't talk down or defer to them. Canned flip chart presentations may be tolerated but are normally not impressive. Open customers are less impressed by flashiness and more impressed by facts-brief demonstrations can work well.
in Styles Is your communication style (or styles) and the way you typically manage conflict appropriate to your work environment? (If you have not yet done so, take the Survey of Communication Styles discussed on page 100.) As a result of your self-analysis, you may have found some discrepancies between your style and your work environment-in other words, some communication problems. The key to good communication is flexibility p£ styles. There is a big difference between being private, dominant, sociable,
'or open because
that is the style we generally use and deliberately choosing a certain style because it best suits the needs of the individual or group with whom we are dealing.
If you discovered some discrepancies, you may be down to two choices: either change your job (remember, we tend to become like the environment in which we spend our time) or adapt your style. The latter is a good choice even if a job change is in order; flexibility may well be your key to effective communication wherever you work. However, I don't recommend that you try a complete style change, at least not all at once. Before making any change, you should get enough feedback to be sure that a change is warranted and then start gradually. Adapt some of your responses to mirror those used by a person with a different style. When you feel comfortable with that new behavior, try another one. Communication behaviors can be changed, but not without hard work and patience. Few people find it easy to break an old habit. For example, a person with strong dominant tendencies can learn to communicate in an open style and even solve conflict in a collaborative manner but will normally retain some dominant-style behaviors, especially in times of stress.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 97
Adapting or changing a style will require changes in your use of feedback, disclosure, or both:
• The person with dominant tendencies needs to ask for more feedback from others to discover areas needing change.
• The person with sociable tendencies needs to disclose more and should slowly begin to share more information, opinions, and feelings with others. People with private or open styles need to work equally on both feedback and disclosure; the private person to use more of each, and the overly open person to use less of each.
accommodating strategy (70) A-type conflict (67) avoiding strategy (69) collaborating strategy (70) collectivistic cultures (74) communication styles (82) competing strategy (70) compromising strategy (70) conflict strategy (69) consensus (73) context (75) C-type conflict (67) curvilinear relationship (81)
dominant-style communicator (87) expectations (79) feedback/responsiveness (80) flexibility (96) high-context cultures (76) individualistic cu ltures (74) information and communication
technologies (ICTs) (81) lose-lose (73) low-context cultures (75) monochromic (m-time) (76) mutual respect (80)
neurotic dominant communicator (88) open-style communicator (90) polychromic (p-time) (77) private-style communicator (86) reciprocal (80) relationships (78) self-disclosure (80) self-fulfilling prophecy (80) sociable-style communicator (89) trust (80) win-lose (72) win-win (73)
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
Conflict is impossible to avoid, but we will do a better job of handling it if we can identify the two basic types of conflict: A-type and C-type. People using A-type are more affective and emotional; people using C-type view conflict more cognitively and objectively. lt is also important to know the five strategies of dealing with conflictavoiding, accommodating, compromising, competing, and collaborating as well as who uses them most and when each is successful.
Culture also plays an important role in successful communication in the workplace. lt is important to compare and contrast the individualistic versus collectivistic cultures; the low-context versus the high-context cultures; and the monochromic (m-time) versus the polychromic (p-time) cultures. These three cultural dimensions help show why people behave the way they do and how to communicate successfully with people from different cultures.
Building and maintaining relationships in the workplace are also important. Several tips were presented in this chapter. lt is easier to communicate successfully with our bosses, employees,
Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 3 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com
municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text's resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include:
Study tools including the student companion workbook, digital g lossary, flashcards, and review quizzes.
" Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks, Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. Media resources such as Web Links (explore communication concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students' speeches).
For more information or to access this book's online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.
98
1 . Go to the Communication Situation, "Hasty Resignation," at the end of Chapter 6. Read the situation or watch a video of it at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Re
sults. Then in small groups, discuss the situation, looking
customers, and colleagues if we understand their frames of reference. One way to do this is to determine their style of communication. Do they tend to be more private, dominant, sociable, or open? And which is our preferred communication style? Are the styles compatible? Each style varies in the amount of feedback and responsiveness to the feedback obtained from others and disclosure and assertiveness volunteered to others. We need to realize that there is no perfect style. Each style has its own strengths and weaknesses; each style is effective in some situations and less so in other situations. If you are interested in changing your style or becoming more flexible in style use, carefully monitor your feedback and disclosure and plan to make minor changes in how you use them as needed for specific situations. l t is not recommended that you make a drastic change in your communication style; it's better to know your style's best and worst sides and then build on your strengths and minimize your weaknesses.
for the communication style (i.e., open, dominant, sociable, or private) that seems to most closely describe police chief James Ferguson and the style that best describes police sergeant Cal Richards. Make a list of al l the specific events that convince you that your style choice is correct. As a group, be prepared to share your i.�eas with other groups.
2. In groups of three to five, discuss and select a character from a current or well-known movie that clearly i l lustrates each communication style. Some movies to consider include No Reservations (2008), The Devil Wears Prada
(2006), Ambulance Girl (2005), Crash (2005), 50 First
Dates (2004), Lost in Translation (2003), My Big Fat Greek
Wedding (2002), Jerry Maguire (1996), Groundhog Day
(1993), and Mr. Baseball (1992). Search for the movie trailers on YouTube.com.
3. In small groups, share the way conflict was handled when you were growing up-was it considered beneficial or something to be ignored? Was conflict usually A-type or C-type? What is your main conflict strategy today: avoiding, accommodating, compromising, competing, or collaboration, and how has it changed since you were a child? Now that you know the various conflict styles you have in this small group, how effective would this group be as a problem-solving team? Give specific reasons to support your position.
4. Career Activity: In small groups, compare the four communication styles used by individuals with the five organization
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
models discussed in Chapter 2. Which styles would likely feel the most and least comfortable working in or with each organization model (e.g., would the private employee/manager/ customer feel more comfortable in the traditional or the human resources models?) Give reasons for your answers.
5. Read the Goldman Sachs opening case study for this chapter. In small groups, complete the "Revisiting the Case Study" questions on page 76 taking either the perspective of a collectivistic, high-context culture or an individualistic/ low-context culture. Share your answers when finished.
6. After reading the cultural differences discussed in this chapter, is it any wonder that people from different countries find it difficult to get along. Communication problems are especially likely when it comes to allowing people to save face. In small groups, assume that you are from an individualistic country and that your company plans to conduct business with an organization from a collectivistic country. Complete the following: a . Define the role that face and face saving plays in col
lectivistic and individualistic cultures. What are the differences? What are the similarities?
b. Make a list of specific suggestions that your colleagues could follow that would allow people to save face while still solving group problems. For example, one suggestion might be to avoid complimenting individuals while directing any complements to the group.
c . Check your text for suggestions, use your personal experiences, and conduct research using the terms "saving face" and "facework."
d. Discuss your list and highlight the two most valuable suggestions-be sure to get group agreement.
e . Be prepared to share your list of suggestions with other groups.
7. Career Activity: Complete the Survey of Communication
Styles-Long Form either here using the Awareness Check on pages 100-107 or online at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results. In groups of five to seven, complete the following: a . Determine the largest MTI and ETI totals for each group
member (the largest score indicates the communication style you likely use when things are going smoothly). If the group is hesitant to disclose their scores, have each member write their MTI style and ETI style on a piece of paper and place it in a cup. Shake them up and then write the styles on a flip chart, markerboard or chalk board.
b. Determine the next largest MTI and ETI totals for each group member-or sometimes two scores if they are one or two points apart (the second largest score indicates the style you typically use when under stress). Follow the same procedure as above.
c. Based on the discussion of each style earlier in this chapter, what strengths and weaknesses could your group expect if involved in a team project together? Keep in mind that all styles have strengths and weaknesses-the situation will determine specific style needs.
99
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
COMMUNICATING FOR R ESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Survey of Communication Styleslong Form The Survey of Communication Styles includes two parts:
(1) the Manager Tendency Indicator (MTI) and (2) the
Employee Tendency Indicator (ETI). Each part is designed
to give you an indication of the style you tend to use
when communicating with others.
Everyone should take both the MTI and the ETI. If
you are, or have been, a manager (at any level), take the
MTI first and the ETI second. If you have never been a ' manager, take the ETI first; then, when you take the MTI,
assume that you are a manager and answer the questions
the way you would most likely respond as a manager.
You can complete this survey online. Go to cen
gagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication '
CourseMate for Communicating for Results.
Directions:
Read each question carefully: First put an 8 in the
answer box in front of the answer that most closely
represents your feelings and the way you would react
in the situation described. Next, put a 1 in front of the
answer that least closely represents your feelings or the
way you would react to the situation. Final ly, for the two
remaining answers, select the one that is most like what
you would do and place a 4 in its answer box; put a 2 in
the answer box for the last answer. I n other words:
8 means that the answer to the question is most like you
4 is moderately like you
2 is barely like you
1 is least or not at all like you '
You may not like any of the answers, or you may like , all of the answers. Regardless, you may not assign any
question all 8s, all 4s, all 2s, or al l 1s. In other words,
each question has four answers; one question must
receive 8 points (most like you); one question must
, receive 4 points (moderately like you); one question ' must receive 2 points (barely like you); and one question '
must receive 1 point (least or not at all like you).
Be careful not to answer what you wish you would
do or what most people would do. Instead, select the
answers that most clearly represent what you would
likely do in the situation described.
1 . A new procedure is implemented by upper manage
ment. All supervisors are requested to monitor the
success of the procedure and to let management
know if any problems result. Your response:
a. Wait until a direct order for information is re
ceived before making any response. The wise
person never volunteers information upward
it isn't safe. What is said is often distorted in
some way.
b. If the new procedure is working well, don't
wait for a direct request-send the report
now. Promptness makes you look efficient. If
the procedure isn't working, be very careful
how the message is worded. There is no sense
in upsetting the big bosses. Edit and word
the report in such a way that any negative
aspects are minimized.
c. If the procedure works, there would be no
reason to report. However, if the procedure
doesn't work, tell them about it. After al l ,
they were the ones who suggested the idea.
If it doesn't work, it should be dropped and
replaced with something better.
d . lt is best to send regular reports to upper
management regardless of the success of
the new procedure. Reports should include
successes, failures, and attempts to solve
problems. Even when a report contains infor
mation that may disappoint management, be
complete and truthful.
2. Your employees have become lax on a few of the
company's minor restrictions. Your response:
a. No regulation or rule should be inflexible.
Discuss the problem with the employees to
see whether they have valid reasons for their
disapproval. If so, work with the group to
determine an alternative. However, until the
change is implemented, request the employ
ees to abide by the regulation.
' *The Survey of Communication Styles was developed by Cheryl Hamilton in 1981 and last revised in May 2011. ro l!l 'lli m iU m ,.. lil w 111 m m m m 1!1 m m RI m m Ill l!l Ill Ill il m m 111 m !ll 1>1 Ill m 1!1 1!1 m ll! Ill !il a a Ill m ru m 1!1 m m m
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
b. Strict rules and regulations are essential
in well-run organizations. If employees are
al lowed to ignore some regulations, they may
also begin to ignore others. No exceptions
should be a llowed.
c. Informality and harmony among employees is
more important than a few minor regulations.
If necessary to keep employees satisfied,
overlook their behavior as long as possible.
d. The only way to stay out of trouble is to hope
your employees follow the organization's
policies and procedures. If they complain,
simply tell them the truth-the company made
the rule, not you. Neither you nor they have
any choice in the matter if you all want to
keep your jobs.
3. The company has asked for your suggestions on
how to motivate employees. Your response:
a. People are definitely motivated by praise and
rewards-so use them often. Avoid criticism
and punishment because they harm relation
ships and create bad feelings.
b. Praise makes people think they are better
than they really are. Therefore, the best way
to motivate employees is through criticism.
The best criticism occurs immediately after
an employee makes a mistake.
c. Praise and reward are good motivators when
given to employees who deserve them. Other
employees are then inspired to strive for
similar rewards. There are times, however,
when criticism and punishment are the best
motivators depending on the employee.
d. Employees rarely change no matter what the
boss does or what motivational techniques
are used. Therefore, the safest thing is to
avoid trying to motivate others.
4. A serious conflict has arisen among several employ
ees in your department. Your response:
a. Because conflict among employees disrupts
work and decreases productivity, immedi
ate action is necessary. Listen carefully to
al l sides and then tell them how you have
decided the problem wil l be solved.
b. Conflict can be productive when handled cor
rectly. Therefore, if the problem doesn't solve
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHI PS 1 10 1
itself fairly quickly, gather those involved in
the dispute and encourage them to express
their complaints openly. When conflicts are
examined openly, a workable solution can
usually be found. If not, you may have to
arbitrate a solution.
c. First of all, try to make sure that serious
conflicts between employees never occur.
Such conflicts only draw unwanted attention
to the department. However, when conflict
does occur, try to stay out of it. After al l , it's
their problem, so they should solve it.
d . Because conflict can permanently damage
the friendly working environment of a de
partment, smooth over the situation as soon
as possible. I f necessary, distract employees
from the conflict by sponsoring a social or
athletic event.
5. One of your colleagues feels that managers not only
should relate to employees in a friendly manner but
also should share personal information with them.
Your response:
a. I disagree. Smart managers keep their
distance from employees. All employees
should be treated in the same general man
ner. No employee should be given special
consideration.
b. I disagree. The best way to handle employees
is to be firm yet impersonal with them. They
will respect you more that way.
c. I agree. Employees react best when managers
share experiences and feelings with them.
People who are friendly work together better.
Being friendly with employees doesn't have to
harm the boss-employee relationship.
d. I agree in part. Managers should be friends
with their employees. Employees will produce
more if they think you like them. Ask them
about their families and so on, but keep fairly
quiet about yourself. Personal information
could be used against you in some way.
6. lt is time for your company's annual performance
appraisals of all employees. Your method of han
dling employee evaluations:
a. Performance appraisals are basically a waste
of time-employees never seem to change.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
102 1 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Therefore, if you are required to conduct
appraisals, keep them short and general and
keep as few records as possible. Also, since
employees talk, give the same basic evalua
tion to all .
b. Performance appraisals are an excellent
time for evaluating the employee's past
performance and setting new goals for the
future. Both strengths and weaknesses should
be considered. Get the employee actively
involved in the evaluation so that the final
appraisal will be agreeable to both of you.
c. Criticism serves only to hurt people's feel
ings, and few people can be objective when
discussing their weaknesses. Appraisals are
more productive when you concentrate on the
employee's strengths and make them happy.
d. Employee appraisals are quite valuable when
used to instruct the employee on how to im
prove. Although some managers tend to beat
around the bush, the direct approach works
best. I f they have done something wrong, tell
them.
7. How much individual responsibility for decision
making should employees be given? Your response:
a. After careful training, employees should be
given as much individual responsibil ity as they
can handle and want. To be effective, they
must be free to implement their decisions but
must be accountable for them as well. The
manager serves in an advisory capacity.
b. Although some employees have enough train
ing to take responsibility and make decisions,
it is important to monitor them careful ly.
When given a free hand, employees often
make decisions for their personal gain rather
than for the good of the company. Watch for
abuses.
c. Employees should be responsible for tasks
assigned to them. However, because manag
ers know more about employee jobs than
employees do, any decisions made must re
ceive manager approval. Of course, important
decisions should be made by management.
d. Employees can make personal decisions as
long as they keep a low profile. Their actions
should not draw attention to themselves or
the department and should not require time,
money, or attention from management.
8. Which approach to management actually works
best? Your response:
a. Firm control at all times is the best approach
to management. Getting suggestions from
employees usually results in a needless waste
of time. lt is the manager's responsibility to
make the necessary decisions.
b. Teamwork is the best approach to manage
ment. When managers and employees work
together as a team and when al l members
make suggestions and feel free to agree or
disagree, better solutions are reached.
c. Management works best when ma'nagers stay
out of the way of employees and concentrate
on physical items like quality office suppl ies,
computers, and furniture. Avoid interpersonal
issues.
d . One of the most important things a man-
ager can do is keep harmony in the office.
Employees turn out more work when they feel
friendly with each other.
9. As a manager, how do you view the company grape
vine? Your response:
a. The grapevine is an excellent way to discover
what employees are up to and what they are
hiding from their manager.
b. Listening to the grapevine allows managers
to determine areas of misunderstanding that
need to be corrected, and leaking information
into the grapevine is a good way to test ideas
by judging employee reactions.
c. The grapevine is ful l of misinformation and
should be ignored.
d. Listening to the grapevine helps managers
maintain control over their employees.
10. One of your employees is having a personal problem
that is beginning to interfere with quality work.
Your response:
a. When managers try to get involved in the
personal problems of employees, new (and
sometimes worse) problems result. There
fore, ignore the situation as long as possible;
hopefully it will resolve itself.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
b. Let the employee know that regardless of the
reason for the lack of productivity, certain
standards must be met. If immediate improve
ment does not occur, the employee should be
terminated.
c. lt is important for managers to show they
care by listening to and consoling the em
ployee with problems. However, make sure
the employee isn't taking advantage of you.
d. As much as possible, managers need to
meet the needs of employees. Listen to the
employee's problem and share experiences
and possible solutions. See if either you or the
company can do anything to help the employee
solve his or her problem in a timely manner.
11. During a meeting with your employees, you are
explaining each person's role in a forthcoming
departmental task. Several employees express
unhappiness with their assignments. Your response:
a. To avoid conflict, blame upper management
for the assignments and tell the employees
that the department's standing depends on
how well they complete their tasks.
b. Tell the employees that the assignments have
been given and that no changes will be made.
c. Listen to all the arguments and then inake
whatever changes are necessary to keep
group harmony.
d. Listen to al l the arguments and work with the
group in determining what, if any, changes
should be made.
12. Your department is assigned an important task.
Unintentionally, you give your people the wrong
instructions. Work is well underway when you
discover the error. Your response:
a. Admit the mistake and request their best
efforts to complete the new assignment on
schedule.
b. At the next meeting, revise the instructions
and make a joke of the mistake.
c. Explain that upper management has issued
new guidelines that will require a change in
previous instructions.
d. Tel l the employees that they apparently
misunderstood the previous instructions. Ask
them to listen more closely this time.
CHAPTER 3 COHFLICT, CULTURE, AND RElATIONSHIPS j 103
1. From your experience, what is the only realistic
way to deal with fellow workers?
a. To get ahead, you must actively compete with
other employees. Try to stay one step ahead
of everyone.
b. You can't be too careful. People will stab
you in the back if it helps them get ahead.
Keep your tasks to yourself and avoid group
projects.
c. A friendly approach is best even if your
personal opinions make it necessary for you
to pretend friendship.
d . A friendly but truthful approach works
best. However, when a misunderstanding
occurs, it is important to express your true
feel ings.
2. While your boss is giving you instructions on how
to complete a particular task, you realize that the
instructions are wrong. What would you do?
a. Question the boss to make sure you didn't
misunderstand the instructions. Then explain
why you are confused and ask if another
procedure might work better.
b. Errors such as this are/ typical, because a
good employee usually knows twice as much
as the boss. Press your advantage by pointing
out the error.
c . Pointing out an error to the boss is a good
way to lose your job. Do whatever the boss
tells you, regardless of what it is.
d. If you point out the error, it could make the
boss feel uncomfortable and even ruin your
standing with the boss. Therefore, complete
the task correctly, but say nothing.
3. During your employee appraisal, your boss criticizes
you for something you feel is unfair. How would you
respond?
a. Accept the criticism quietly. Any comment on
your part will only prolong the interview.
b. Unless it is a big issue, keep quiet about it.
Otherwise, briefly disagree in a good-natured
way; then drop it.
c. Defend yourself. Let the boss know you
think you are being treated unfairly. Insist
that a different evaluation be submitted.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
104 1 COMMUNICA liNG FOR RESUL !So A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS ANO TilE PROFESSIONS
Supervisors respect you more when you stand
up for what you believe.
d. Paraphrase the boss's view to verify what you
heard. Then offer your own opinion, sup
ported with facts and data.
4. After receiving a detailed explanation of a new job
from your supervisor, you still aren't clear on some
of the instructions. What would you do?
a. If you are good at your job, you should be
able to figure out what to do as you go along.
There's probably a better way to complete
the task anyway.
b. Never ask questions. You only look stupid. If
necessary, get help from a coworker.
c. Ask questions of your boss any time you
aren't completely sure about an assignment.
d. I f your boss believes that asking questions
shows employee interest, ask for clarification.
If not, pretend you understand and find out
the missing information in some other way.
5. Your supervisor calls a meeting to evaluate the
success of a new procedure and asks for everyone's
opinion. How would you respond?
a. Listen carefully to everyone's comments.
Openly agree with people when possible. How
ever, if your experiences with the procedure
differ from those being expressed, keep them
to yourself.
b. Inform those present about the success
you've had in implementing the procedure
and recommend that your method be adopted
by the group.
c. Don't volunteer any comments. Let the others
do the talking. If the supervisor specifically
asks for your opinion, keep your answer gen
eral so you won't have any reason to regret
what you have said.
d. Participate actively in the discussion. Don't
hesitate to express your experiences (both
positive and negative) even if they differ from
the experiences of the other employees.
6. Almost by accident, you discover an easier and
faster way to perform one of your daily tasks. As a
result, you can finish the other duties of the day in
a more relaxed manner. Would you tell anyone else
of your discovery?
a. Employees who can perform their duties
better than others are the ones who get the
raises and promotions. Therefore, the only
way to get ahead is to keep such discoveries
to yourself.
b. If the boss knew that a task could be
completed in less time, you and your fellow
employees would be given an additional job
to do, and the smooth pattern of office life
would be disrupted. Therefore, say nothing.
c. Because it is everyone's responsibility
to share job-related discoveries with one
another, offer to do so. Then, if they are
interested, give them specifics.
d . A discovery such as this gives yo� the perfect
opportunity to prove that you are more
capable than your fellow workers. If you can
impress your boss during a departmental
meeting by presenting your new discovery,
then do so.
7. In a last-minute check of a rush job that is due
immediately in the boss' office, you discover a
minor mistake that you have made. How would
you handle it?
a. If the error is small enough to pass by without
notice, keep the problem to yourself. However, , if the error is sure to be noticed and could
hurt your relationship with the boss, mention
the error in a joking manner and ask for extra
time to correct it.
b. Immediately phone or go see the boss and
explain that you have discovered an error in
your work and wil l need to postpone delivery
of the project until it is corrected.
c. The best defense is a good offense. Because
you did what the boss told you to do, the
mistake is obviously the result of the boss'
instructions. Point this out when you deliver
the project.
d. Keep quiet about the error and hope it passes
unnoticed.
B. You are aware of a situation that has the potential
for creating a serious problem for your department
or even for the company. What would you do?
a. lt is management's responsibility to be aware
of potential problems. As an employee, it
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
is not your responsibility to report on such
things. Unless you could benefit by discussing
your observations, keep quiet.
b. Meddling in things that are none of your busi
ness is a good way to lose your job. So keep
quiet.
c. Because management depends on and should
appreciate the input and observations of em
ployees, mention your observations to your
boss, but do it privately.
d. No one wants to hear negative things. Point
ing out the problem to management will only
cause trouble and make people unhappy. Also,
if your observation is wrong, you will look like
a fool. Therefore, just keep the information to
yourself.
9. A serious conflict has arisen between you and
another worker in your department. How would you
handle it?
a. If you give in, the other person will lose
respect for you, so try to win the argument.
If no decision can be reached, select a person
(such as your boss) to serve as an arbitrator.
b. Discuss the conflict in detail, making sure both
of you get a chance to express your feelings.
Honest discussion usually leads to a mutual
agreement and an end to hostilities. In some
cases, it may be necessary to compromise.
c. Continuing the conflict will only bring you
unwanted attention from other employees
and even the boss. If necessary to end the
conflict, give in.
d . Continuing the conflict could permanently
damage your friendship with this employee.
Do your best to smooth over the argument
and regain a friendly footing with the person.
10. Your immediate work group has failed to complete its
assignment on time for three of the last four projects.
The boss is starting to put pressure on your group and
wants to know who's causing the slowdown. You know
who the person is. What would you do?
a. Suggest that al l members of the group
meet to discuss the problem. If you find
that the problem is caused by an unfair load
distribution or some other group-related
cause, try to find a workable answer.
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS j lOS
b. Blaming the individual either personally or in
front of others only creates a strain on the
relationships in the group. The best thing to
do is to blame circumstances, such as the in
structions weren't clear, there wasn't enough
time, or someone outside the group was slow
in supplying information.
c. Nothing is gained by keeping quiet. A single
individual is making you and the entire group
look bad. Put pressure on the person to admit
causing the delays. If that doesn't work, tell
the boss yourself.
d. Do nothing. lt is not wise to volunteer this
type of information.
11. While working on a project, a highly, unusual prob
lem arises that is not covered in your department's
procedures manual. Even your boss is uncertain
about it. What would you do?
a. Postpone making a decision. If you put the
decision off long enough, someone else will
probably make it and any mistakes will be
their responsibility.
b . Discuss the problem with your boss, your
coworkers, and even knowledgeable people
outside your department. Okay your final de
cision with your boss before making it official.
c. Ask your boss and your fellow workers to see
what they would do. Base your decision on
the majority opinion. That way no one can put
the blame on you.
d. This is a chance to prove your abil ity. You
don't need anyone else's opinion if you are a
good employee. Make the decision yourself.
12. How important is your boss to your individual
success?
a. Except for a few years, you are as knowledge
able as or more knowledgeable than the boss.
Therefore, the boss plays only a minor role in
your success.
b. Extremely important. Without the boss to tell
you what to do, there could be no success.
c. Success depends on how happy the boss is with
what you do and how well the boss l ikes you. If
the boss is satisfied, you will be successful.
d. You and the boss work as a team. Both are
equally necessary for success.
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
1061 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS' A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS
Scoring Directions: ' Copy the scores you selected for answers a, b, c, and d
for each of the 12 questions onto the score sheets below.
Notice that each score sheet puts your answers in an
order different from the way you answered them on the
surveys. Total the numbers in each column; plot your
totals on the following graph.
Plotting Directions: Plot your four MTI and four ETI totals onto the graph
below. Use a dashed arc to indicate each MTI score and a • solid arc to indicate each ETI score. Note that the graph is
divided into four sections by a vertical and horizontal line
each section is a different communication style. To plot
MANAGER TENDENCY I NDICATOR SCOR E SHEET:
1 1 I l l IV
1 . d [ c [ b [ a [
2. a [ b [ c [ d [
3. c [ b [ a [ d [
4. b [ l a [ d [ c [
5. c [ b [ d [ a [
6. b [ d [ c [ a [
7. a [ c [ b [ l d [ l
8. b [ a [ d [ c [
9. b [ d [ a [ c [
10. d [ b [ c [ a [
11. d [ b [ c [ a [
12. a [ d [ b [ c [
Totals [ l [ l [ l [ l Open Dominate Sociable Private
each score, begin at the zero in the center of the graph
and locate and mark the score on both the vertical and
horizontal lines running on each side of the proper style.
Connect the two marks with a solid or dashed arc that
is curved like 1/4 of a circle or a pie-shaped wedge. When
finished, each section of the graph will contain both a solid
and a dashed arc. With just a glance, you can tell which
styles represent you.
Score Evaluation: The two highest scores on either the MTI or the ETI
are probably the most descriptive of your commu
nication behavior. The highest score represents the
communication style you typical ly use when things
are going wel l . The next highest score (or perhaps
EMPLOYEE TENDENCY I N DICATOR SCORE SHEET:
1 1 I l l IV
1 . d [ a [ c [ b [ l
2. a [ b [ d [ ·r. ( 3. d [ c [ b [ l a [
4. c [ a [ d [ b [
5. d [ b [ a [ c [
6. c [ d [ l b [ l a [
7. b [ l c [ a [ d [ l
8. c [ a [ d [ b [
9. b [ a [ d [ c [
10. a [ c [ b [ d [
11. b [ l d [ l c [ a [
12. d [ a [ c [ b [ l
Totals [ l [ l [ l [ l Open Dominate Sociable Private
1!1 1!1 m 111 ID 111 .!1 iiil m m '1.1 lll w w m m n 111 � 111 a Ill !il w m 111 111 l!l m m m Ill m w m 111 a 111 w m m m 1!1 !!! 111 w m m m m w
. ,; � m � ' � m � - � w � · � ' ·� ' iil
"-1 ' '" � ' !1:" • c3 • @
Cop
ied
on b
ehal
f of D
eaki
n U
nive
rsity
4/1
2/15
CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS L
two scores if they are very c lose in size) represents
the style you use under stress. Remember that these
tests are not infal l ib le and should be considered only
indicators of tendencies in your communication be
havior. Each communication style is explained in detai l
in Chapter 3.
Low Disclosure/ Assertiveness
96 -84 72 60 48
Private 36 Sociable 24 12
Low Feedback/ f-1--t---
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 High Feedback/ Responsiveness 1-9+6-8+-4-172-+60-48 36 24 12 o12
+-+--+--1 Responsiveness
24 Dominant 36 Open
48 60 72 84 96
High Disclosure/ Assertiveness