EL FUTURO DE LA ALIMENTACIÓN Y RETOS DE LA …elikadura21.eus/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/84... ·...

transcript

www.elikadura21.eus

ELFUTURODELAALIMENTACIÓNYRETOSDELAAGRICULTURAPARAELSIGLOXXI:Debatessobrequién,cómoyconquéimplicacionessociales,económicasyecológicasalimentaráelmundo.

THEFUTUREOFFOODANDCHALLENGESFOR

AGRICULTUREINTHE21stCENTURY:Debatesaboutwho,howandwithwhatsocial,economicandecological

implicationswewillfeedtheworld.ELIKADURARENETORKIZUNAETANEKAZARITZARENERRONKAKXXI.MENDERAKO:Munduanork,nolaetazer-nolakoinplikaziosozial,ekonomikoetaekologikorekinelikatukoduenizangodaeztabaidagaia

BringingtheCountryintotheCity?SignalsofagrariancitizenshipandfoodsovereigntyinthepracticeofurbanagricultureinBrazilandCanada

EvanBownessandHannahWittman

Apirila–Abril–April

24,25,262017

turodelaalim

entación

ylaAgriculturaenelSigloXXI.

BringingtheCountryintotheCity?SignalsofagrariancitizenshipandfoodsovereigntyinthepracticeofurbanagricultureinBrazilandCanada

EvanBownessandHannahWittman

Draft–commentswelcome,pleasedonotcitewithoutpermissionfromtheauthors.

Abstract

Whatrole(s)dourbanactorsplayinthedevelopmentofthefoodsovereigntyframeworkinparticularandinfood-systemschangeingeneral?Urbanagriculture,whilenotaunifiedsocialmovementinitsownright,isagrowingsocialpracticesurroundedbyclaims--includingfromsomemovementsforfoodsovereignty--toincreasefoodsecurity,empowerconsumersindecision-makingaboutthefoodsystem,reclaimurbanlands,closenutrientcycleloopsand‘reconnect’urbanresidentstonature.Assuch,itoccupiesarichconceptualspaceinthinkingthroughmechanismstorepairthe“metabolicrift”betweentownandcountry,drivenbyurbanization,capitalaccumulationandtheindustrializationofagriculture.ThroughthedevelopmentofthreecasestudiesofurbanagricultureinitiativesthatdeploythelanguageoffoodsovereigntyinCanadaandBrazil,ourpaperexploresif,howandtowhatextenturbanagriculturecan“closetherift”bydiscursivelyandmateriallymobilizingtheurbanintoagrarianstrugglesrelatedtosocialandecologicaljusticeandfoodsovereignty.

Ononehand,principles,practicesandvaluesrelatedtoagrariancitizenshipareexpressedinurbansettings,asconsumersandurbanfarmersarticulateandre-assertagrarian“identities,knowledges,positionsandpoliticalstruggles”(Roman-Alcalá,2015)adaptabroadeningcollectiveidentityof“agrariancitizenship.”Ontheotherhand,someurbanfarminginitiativesinNorthAmerica,aspartofgrowingalternativefoodmovements,havealsobeenwidelycritiquedfortheexclusionarytendenciesof“progressivewhiteness”(Slocum2007),divertingenergyandresourcesawayfromparticipationinradicalpeasantstruggles.Ourinterrogationintowhetherandhowthetheoreticalreachoffoodsovereigntyextendsintourbancontextsthroughurbanagricultureaddressesthefollowinginterrelatedquestions:1)whatprocessesofurbanagricultureradicalizeandwhichonesderadicalizeurbanactors?2)amongdifferenturbanactors,doesthepracticeofurbanagriculturemaintainconceptualseparationsofnature/society,urban/rural,producer/consumerordissolvethosebinaries,andtowhateffectforurbanagrarianism?3)areurbanagrarianismandruralagrariancitizenshipdifferentidentityframes,ifsohowandwhattensionsexistbetweenthem?and4)inwhatwayshasurbanagrarianismadvancedandhinderedfoodsovereigntyasapoliticalproject?Inunpackingtheconceptofurbanagrarianism,

turodelaalim

entación

ourpaperbeginstoclarifythe‘urbanfoodquestion’withintheglobalstruggleforfoodsovereignty.

ThePlaceofUrbanAgricultureinFoodSovereignty

Whatrole(s)doactorsinvolvedinurbanagricultureplayinthedevelopmentofthefoodsovereigntyframework,inparticular,andinfood-systemschange,ingeneral?Thispaperstartsbysituatingurbanagriculturewithinthecontextofthefoodsovereigntymovement,andthenwithinthecontextofthemetabolicrift.Wethenjuxtaposethecross-scalarurban/ruralconceptofagrariancitizenshipwiththeideaofurbanagrarianismasapossiblevehicletoarticulateurbanenergyintostrugglesforfoodsovereignty.

Risingconcernsamongacademicsandpolicymakersintheglobalfoodsystemhaveshapedaninternationaldiscourseofhowto“feedtheplanet”(Godfrayet.al.,2010).Oppositiontocorporate-ledindustrialproductionmarkedbyintensiveagrochemicaluse,greenandgenerevolutiontechnologieswithemphasisonproductivityandefficiencyofscale,hasbeengloballyexpressedthroughadiscourseof‘foodsovereignty,’whichemphasizessmall-scaleagroecologicalproduction,andequitabledevelopmentoflocalfoodsystems(Wittman,DesmaraisandWiebe2010and2011).Originallyaformofsocialmovementresistancetoneoliberalglobalization,thisalternativediscoursehasmountedpressureonstateandinternationalactorscallingforradicalchange.IncreasinglyfeaturedingrassrootscallsforchangeinEurope,Australia,andless-soinothercountriesintheGlobalNorth,foodsovereigntyisalsobecominginstitutionalizedbystatesinlegislationandformalgovernmentpoliciesandprograms.

Whiletransnationalcampaignsforfoodsovereigntyhavebeendrivenbyaglobalizedcrisisinwhatmightbeconsidered“rural”issues(suchasaccesstoland,livelihoodsandecosystemconservation),in2008theUNprojectedtheworldwouldbecomepredominantlyurban(UnitedNations,2008),emphasizingtheneedtoexploretheroleurbanactorsplayinsustainableandjustfoodsystems.Onlyrecentlyhasthefocusoffoodsovereigntyscholarsandactiviststurnedtotheurbancontext,andanemergingthreadinthefoodsovereigntydialogueconcernstheroleofurbanactorsinruralstrugglesoverlandandfoodsystems.PhilMcMichael(2014)hassuggestedthat“[i]nits‘secondgeneration’phase,[foodsovereignty]operatesonbothruralandurbanfronts,separatelyandtogether,connectingproducers,workers,consumersandvariousactivistorganizations”(194-5).FoundingmemberofLaVíaCampesinaPaulNicholson,capturesthissentimentinasking

turodelaalim

entación

Whatismotivatingpeopletotakeonboardfoodsovereignty?Itisfoodinsecurity,heatingupoftheplanet,ecologicalcrisis,longerfoodmilesandtheneedforfoodqualityandlocaleconomies.Thesearecitizens’preoccupations,peoples’preoccupations.LaVíaCampesinadoesnotownfoodsovereignty.Foodsovereigntywasnotdesignedasaconceptonlyforfarmers,butforpeople—thisiswhywecallitpeoples’foodsovereignty.[…]We’retalkingaboutidentifyingallies,developingallianceswithmanymovementsoffisherfolk,women,environmentalistsandconsumerassociations,findingcohesion,gaininglegitimacy,beingawareofco-optationprocesses,theneedtostrengthentheurban-ruraldialogue,togeneratealternativetechnicalmodels.Andaboveallthereistheissueofsolidarity(Wittman,DesmaraisandWiebe,2010:7).

Embeddedinthedialoguearefundamentalquestionsabouttheplaceofurbanactorsinfoodsovereignty.Areurbanfoodconsumersaroadblockoranopportunitytothetransformationofagrariansystems?Howdourbanization,sprawlandissuesofurbaninequalityintersectwithfoodsovereignty?DofoodjusticemovementsintheGlobalNorth,withtheiremphasisonfoodsecurityandaccess,advanceordirectenergyawayfromagrarianstruggles?AndintheglobalNorthandSouth,whatpromisemight‘urban’foodproductionholdamidstitsmanyclaimsforimprovedfoodsecurity,environmentalsustainabilityandsocialcapital?Edelmanandcolleaguesposethefollowingquestions:

Whatdo[es]thegrowingmaterialandstrategicimportanceofurbanagriculturemeanfortheconstructionoffoodsovereignty?Howcanfoodsovereigntyhelpbridgetheland,resource,marketandpolicystrugglesofruralandurbanproducers?(2014:919).

Inthispaper,wearguethaturbanagriculturehasthepotentialtocultivateurbanagrarianisms–acounterparttoagrariancitizenshipintheagri-activismofthefoodsovereigntymovement,acollectivizationofruralandurbancollectiveidentitiesintherecognitionofandparticipationinpeasantandproducerstruggles(Wittman,2009AandB).Agrariancitizenship,conceptually,canbethoughtofas‘bringingthecountrytothecity’,wheresymbolsofruralityarebroughtintourbansocialspacesthroughactivismandagroecologicalnetworkstoadvanceclaimsforfoodsovereignty.Thequestioniswhetherandthroughwhatprocessesthistranslatesbackthroughurbanparticipationinregional,nationalorinternationalfoodsovereigntymovementssuchtheNationalFarmers’UnionintheCanadiancontextorinsocialmovementssuchastheMSTorotherruralagrarianandenvironmentalmovementsinBrazil.Beforewestartunpackingurbanagrarianismandtherelationshipbetweenurbanagricultureandthefoodsovereigntymovement,thefollowingsectionbrieflyreviewstherecentliteratureonurbanagriculture,withemphasisondiscussionsofitspoliticalfunction.

turodelaalim

entación

UrbanAgriculture’sClaims

Urbanagriculture,whilenotaunifiedsocialmovementinitsownright,isagrowingsocialpracticesurroundedbyclaims--includingfromsomemovementsforfoodsovereignty--toincreasefoodsecurity,empowerconsumersindecision-makingaboutthefoodsystem,reclaimurbanlands,closenutrientcycleloopsand‘reconnect’urbanresidentstonature.Oftencombinedintheliteraturewith‘peri-urbanagriculture’(surroundingurbanareas),growingfoodandraisinganimalsforfoodinandaroundcitiesandtownsisawidespreadanddiversesocialpractice(Mougeot,2005).Itrangesfromhomegardeningwhereindividualhouseholdshaveprivateaccesstoraisedbedsforprivateconsumptiontopublically-managedcommunitygardenstolargescalehydroponicsystemsforcommercialfoodproduction,wherecommercialproductionisusuallyreferredtoas‘urbanfarming.’

Theglobalfoodcrisishasdrivencompetingperspectivesonurbanagriculture’sroleinfeedingtheworld.Ononehand,amidsttheglobaltrendtowardsurbanization(UnitedNations2008)anddecliningratiooffoodproducerstoconsumers(Satterthwaite,McGranahan&Tacoli2010),urbanagricultureisincreasinglytoutedaspartofsustainablefoodsystems1andcities(Cockrall-King2012;Pearson,Pearson&Pearson2010).However,availableurbanspaceimposesseriousconstraintsonthecapacityforurbanagtocontributetofoodsecurityintheglobalcontext(Badami&Ramankutty,2015).Inastudyestimatingglobalextentofurbanagriculture,urbangrowingspacetookup11%and4.7%ofthetotalirrigatedandrain-fedcropland,respectively(Thebo,Drechsel&Lambin,2014).However,localfoodproductionismostlimitedwheretheneedisgreatest,suchasdenselypopulatedcitiesinthepoorestcountries(Martellozzoetal.2014),althoughintheseareasitcontributesmoresignificantlytohouseholdincomes(Zezza&Tasciotti,2010).

Inadditiontoconstraintsofphysicalspaceavailablewithincitiestodedicatetofoodproduction,agrowingliteraturedocumentsthediversechallengesfacingurbanagriculture.Thisincludescompetitionfromconventionalagriculture(Debolini,Valette,François&Chéry,2015;Pfeiffer,Silva&Colquhoun,2014)andotherlandusesandsprawl(Pribadi&Pauleit,2015),aswellasenvironmental(Wortman&Lovell,2013;Sharma,Cheng,&Grewal,2014)andregulatoryissuespertainingtolabour,labellingandinspections(Bradshaw,2013).Despitethesechallengesandthelimitationstoscalingupproduction,agricultureintheurbanlandscapeisoftenjustifiedbyits‘multifunctional’benefitsbeyondjustfoodproduction(Pourias,Aubry&Duchemin,2015;Lovel2010).Thesebenefitsinclude 1It’simportanttonotethaturbanagricultureisdecidedlyunabletomakeanysignificantimpactongrainproduction,sothemajorityofacademicstudiesofurbanagriculturefocusprimarilyonvegetableandfruitproduction.

turodelaalim

entación

ecosystemservices(Lowenstein,Matteson&Minor,2015;Clarke&Jenerette,2015;Lee,Lee,&Lee,2015;Lin,Philpott&Jha,2015;Lovell&Taylor,2013),healthbenefits(Brown&Jameton,2000;Bellows,Brown&Smit,2003)andclimatechangemitigation(Lwasaetal,2015;Dubbeling&deZeeuw,2011).

Despitelimitationstoproductivityandotherchallenges,urbanagriculturehasbeenassociatedwithotherpositivesocialandcommunityeffects.2Inastudyofurbanfarmermotivations,Dimitri,Oberholtzer&Pressman(2016)document“socialmissions”includingeducation,communitybuildingandfoodjustice.Andurbanagricultureisalsoconnectedtomobilizationaroundlandtenancyissues(Kennedy,2008;Roman-Alcalá,2015),orengagementwithandoccupationofcontestedspacesinurbanenvironments.Atraditionofpoliticallymotivated‘guerrillagardening’(Reynolds,2009)exists,especiallyintheUS,andisattimesapoliticalstatement,despiteitsusuallyfragmentedandindividualizedapproach.Empirically,however,thesocialimpactsofurbanagriculturehavebeenhardtocapture.Measurementtoolkitshavebeendeveloped(seeforexamplehttp://fiveboroughfarm.net/impact/),howeverdataaccumulatinghereismeanttojustifygardeningprojectstofundersandgovernmentsmoresothantoaccrueevidenceofspecificsocietalimpacts.Andassuchtheindicators(suchasnumberofparticipantsingardens)arenotdesignedtomeasureorlinkurbanagriculturetosocialchange.

Inparticular,thedemobilizingpotentialofurbanfoodactivismrequirescriticalattention,followingagrowingliteraturerevealingtheneoliberalunderbellyofalternativefoodmovements(seeforexampleGuthman,2006).Runningalongsidethepurportedbenefitsarecriticismsoftheroleurbanagricultureplaysinoffloadingstateprovisionofwelfaresupportonto,oftendisadvantaged,communities(Weissman,2014and2015;DeLind,2014;McClintock,2014).Notonlycanprogramspromotingurbanagricultureservetoresponsibilizeurbanactorswhoarealreadydisadvantagedwithinthefoodsystemto“feedthemselves,”italsopresentsanumberofstallingmechanismswhichmaybottleneckpotentialpathwaystoscalejumpingfromimmediateurbanconcernstoissueselsewherethefoodsystem.

Thewaythatpeopledirecttheirenergytowardsfoodsystemschangeisimportant.Somemayseebuyingorganicproduceandsupportingthemainstreamingoftheorganicsectorthroughthemarketasaformofethicalconsumerism(Johnston,2008).Othersmayinvestenergyintocampaigningtosaveacommunitygardenunderthreatofurbandevelopment(Kennedy,2008).In“citiesoftheglobalnorth,theveryvisiblegardenbattlesaretheexceptionsinthepoliticsofgardens,nottherule(Wekerle&Classens,2015:1179).Andbeyond

2Thisappliesmostlyinwealthynations,butalsoseeforthetransformationinCuba(Koont,2011).

turodelaalim

entación

that,discoursestosavealocalgardenorfarmtellusverylittleabouturbanparticipationinotherfoodsystemsstrugglesthatmoresociallydistantbeyondtheurbansphereofexperience,suchaslandgrabbing,ruraldispossession,orexploitationofmigrantfarmworkers.Soalongsidethemobilizationthroughurbanagriculturecomes‘demobilizingtendencies’inurbanfoodmovements.Historicallythisparallelsagloballydispersed‘ruralexodus’thatbroughttheruralcountrysideintothecityinsearchofjobsinfactories,wheretheprospectsforurbanworkquelledruralunrestandcallsforafairerdistributionofpower,wealthandproperty.Todaytheprocesshasevolved,wecontend,inthatfoodmovements,whileakeylocusforpotentialfoodsystem,areembeddedwithinbroaderneoliberalstructuresthatlimittheirradicalpotential.Thislinkage,whichtiesurbanagriculturetothehistoryofurbanizationandagriculturaldevelopment,ismoreclearlyvisibleinhistoricaltermsthroughthelensofMarx’s‘metabolicrift.’

TheMetabolicRift:SeparationofCityandCountry

Ourapproachadoptsanurbanpoliticalecologyframe,inparticularinitsconsiderationoftheurbanexpressions,mechanismsanddynamicsinvolvedintheco-constitutionandreproductionofsocialrelationsandenvironmentalproblems.Firstweoutlineurbanpoliticalecologyasanemergingperspectiveandhighlightsomeofitsmainconcepts,narrowinginonacentralconceptinsocio-environmentalliterature,Marx’s‘metabolicrift.’Then,weconsidertheapplicabilityofthemetabolicrifttounderstandingthepracticeofurbanagriculture.Weofferascale-basedcritiquehereandposethequestionwhetherornotthisextendsbeyondurbanenvironmentsintoruralstrugglesforfoodsovereignty.

UrbanPoliticalEcologySwyngedouwcoinedthetermUrbanPoliticalEcologyin1996(Heynen2013).It’sbasedonpoliticalecology,aperspectivethatstudiesthepoliticaleconomyofenvironmentalproblems.Politicalecology’smaintaskhasbeentobringecologyintocriticalanalysisofsocialandpoliticalprocessesinunderstandingthelinksbetweenpowerimbalancesandthecommodification,transformationandconsumptionofnaturalecologiesandresources.Afterbriningthe‘environment’intocriticalpoliticalanalysis,adistinctstrandofpoliticalecologyscholarssoughttobringtheurbancontextintothedialogue.Thiswasbasedonsomeconceptualblindspotsinsocio-environmentalscholarship.UrbanPoliticalEcologicalscholarshipproblematizedthedistinctionbetweennatureandsocietyinearlyenvironmentalsociologicalwork,pointinginsteadtohownatureandsocietyarebothsociallyproduced.Thereisno‘nature’untouchedbysocialactivity,andallofsocietyismadeupoutofsocio-ecologicaltransformations.Forthisreason,theconceptofhybridityisofteninvokedtofocusontherelationsbetweensocialand

turodelaalim

entación

ecologicalprocesses(Zimmer2010;Heynenetal2006).Thissplitbetweennatureandsocietymirrorsaboundarylineseparatingthecityfromcountry,wheretheconceptualizationofmetabolicrelationsbetweendifferentscalesofcapitalistproduction,andthecorrespondinginterests,powersandcontrolstructures,shapelandscapesfortheextractionandtransformationofresourcesthatmakeurban,andrural,lifepossible.Thisdistinctionbetween“urban”and“rural”spaces,bothphysicalandsocial,thereforehashistoricaloriginsinthedevelopmentofagriculturalrelationsthatemergedalongsideprocessesofindustrialization,urbanizationandtheconcentrationofwealthandcapitalistproductionincitiesandtowns.

Henceinurbanpoliticalecologicalscholarship,there’sarecognitionofaco-constitutionbetweentheseconceptuallydistinctplaces—therelationalboundingofurbanandruraltogetherasmetabolism,wheretheurbanfeedsontherural,positioningtheminunequalpositions.Urbanpoliticalecologyasaframeworkthenrecognizestheimpactthatthishistoricaldistinctionhasandcontinuestohave,theeconomiccausesofit,aswellaslookstoprocessestoreconnectthethetwo.ThisanalyticframeismostclearlyevidentintheheavyinfluenceofMarxistpoliticaleconomyandthenotionofaMetabolicRift,whichappearsinMarx’sthirdvolumeofcapitalwhereheidentifiedanopenloopinthatnutrientswerebeingdrawnoutofthesoilascropsgrewandwereendingupinurbansewagesystemsratherthanbeingcycledbackintothesoil(Marx,1967).Hepointedtohowcapitalismdroveurbanizationandtheindustrializationofagriculture,causingbothsoildepletionandurbanpollution.Successivetransformationsinspatialandeconomicorganizationhavedrivenaneverwideningrift.Fromtheenclosureofthecommons,totheurbanizationandprolitarianizationofthepeasantry,thestorycapturedbytheconceptofthemetabolicriftisonewherenaturebecomestransformed,withnegativeconsequences,forthebenefitofaswellinggeographicallyconcentratedpopulation.Thismeansthatincreasingly,foodneedstobebroughtinfromsurroundingproductivelandscapes.Aspacegrewbetweenwherefoodcomesfromandwhereitendsup,withtheeconomicandpoliticaldriversofagriculturalactivityandurbanconsumptionononesideandagriculturalactivityanditsimpactsontheother.Thisspacecanbethoughtofintermsof“distance”betweenwherefoodcomesfromandwhereitendsup,alongwithanincreasedefficiencyinmaintaining,throughabstractionofcommodificationandfinancializationoffoodmarkets,thatdistancetohidetheexternalitiesbehindgettingfoodintoconsumers’shoppingcarts(Clapp,2014).

AsSchneiderandMcMichael(2010)argue,theecologicaldimensionofthisriftismorecomplexthanwhatMarxhadpresented,notingthecomplexityofsoilhealthcannotbeboileddowntonutrientcontent.Butnotonlyisthisriftanecologicalone,it’salsoasocialone,recognizingthattheembodiedpracticeofecologicalproductionwasleftbehindduringurbanmigration.Alienationfromthelandhasimpliedacrisisnotonlyofecologybutalsoofknowledge,andasgenerationsof

turodelaalim

entación

urbanworkersareincreasinglydistancedfromtheland,fromtheoncecommonlyheld‘foodliteracy’toproduceandpreparefood,andfromparticipationinagriculturalgovernance,anepistemicrifthasopenedseparating“theexperienceandknowledgeofhuman/naturerelations(orthepracticeofagro-ecology)fromtheconditionsofsociallifeundercapitalism”(Schneider&McMichael,2010:480-1).Thisseparationbetweentownandcountryhasintensifiedintotodayastheworldcontinuestourbanizeandasagriculturecontinuestoindustrialize(Reardon,BereuterandGlickman,2016).

UrbanAgricultureandClosingtheRift?

WefollowTornaghi2014’scallfora

criticalapproachwhichputsUAinitiativesinthecontextofspecificsociopolitical(andfood)regimes,andinvestigatestherolethattheyplayinthereproductionofcapitalism,inthetransformationofurbanmetabolicprocesses,andinthediscursive,politicalandphysicalproductionofnewsocio-environmentalconditions(553)

Asapracticethatstraddlestheconceptualspaceofurbanconsumptionandruralproduction,thetwospacesofactivitydividedbythemetabolicrift,whatrolemighturbanagricultureplayinclosingorrepairingit?NathanMcClintocksuggestedthattherearethreeformsofriftimpliedinmetabolicrifttheory,andthaturbanagricultureworkstoclosethemall(2010).Urbanagriculture,ifhighlyproductive,canhelpclosetheecologicalriftbylessoningtheextractionofnutrientsfromruralsoilsandevencyclingnutrientsbackandhealingthesoilthroughhumanurecaptureinurbanproductivespaces.Healsosuggeststhaturbanagriculturehistoricallyarisestolessenthenegativeimpactsofunbridledmarkets,andthereforeisaresponsetotheunfoldingofprimitiveaccumulation,thecommodificationofland,labourandfood.Urbanpovertyinsomeinstancescanbedampenedthroughsubsistenceurbanagricultureorthroughsupplementingdietswithfoodgrownathome.Andfinally,theseprocessesofcommodificationoflandandfoodandgenerationsofurbanizationisexperiencedonanindividuallevelintheformofalienationfromtheprocessofproducingfood,sointheglobalnorthwherefoodproductionisn’tnecessarilytheendgoalofurbanagriculture,itdoesserveto‘reconnecturbanfolkstonatureandtoagriculturalexperiencesoflabourandsubsistenceproduction.

Whileurbanagricultureprovidesanopportunityfordealienationandprotectionagainstenclosureandmarketforces,theactualpotentialfordecommodificationofnatureandlandthroughurbanagricultureislimitedinboththeGlobalNorthandSouth.Inurbanenvironmentswithhighlyvaluedproperty,landinterestsare

turodelaalim

entación

powerfulanddrivetowardseconomicgrowth(Harvey&Molloch,2007),soanyattempttotransformpropertyrelationsinurbanenvironmentswithstrongwillbemetwithstrongresistancefromthestateandcapital.Inpoorerareas,theremightbemoreopportunityhere,whereintheGlobalNorththisisexpressedintheformoffoodjusticeactivismandguerillagardening,activitiesthatoperateininterstitialsocialspaces.However,inurbanareasintheSouth,arguablywheredecommodificationmightmakethebiggestimpactinsuturingthesocialrift,thereisn’tenoughspacetochallengeexistingeconomicrelationsatameaningfulscale(Badami&Ramankutty,2015).Thatbeingsaid,anestablishedscholarshippointstourbanspacesasbothepicentersofcapitalaccumulationononehandandthepivotalpointsfortheformationofrevolutionarypoliticsandmovements(Castells1983;Harvey,2009).Doesurbanagricultureplayarolehere?

TheUrbanFoodSovereigntyQuestion:FromAgrarianCitizenshiptoUrbanAgrarianism?

Urbanagriculturemayfactorintoclosingthegapbetweenurbanandruralasaformofagrariancitizenship(Wittman,2009AandB).LaVíaCampesina,thetransnationalpeasantorganization,bridgesurbanandruralsubjectivitiesthroughpracticesofagroecologyandthecreationofalternativemarketrelations(2009B).Thefoodsovereigntymovementisanexampleofreframingofwhohastherighttomakedecisionsandexertpoweroveraterritory.Inchallengingpowerinstitutions,suchasthestate,andlargecorporateinterest,foodsovereigntymovementscarriesaradicalizationofanewpoliticalsubject:thecollectiveagrariancitizen.Inthisway,foodsovereigntyengageswithandexpandshorizonofcitizenship.Whilecitizenship,asapoliticalconcept,isoftenevokedinitsWestphalian,nation-statecentredform,referringoftheconferringofrightsandimposingobligationswithinasocialcontract(the‘Marshallian’conceptualizationofcitizenship),agrariancitizenshipdescribesanalternativebasisforpoliticalparticipationintransnationalmovementsforfoodsovereignty.It’sthecollectivesubjectivityforaglobalizingsocialmovement,whatgivesfoodsovereigntyavoicecallingforthetransformationoffoodsystem,entailingbothanadvocacyforpeasantaccesstoproductiveresourcesandthetransitiontowardsmoresustainableagriculturethroughagroecology.

Foodsovereigntyasasocialmovementseekstoaddressfood-relatedstruggles,whichoriginallywerefocusedonruralspacesingeographictermsfoughtwith,byandonbehalfofruralpeople.Thatbeingsaidthemovementismulti-scaleinoriginandimpetus(Bowness&Desmarais,2016;Iles&DeWitt,2015).Thisistosaythatthediscourseoffoodsovereigntyemergedinthe1990sasruralandurbanfolksinboththeglobalSouthandNorthcametogetherinarticulatingavisiontochallengestatepoliciesandcorporatepowerinthepoliticaleconomyoffood.Nowthediscourseoffoodsovereigntyhasspreadtourbanenvironmentsas

turodelaalim

entación

well(Blocketal.2011;Laidlaw&Magee,2015;Davila&Dyball,2015).Someissuesarisinginurbandiscussionoffoodsovereigntyincludeaccesstoecologicallyandlocallyproducedfoodthatrespectstherightsofindigenouspeoples,thenotionofacommonsandtherighttoproducefoodinurbanspacesandmakeafairwage.Thereisaresonancehere,expressedintheurbancontext,towhathavebeencharacteristicallyconstructedas‘rural’foodsovereigntystruggles:Strugglesoveraccessland,overenvironmentalconditions,overstateregulations,andmarketconstrictions.Wenametheseaffinitiesandsocialprocessesofalignmenturbanagrarianism.

UrbanAgrarianism:FromFoodLiteracytoFoodCitizenshipFoodsovereigntymovements,suchasLaVíaCampesinaandtheMSTinBrazil,callonurbanpeoplesforactsofsolidarityinrelationtoagrarianstruggles,seekingsupportersfordemonstrations,declarations,landoccupationsandpolicyproposals.Urbanagriculturemayconnect,throughadialecticalrelationship,thecityandcountrytohelpsupportthispathway,wherethe“citygoestothecountry”inexperiencing‘rural’conditionswithincitylimitsconceptuallyandthen,physicallybygettinginvolvedinsocialmovementsandpolicymobilization.Inthissense,foodproductioninandaroundcitiesandtownsmightstimulateagrarianismwhichinturncanfeedintoagrariancitizenship.

Agrarianismisadiscoursethatvalorizesself-sufficiency,relianceandsimplicity(Carlisle,2013).A‘new’agrarianismtodayisevidentinplacessuchasBritishColumbiainCanadawheresocialgroupssuchastheYoungAgrariansendorsefarmlandprotectionmeasuresthatstifleunbridledeconomicdevelopmentandurbansprawlaswellasprovidesupportforcommunity-basedformsoffarmlandmanagementthatenablesyoungergenerationsoffarmerstosecuretenureamidstincreasinglandvalues(Wittman,Dennis&Pritchard2017).Thenewagrariansalsocarryoutamandateinfindingandsupportingemergingfarmerslivingincitieswhoarelookingtoearnalivelihoodinsociallyandecologicallyresponsibleagriculturebyparticipatinginlandaccessstruggles.Thisdrawingofurbanenergyoutintoruralspaceswhilesimultaneouslytransitioningindustrialagriculturetoorganicorlow-impactfarmingandprotectingfarmlandispartofaruraltransitionisonerural-urbanconfluenceinthestruggleforfoodsovereignty.

Asurbanspacesareafocalpointforsocialchangeandthemyriadofruralissuesamidstincreasingurbanization,urbanagrarianism,ortheurbanprioritizationofconcernsforfoodproducersinthecountryside,isalsoneededtosupportfoodsovereignty.Basedontheideaof‘transformativefoodactivism’(Levkoe,2011),urbanagrarianismkindlesaconceptualethicofcareforlandintheurbanconsciousness,expandingthespaceofengagementwiththefoodsystembeyondurbanspacesofconsumptionandtocritiquethelocalfocusofmuchofcontemporaryfoodmovements.Inthissense,inanidealformurbanagrarianism

turodelaalim

entación

isaculturaldiffusion,andurbanideology.Urbanagrarianismdevelopsthroughandwithfoodliteracy,food-system/criticalfoodliteracyandfoodcitizenship.

FoodLiteracy

WendellBerryfamouslylamentedthe“industrialeater[…]whodoesnotknowthateatingisanagriculturalact,whonolongerknowsorimaginestheconnectionsbetweeneatingandtheland,andwhoisthereforenecessarilypassiveanduncritical—inshort,avictim”(1992:375).Thischaracterizationisofthefoodilliterate.Startingfromtheperspectiveofindividuals,thedesiretochangethefoodsystemstartswithunderstandingfoodanddevelopingarelationshipwithit,withknowingwhatweeat.Thisunderstanding,knowledgeofandconnectiontofoodisvariouslydescribedas‘foodliteracy.’Emergingfromtherobustliteratureonhealthliteracy,foodliteracy,foodliteracyhasbeendefinedasa“collectionofinter-relatedknowledge,skillsandbehavioursrequiredtoplan,manage,select,prepareandeatfoodtomeetneedsanddetermineintake”(Vidgen&Gallegos,2014:54).Foodliteracyinthissensereferstopracticalknowledgeassociatedwiththebiologicalnecessityofeatingforhealthydevelopmentandthepreventionofdisease.

Knowledgeaboutconsumingfoodsisn’tlimitedinfocustonutrition.Foodliteracyalsoexistswithinacontextofculturalnorms(Fieldhouse1995).Howfoodispreparediscultural,asiswhatfoodsareavailableandwhenandhowtheyshould/canbeeaten,andthemeaningsimbuedinthem.Foodmeansmorethanjustnutrition,it’sasocialpracticeandsomedefinitionsoffoodliteracytakethatintoconsideration.Therealsothepracticalskillsassociatedwithbeingabletoproducefood,togrowedibleplantsandtoraiseanimalsforfood.Foodproductionisalsoasetof‘inter-relatedknowledge,skillsandbehaviours’whichindividualscanhavemoreorlessofinagivenproductioncontext.

Food-SystemLiteracyandCriticalFoodLiteracy

Foodliteracyasdefinedabovereferstoafairlylimitedspectrumofactivity:thepurchasingandhandlingoffooditemsforconsumption.Whilethisbaseconnectiontofoodisarguablyessentialtobeingacommittedparticipantinthemovementtobuildadifferentfoodssystem,otherdefinitionsbroadenthescopetoknowledgeaboutthefoodsystemtoincludetheproduction,processing,distributionorwastemanagement.“Foodsystemliteracy”involvesdevelopingknowledgeatatleastthreedifferentscales:thebiologicalandphysicalproperties,socialrelationsandglobalsupplychains(Widener&Karides2014).Andsoquestionsbeyondpersonalhealthimpactscanbroadenthescopein

turodelaalim

entación

understandingthebroaderimplicationsoffood.InaqualitativeexplorationofknowledgesharingwithinthefoodmovementinSouthFlorida,YamashitaandRobinson(2014)identifiedthreesensitiveissues:GMOs,climatechangeandfarmworkerjustice.Andsofoodsystemliteracy,asdefinedhere,emergesfromengagingwithquestionssuchas:Whataretheimpactsforthefarmerswhoproducedit?Whatroledoesgeneticmodificationandnewagriculturaltechnologiesplayinfoodsecurityandecologicalstability?Howdoesagriculturalproductionaffecttheclimate,locallyandglobally?

Implicitincriticalfoodliteracyisarecognitionofthesocialinequitiesinthefoodsystem,whichismoreprominentinthedefinitionofferedbyYamashita&Robinson(2016),whodefinecriticalfoodliteracyas

theabilitytoexamineone’sassumptions,grapplewithmultipleperspectivesandvaluesthatunderliethefoodsystem,understandthelargersociopoliticalcontextsthatshapethefoodsystem,andtakeactiontowardcreatingjust,sustainablefoodsystems(269)

Ehlert&Voßemer(2015)arguefortakinganactor-orientedapproachtoconceptualizingfoodsovereignty,whereeachactor’slife-worldisaspaceinwhichfood-systemchallengesmanifestthroughmicronegotiationswithothers,policies,institutionsandecologicalconditions.Takingthisapproachconsidersindividualpeople(forexample,urbanfarmers,consumers,activistsandpolicyactors)askeyactorsinfoodsovereigntyandtakesintoaccounttheirlivedrealitiesintheirday-to-dayexperiencesaswellastheiractivitiesinthevariousinstitutionalrolestheyplay.Butit’salsoimportanttoconsidercollectiveactorsaswell(institutions,organizations),suchasnon-profits,branchesofgovernment,farmsandeducationalinstitutions.

Doesurbanagricultureholdpotentialforrepairingthemetabolicrift,bringingthecitytothecountrybyfosteringurbanagrarianism?Doesurbanagriculturegrowcriticalfoodorfood-systemsliteracywhichinturnfeedsagrariancitizenship?Ourinterrogationintowhetherandhowthetheoreticalandpracticalreachoffoodsovereigntyextendsintourbancontextsthroughurbanagricultureaddressesthefollowinginterrelatedquestions:

1) areurbanagrarianismandruralagrariancitizenshipdifferentidentityframes,ifsohowandwhattensionsexistbetweenthem?

2) whatprocessesofurbanagricultureradicalizeandwhichonesderadicalizeurbanactors?

turodelaalim

entación

3) amongdifferenturbanactors,doesthepracticeofurbanagriculturemaintainconceptualseparationsofnature/society,urban/rural,producer/consumerordissolvethosebinaries,andtowhateffectforurbanagrarianism?

4) inwhatwayshasurbanagrarianismadvancedandhinderedfoodsovereigntyasapoliticalproject?

Inunpackingtheconceptofurbanagrarianism,ourpaperbeginstoclarifythe‘urbanquestion’withintheglobalstruggleforfoodsovereignty.

CaseStudyDevelopment

ThroughthedevelopmentofcasestudiesofurbanagricultureinitiativesthatdeploythelanguageoffoodsovereigntyinCanadaandBrazil,ourprojectisexploringif,howandtowhatextenturbanagriculturecan“closetherift”bydiscursivelyandmateriallymobilizingtheurbanintoagrarianstrugglesrelatedtosocialandecologicaljusticeandfoodsovereignty.Thesecasestudiesarepreliminary/pilotcases.Theseobservationsaredrawnfromthepasttwoyearsofformalandinformalparticipantobservation,interviewsandfocusgroupsinWinnipegVancouver,andFlorianopolis.

TheSouthOsbornePermacultureCommonsinWinnipeg,MB,isanetworkofeducationalandproductivegardenspaces,programsandevents.TheCommonsinvolvesavarietyactorsandinstitutions,buttwoinparticularhaveemergedastakingonamanagementrole:SustainableSouthOsborne(SSO)andtheSouthOsbornePermacultureWorkers’Cooperative.SSOhasthemandateof‘fosteringacultureofsustainabilityandresilienceintheneighbourhood’(www.SouthOsborneCommons.com).Thegroupstartedin2009,inthefirstfewyears,thefairlymodestinitiativeamountedtogardeningprograms,alocalfoodbuyingclubandafewfundraisingeventsandlocalmarkets.In2012theyunderwentabroadeningofmandatealongwithanamechangeandbroadermandatetofostera“cultureofsustainabilityandresilienceintheneighbourhood”througheducationandcommunity-basedurbanagriculture.

WhileSSOhostsafewsmallereventsduringWinnipeg’slongwinterwhenthegardensarenotinoperation,mostoftheirworkhappensduringthegrowingseason.SSO’sprimaryresponsibilityinmanagingtheCommonsissecuringaccesstospaceandfindingandallocatingresourcestodevelopagriculturesites(inparticular,infindinggrantfunding).Theyalsocoordinatefundraisingefforts,suchastheperennialSouthOsborneHarvestDinnerwhichfeeds175communitymembersamealbothservedandgrowninthecommunityorchardhostedbyafewpopularlocalrestaurants.

turodelaalim

entación

Thegardensitessitonpublically-ownedland(mostoften,CityofWinnipegparkspace).SSOentersagreements–sometimesformal,sometimesinformal–withgroupsandindividualswhoshareastakeintheland,andthenusesthespacetohosteducational‘GardenClubs,’andtogrowproduceeithertodonatetolocalorganizationswhosupportlower-incomefolksorforsale.Whennewspacesneedtobedeveloped,partoftheexpansionworkisdonebyvolunteersinthecommunity,andotherpartsaredonethroughacommunity-basedappliedcourseofferedthroughtheUniversityofManitoba’sDepartmentofSociologycalled‘BuildingaCommons.’

In2015theexpansionofexistingsitesbecametoomuchofaheavyburdentomanagebyvolunteerandstudentinvolvementalone.SSOdevelopedanurbanfarmingsocialenterprise,theSouthOsbornePermacultureWorkers’Cooperative(SOPWC),whowouldberesponsibleformanagingthefoodproductionandgardenclubsatthesites.Membersoftheco-op,deemed‘GardenStewards,’wouldtakeontheroleofdesigningnewspaces,overseeingtheirconstruction,managingexistinggardens,hostingtheGardenClubs,distributingfoodtoparticipantsandsocialjusticeagencies,andsellingproducetopaytheirwages.Thislastpartiskey,asamajorpartoftheSOPWC’smissionistomakeurbanfarmingaviablecareer.Theworkerco-opalsofollowspermacultureprinciplestotheextentthattheycan,focusingonsoilbuildingandgrowingtechniquesthat,asmuchaspossible,growbothhealthyfoodandlandscapes.

In-depth-interviewswiththeparticipantsintheCommons(n=6)andtwofocusgroups(n=12)duringthispilotresearchalsoindicatedthatthegroupismixedwithrespectofseeingthemselvesasadvancingfoodsovereignty.Someinthegroupsawaccessingpubliclandforeducationalandsocialentrepreneurialgoalsasaformof‘sovereignty’inthefaceofconstraintbyexternalpressures,suchasmunicipalregulation.AlthoughgenerallytheframeemployedbythoseintheCommonsmorecloselyalignedwiththeideaofeducationandsharingspaceratherthancontrollingaccesstoitandreclaimingproductiveresources.

VancouverUrbanFarmingSocietyandFarmFolkCityFolk

Vancouver,BC,hasrecentlybecomesomethingofahotspotforeco-initiatives,especiallysince2010whenthemunicipalgovernmentcommittingtobeingtheworld’sGreenestCityby2020(ValleyandWittman,2016).Amongtheplansforrealizingthisgoalisthecity’sfoodstrategy,withastrongemphasisonurbanagriculture.Thesameyearthatthemayordeclaredthisambitiousgoal,theVancouverUrbanFarmingSocietywasformedas:

turodelaalim

entación

anetworkofurbanfarmersthataimstoadvanceurbanfarminginVancouverthroughpublicoutreachandpolicydevelopment.ThesocietyhasacloserelationshipwiththeVancouverFoodPolicyCouncilandoftencollaborateswithCitystaffforeducationalurbanfarmtours,policyconsultation,andoutreachtodemonstrateandpromotepolicyrelatedinitiatives(86).

UrbanagricultureorganizationsinVancouver‘gobeyond’foodproductioninthattheirmotivationsarediverseandrangefromimprovingfoodliteracyamongparticipantstopromotingsocialjusticeandcommunityfoodsecurity.AnorganizationintheBCcontextthatlinksurbanandruralspacesthroughagriculturalpracticeisthenon-profitFarmFolkCityFolk(FFCF),agroupthat

workstocultivatealocal,sustainablefoodsystem.Ourprojectsprovideaccessto&protectionoffoodlands;supportlocalgrowersandproducers;andengagecommunitiesinthecelebrationoflocalfood(FFCF2016)

ThroughanarrangementbetweenFFCFandtheLandConservancyofBC,alandtrust,FFCFmanagesthe‘CommunityFarmsNetwork’which:

1. Supporttheadvancementofmodelsof“sharedfarmingonsharedland”andalternativelandownership

2. Tocontributetotheprotectionofworkingagriculturalandfood-producinglands,

3. Tosupportfarmlandaccessfornewfarmers

Toadvancesustainable,community-ledandsociallyembeddedmodelsoffarmlandownership,access,governanceandproductioninBC,theCFPsupportslinkingfarmerswithurbansupporters,throughthecreationoffarmer-to-farmerandfarmer-to-consumersupportopportunities,andthroughhostinganannualroundtableforcommunityfarmers(FFCF,2014).FFCFboastsamongitsprojectsamicroloanprogramwithno-interestloansavailabletoproducers,aseedsecurityprogramto“maintainandexpand”plantdiversity,alocalfoodhubthatservesasanonlinemarketplaceandcentraldeliverysiteforanetworkoffarmersnearmetroVancouvertocommercialbuyers,adiverseeventseriesandanetworkof‘YoungAgrarians’whosupportyouthandfarminginBC.

Florianopolis,Brazil

turodelaalim

entación

notefordraft:ThisthirdcasestudycontextinBrazilisintheearlystagesofdevelopment…

Asoneofthefirstfederalgovernmentstoenshrinefoodsovereigntyinitsconstitution,BrazilhasanextensivenationalfoodstrategyimplementedatthestatelevelthroughFoodandNutritionalSecurityCouncils(orCONSEA).TheCONSEAinSantaCatarina,arelativelyeconomicallywell-offregionintheSouthEast,hasestablishedaworkinggrouponUrbanAgriculturethatisrapidlyadvancinginnovativepolicysuggestionsforincreasingtheviabilityandscopeofurbanagricultureintheregion.CEPAGRO(CentrodeEstudosePromoçãodaAgriculturadeGrupo,ortheCentrefortheStudyandPromotionofGroupAgriculture),anon-profitorganizationaffiliatedwiththestateuniversity.CEPAGRO’sorganizationaltaglinetranslatedmeans“agroecologyforthehealthofmankind[sic],earthandinthecity.”Inadditiontoplayingakeyroleintheworkinggrouponurbanagriculture,CEPAGROalsocoordinatesacityurbancompostingprogramcalledthe“RevoluçãodosBaldinhos”ofthe‘revolutionofbuckets.’]

AgrarianCitizenshipinUrbanContexts

Foodsovereigntystrugglesinurbanandruralareascansharethesamefundamentalprincipleofchangingsocialrelationsaroundfood,rootedontheprinciplesofdemocraticempowerment,ecologicalsustainabilityandsocialequity.Agrariancitizenshipisasharedidentityframeandpoliticalsubjectivitytakenupbydiversesocialmovementactorsfightingforfoodsovereigntyinruralareas.Momentuminthefoodsovereigntymovement,however,dependsonwidespreadurbanparticipationkeepingpacewithurbanizationandtheprogressionofinterlinkedchallengesforfoodproduction.Agrariancitizenshipspansurbanandrural,withmovementparticipantssituatedinandacrossbothscales.Urbanagrarianism,ontheotherhand,existsasaculturalideologyormovementinurbanenvironments.Thismakesthemseparateyetoverlappingidentityframes,relatedinthaturbanagrarianismscanbringurbanenergyintoagrariancitizenship,raisingfoodissuesinurbanenvironmentswheredecision-makingandsocialmovementpowerprimarilyresides.

Someurbanagriculturistsconsidertheirpracticeaformoffoodactivism(Counihan&Siniscalchi,2013).Inanoftquoteddefinition,permaculturalistscalltheirpractice“revolutiondisguisedasgardening,”theterm‘guerillagardening’evokesimagesofsocialrebellionandcivilunrest,andintypologyofurbanagriculture,McClinktock(2014)includesa“radical”variantthatexpressesideals

turodelaalim

entación

suchasthe‘righttothecity’and‘foodjustice.’However,inthecasestudiesexaminedhere,thedegreetowhichurbanagriculturehasyetproducedsubstantialsocialchangeisnegligible,althoughtherearesomereasonstoseepotentialintheformofsocialmovementmobilization.Whiledefinitionsofsocialmovementsdiffer,mostagreeonthecentralityofanintendedpoliticaloutcomepursuedoutsideoftherealmofthepoliticalsystem,andsotheframingofasocialproblemiscentraltoasocialmovement.Acollectiveactionframeisasetofdiscursiveresourcesthatdefinetheintendedchange,helpingparticipantsknowwhatisatissueandhowtobringaboutabetterworld.Theframedesignatesacollectiveactor,anagentofchange,andservesasacalltoactiontomobilizeforit.Inthecasesexaminedhere,urbanagricultureprovidesameansofaframeconstructiontoconnecturbanandruralsturggles.

Anadditionaltwoideasdrawnfromsociologicalliteratureusefulheretoconceptualizingurbanagrarianism:identityinsocialmovementparticipationandsocialnetworks.Oneoutcomeofframingisthecreationofcategoriesofbeliefandbelonging,socialgroupingsof‘we’and‘them.’Theconstructionofashareddefinitionoftheproblemandoutliningpossibleavenuesforcollectiveactioncreatesthisseparationandsimultaneouslythecreationofacollectivesubject.Thiscanunifyanaggregatearoundasharedsenseofparticipation,obligationorinjustice.Alargestrandofsocialmovementconceptsandstudiesfocusonthiselementofcollectiveidentity–itsformationandmanagementandhowidentitycanbeadrivingforceforpoliticalchange(Polletta&Jasper,2001;Simon&Klandermans,2001).Asidefromthesubjectiveelementsofsocialmovements,inobjectivetermstheyrefertopatternsofrelationshipsbetweenactors,bothindividualandcollectiveengagedinchange-making.Asocialmovementthencanbethoughtofasarelativelystablesetofconnections,orinteractionsbetweenthosewhichtheframeisadvancedbyandfor,whileatthesametimebeingaconnectionwithaprocessofstruggleagainstsomeopposingforceorstate.

Urbanagriculturecanlinktomovementsforchangeaffectingextra-urbanspacesinthatprinciples,practicesandvaluesrelatedtoagrariancitizenshipareexpressedinurbansettings:asconsumersandurbanfarmersarticulateandre-assertagrarian“identities,knowledges,positionsandpoliticalstruggles”(Roman-Alcalá,2015).Forinstance,theidentityofan‘urbanfarmer’placesasenseofstewardshipofthelandintheurbancontextofcomplexlanduserelations,restrictionsandtensions.Participantsinanurbanagriculturenetworkorcommunitygardenmayalsodevelopasharedidentityasacollective.Forinstance,formalmembershipinanorganization,oreveninformaltiestoagroupofgardenerscanprovideasenseofbelongingandconnectionthroughsocialrelationstobasedefinitionsofproblemsandproposalsforsocialchange.Further,urbanfarmingidentitiesalsoincorporatetheroleoffoodsystemseducator,wheretheyoften“seektodemonstratethatenvironmentallyandsociallyresponsiblefoodproductionispossible”(Valley&Wittman,2016:56).

turodelaalim

entación

It’sbecomingincreasinglyrecognized,forinstance,thatlandaccessisamajorissueforurbanagriculture(Wekerle&Classens2015).Thereareaffinitiesintheexperiencesofhardshipofurbanfarmers,gardenersandactivistsandthoseofruralproducers,althoughtheintensitymaybequitedifferent.Whiletheexclusionfromaccesstolandforpeasantproducerscanbelifethreatening,urbanaccessintheGlobalNorthismorelikelytoresultinalossofincomeorcommunityspace.Thestruggleforlandandaccesstoresources,orstrugglesagainstthestatecansharearesonancebetweenurbanandruralfarms.Thestruggleforlandsovereignty(Roman-Alcalá,2015)mightalignacollectiveidentityurbanagriculturistsandfarmerswhoaccessagriculturallandinthefaceoffarmconglomerationandrisinglandvalues.

AndsowithFFCFandtheCommunityFarmsPrograminBCthereisadeliberateconnectionlinkingurbanproducerstoruralspacesinanorganizedefforttoaddresstheissueoflandtenuresecurityforfarmers.Whilenotalways,implicithereisanassumptionthaturbanagriculturecanfeedintothestreamfromcitytofarmbysupportingfood,oragricultural,literacy.Urbanagricultureorganizationsalsocanserveasnetworkinghubsthatlinkacrosstootherorganizations–formalandinformal,interstitialandsymbiotic(touseWright’sterminology,2010),stateandnon-state.Suchorganizationsmayserveasabridgebetweenruralandurbanintheirconnectiontourbanagriculturalorganizationsmayserveasaportalforurbanmobilization.InManitoba,theHarvestMoonSocietyforinstanceisanon-profitorganizationinthesouth-westernpartoftheprovincebasedoutofthesmallruralmunicipality(population<100).Theycanalsoserveasmembersonfoodpolicycouncilsformingalinkbetweenurbanagricultureasapracticeandpolicydecisionsaboutthefoodsystem.Theorganizationhostsanannualmusicfestival,isthehometoalearningcentreandpermaculturedemonstrationgardeninthelocalelementaryschoolwhichwhenclosedthemunicipalitysoldtotheHMS,andafoodbuyingclubforanetworkof16directmarketingsmall-farmsintheregion.TwouniversitycoursesbringstudentsouttoClearwatertoconnectwithfoodproductionandruralstrugglesthroughtheHarvestMoonSociety:LivinginRuralEnvironmentsandCommunitiesandBuildingaCommons,whichconnectsSSOtoRuralManitoba.

UrbanAgrarianism’sBinaries

Anurbanpoliticalecologicalapproachtothestudyofurbanagricultureraisessomequestions:doesurbanagriculturemaintainconceptualseparationsofnature/society,urban/rural,producer/consumerordissolvethosebinaries,andtowhateffectforurbanagrarianism?BasedontheirethnographicfieldworkintheNorthEasternUnitedStates,MincyteandDobernig(2016)suggestthaturbanagriculturereducessocialdistancecausedbythemetabolicriftthrough‘experientialproduction,’“reconnectingparticipantstonature”and

turodelaalim

entación

decommodfyingagriculturallabourthroughsimulationsoffarmconditionsforvolunteers.Thephysicalspaceofagardensiteitselfblursthedivisionbetweennatureandsocietyinthatnaturalinputs(thesun,precipitation)aswellasnaturalprocessesshapedbypeople(suchascompostingandseedstarting),makethedistinctionbetweennatureandsocietylesscleartoparticipants.Thisbecomesevenmorepronouncedinperi-urbanagriculturesites,orruralcommunitygardensitessuchastheHarvestMoonLearningCentreinClearwaterMB,in‘urban’environmentssurroundedmorecloselybyopengreenandagriculturalspacesorrurality.Recognitionofafarm’sdependenceonbiologicalprocesses,soilhealthandastableclimateembedshumanactivitywithinabroadereconomyofnature.Butatthesametime,theappealofurbanagricultureprovidesanopportunityto‘reconnect’tonature,therebyreinforcingtheseparationbetweennatureandsocietyinsuggestingthatnatureissomethingthatwecanreconnectto.Andsoawidespreadurbanagrarianismwoulddispersebothrecognitionofsocietyaspartofnature,whileatthesametimeseparatefromit.

Thebasicpremiseofthemetabolicriftisthatindustrializationandurbanizationcauseenvironmentalandsocialproblemsinruralareaswhichremaininvisibletothoseinurbanenvironments,andtheliteratureonurbanagricultureaswellascasestudiesunderdevelopmenthereshowhowtheseissuesareexpressedinurbanspacesaswell.Tensionsoverlandaccess,pollutionaffectingsoilconditions,collapsesthedistinctionbetweencityandcountryforthosewhogrowfoodincitiesandprovidesurbanpeopleaframeofreferencethatconnectstoruralspaces.Thiscanhelpinthedevelopmentofagrariancitizenshipinurbanenvironmentswhereurbanandruralidentitiesmergeinasharedcollectiveactionframeagainstsimilarstruggles.

It’shardtotellhow‘selfsufficient’urbanfarmersareasthatdatadoesnotexist.Itisreasonabletoexpectthatmosturbanfarmersdonotproducealloftheirownfood,anddependonthemarketforfoodprovisioning.Growersarethereforebothproducersandconsumersoffood,whichmayormaynotbecommodifiedinthemarket.Further,asurbanfarmsareeducationalandvolunteer-oriented,thosethatinvolveparticipantsinmanagementdecisionsalsoblursubjectpositions,integratingurbanconsumersintoametabolicprocess,albeitonafairlylimitedscale.Thiscollapsingofsubjectpositions,aswiththenature/culture,urban/ruraldividesmighthelpinrelatingurbanactorstoasharedagrarianidentityframe.

UrbanAgriculture’sDemobilizingTendencies

Thisisthemeltingpotwhereurbanagrarianismcandevelop,butalsoinpotentiallycontradictingways.Whilethereisreasontobelievethaturbanagriculturecanbeacatalystforchange,ontheotherhandurbanagriculturealso

turodelaalim

entación

hasthepotentialtodemobilizeurbansocialenergyfromleavingthecitybacktothecountry.Andthetensionshereinemergenturbanagrarianismsareexpresseddifferentlyacrossanumberofinterrelatedurbanactorpositions(farmer,gardener,consumer,activist,andpolicy-maker).

McClintock(2014),citingPudup,AllenandGuthman,suggests“thegooddeedsoforganisedurbanagricultureprojects,likeotherAFNs,actuallybolsterneoliberalismbyprovidingfoodtothosehithardestbytheroll-backofthewelfarestate”(156).Suchfoodjusticemaylessentheblowdealtbycapital’sinequalitybutfailstoaddressrootsystemicandhistoricalcausesofpovertyandracism.Thealternativefoodmovementhas,inthissense,beendismissedfortheexclusionarytendenciesof“progressivewhiteness”(Slocum2007)or‘elitistfoodie-ism,’potentiallydivertingenergyandresourcesawayfromparticipationinradicalpeasantstruggles.Andsoforfarmersandgardeners,activistsandpolicymakers,urbanagriculturemayservetopacifypotentialparticipantsinmoreradicalsocialmovements.

Orcollectiveactionconnectedtourbanagriculturemayorganizeforthe‘wrongtarget.’Inthetheproposaltodevelopnew‘green’trendy(andexclusive)“agrarian-urbanism”inspiredneighborhoods,forexample,lowdensityhousingpepperedwithfoodproductionthroughout“couldneverrepresentalivingsolutionforeveryone,butratheraprivilegeforafew”(Tornaghi,2014:516).TheTransitionTownmovement,alocalizationmovementaddressingtheinterlinkedchallengesofpeakoil,climatechangeandglobalfinancialinstability(Hopkins,2009),hasbeencritiquedanexampleofthis,wheretheproposaltocreate‘resilient’self-reliantecotownsareviewedaselitistandexclusionary.SustainableSouthOsborneiscloselyconnectedwiththeTransitionMovement,withoverlappingmembersparticipatinginSSOandinTransitionWinnipegactivities,andadoptsthroughTWthelanguageofresilienceandlocalization.Thesevaluesorvirtuesappearthroughouturbanagriculturalpracticeasparticipantsandorganizationsstrivetobepartofthemakingofamoresustainable‘local’foodsystem.Failingtotakeabroaderscalefallsinto‘thelocaltrap,’praisingtheassumedecologicalandjusticesuperiorityofthatwhichisnearirrespectiveoftheactualperformancealongtheselines(Born&Purcell,2006).Focusingonthelocalandfailingtoadopta‘reflexivelocalism’failsontheotherelementsofdevelopingwhatCharlesLevkoecallsa“transformativefoodpolitics,”asitnecessarilylimitsthescopeofanalysistoasubsetofthewiderfoodsystemanddoesnotincluderuralproducersintheidentityframe(2011).Infocusingonthelocal,andproductionwithinthecity,considerationofmoreremoteissuesinthefoodsystemfallawayasanurbanagrarianismleadstoa‘buryourheadsinthesand’responseto‘external’problemsthreateningsustainablefood.

turodelaalim

entación

Severalurbanagricultureinitiatives,likeSustainableSouthOsborneinWinnipeg,usethediscourseof‘thecommons,’whichhasrootsasaradicalproposalfordecommodificationoffoodandland.TheSouthOsbornePermacultureCommonsisaspacethathasasetofcommunity-basedmanagementrelationsthathaveemergedorganicallyfromacommunityofusers,embeddedwithinanetworkstructurethatincludesanumberofdifferentpositions(suchasgardenclubparticipant,gardensitesteward,memberofSustainableSouthOsborne,ormemberofanaffiliatedorganizationwhosharesgardenspacecontainedwithinthecommonssuchaslocalschools,communitycentersoracommunitygardensociety).Overtheyears,ruleshaveformalizedaroundwhatcountsasacceptableandunacceptableuseofthesharedfoodgrownonsite.However,thisisonlyonelayerofsovereigntyoverthefoodproducingresourcesandtheland.Thegroupsstilloperateunderregulationbymunicipalbranchesofgovernment,whocaneasilyrevokethetenuousarrangementtousethespace.Aconflictisalreadydevelopingovertherighttosellfoodproducedonpublicland,whereasthenon-profitorganizationhascreatedasisterworker-co-opwiththemandateofstewardingthelandusingrevenuefromproducesoldtopayitsmembers.UndermunicipalregulationinWinnipeg,thisisn’tstrictlyallowed,andnoprogresshasbeenmadeinamendingexistingregulations.Thishasleadtoareorganizationoftheworkerco-op,wherethegrouphastakenonmoreofaneducationalroleinthecommons,providingworkshopsanddemonstrationstogeneraterevenuetopaywages.However,thisisalsopartofabendingtotheneoliberalizationofthefoodmovementinWinnipeginthatSSOhasadopteda‘socialenterprise’modelwhilestillusingthelanguageofacommons.Foodgrowninthecommonsisnowfeaturedinaperennialfundraisingeventhostedbythecity’stopchefs,makingtheorganizationmoreorganizationallysuccessful,whileadoptingamore‘mainstream’identity.Therefore,thefringesofthenotionofashared,decommodifiedcommunalresourcehasstartedtofray,whileatthesametimetheorganizationisarguablymoresuccessfulinpursuingitsmandatetoincreaseurbanagricultureinthecommunity.Thecommonsisalsocontextualizedwithinaverynon-decommodifiedpoliticaleconomyandaresubjecttootherconstraintsinadditiontostateregulation,someeconomic(asincompetingagainstotherlandinterests,likeproposalstousethespaceforthecreationofaparkinglotforanearbyhospital)andotherscultural(asinneighbourhoodrejectionofthe‘messiness’ofafarmsiteinaresidentialneighborhood).

Concludingnotes

Whatwayshasurbanagrarianismadvancedandhinderedfoodsovereigntyasapoliticalproject?Foodsovereigntyasaglobalmovementwasmadepossiblethroughtheinterconnectionsbetweenurbanandruralactorsinthearticulationofavisonforsocialchange.Urbanmovementactors,policyallies,urbanandruralproducersandageneralpublicofprotestmixesinamulti-scalaragrariancitizenshipoperatingonbothurbanandruralfronts.Urbanparticipationhas

turodelaalim

entación

beeninstrumentalinthisregard.Networkinghubsforlocalorganizations,centresforprotests,majorinstitutionalheadquartersandsummitshaveallbeenurban-basedwithmassurbanparticipation,energyandresources.Agrariancitizenshipthereforehasbeenpartiallyurbanbased,andweargueholdspotentialtorevitalizefoodsovereigntyindiversecontexts.However,givenurbanagriculture’sdemobilizingtendenciesoutlinedabove,urbanagrarianismalsopresentsitsownstumblingblocks.AsisthecasewithanyurbanmovementsintheGlobalNorth,urbanagrarianismcandistractactivistswhocampaigntosavecommunitygardensindangerofbeingdevelopedwhilehundredsofthousandsofacresoffarmlandarepavedoverorfinancialized.Amissinglinkconcernshoworganizationsbridgingurbanandrurallandscapescanworktoreinvestenergygeneratedinurbansocialmovementstowardsagrarianchange.Andsoanewsetofresearchquestionsemergeshere,suchaswhethertheseorganizationscounterurbanagriculture’sdemobilizingtendencies?Howcanorganizationsbalancetheneedtosupporteffortsaddressinglocalconcernswhilealsodirectingattentionoutsidethecity’sborders?Arefoodjusticemovementsthatworktoreduceurbanhungerapotentialsourceforurbanagrarianismorissocialmovementenergyazero-sumgamewhereactivismscompeteforparticipation?Anddosymbioticorganizationssuchasgreenbusinesses,largeNGOsandstatepolicyorganizationsserveasdemobilizationforurbanagrarianisminthesamewaythaturbanagriculturemay,andifsoarethereprocessestocounteractthis?Thesequestionsframethenextstageintheconceptualdevelopmentandexplorationoftheurbanlocusforthefoodsovereigntymovement.

turodelaalim

entación

References:

Badami,M.G.,&Ramankutty,N.(2015).UrbanAgricultureandFoodSecurity:ACritiqueBasedonanAssessmentofUrbanLandConstraints.GlobalFoodSecurity,4(C),8–15.

Bellows,A.C.,Brown,K.,&Smit,J.(2003).HealthBenefitsofUrbanAgriculture.CommunityFoodSecurityCoalition.

Berry,W.(1992).ThePleasuresofEating.InD.Curtin&L.M.Heldke(Eds.),Cooking,Eating,ThinkingTransformativePhilosophiesofFood(pp.374–385).Bloomington:Cooking.

Block,D.R.,Chávez,N.,Allen,E.,&Ramirez,D.(2011).FoodSovereignty,UrbanFoodAccess,andFoodActivism:ContemplatingtheConnectionsThroughExamplesfromChicago.AgricultureandHumanValues,29(2),203–215.

Born,B.,&Purcell,M.(2006).AvoidingtheLocalTrap:ScaleandFoodSystemsinPlanningResearch.JournalofPlanningEducationandResearch,26(2),195–207.

Bowness,E.andDesmaraisA.A.(2016).“FoodSovereignty:AMulti-FacetedSocialMovement”.ConferencePaperPresentedattheInternationalRuralSociologicalAssociationCongress.Toronto.

Bradshaw,M.V.(2013).RiseofUrbanAgriculture:ACautionaryTale-NoRules,BigProblems,The.William&MaryBusinessLawReview,4(1),241–267.

Brown,K.H.,&Jameton,A.L.(2000).PublicHealthImplicationsofUrbanAgriculture.JournalofPublicHealthPolicy,21(1),20.

Carlisle,L.(2013).Criticalagrarianism.RenewableAgricultureandFoodSystems,29(02),135–145.

Clapp,J.(2014).Distantagriculturallandscapes.SustainabilityScience,10(2),305–316.

Clarke,L.W.,&Jenerette,G.D.(2015).BiodiversityanddirectecosystemserviceregulationinthecommunitygardensofLosAngeles,CA.LandscapeEcology,30(4),637–653.

Cockrall-King,J.(2012).FoodandtheCity:UrbanAgricultureandtheNewFoodRevolution.PrometheusBooks.

Counihan,C.,&Siniscalchi,V.(Eds.).(2013).FoodActivism:Agency,DemocracyandEconomy.London:Bloomsbury.

Davila,F.,&Dyball,R.(2015).TransformingFoodSystemsThroughFoodSovereignty:anAustralianUrbanContext.AustralianJournalofEnvironmentalEducation,31(01),34–45.

turodelaalim

entación

Debolini,M.,Valette,E.,François,M.,&Chéry,J.-P.(2015).MappingLandUseCompetitionintheRural–UrbanFringeandFuturePerspectivesonLandPolicies:AcasestudyofMeknès(Morocco).LandUsePolicy,47,373–381.

DeLind,L.B.(2014).Wherehaveallthehouses(amongotherthings)gone?Somecriticalreflectionsonurbanagriculture.RenewableAgricultureandFoodSystems,30(01),3–7.

Oberholtzer,L.,Dimitri,C.,&Pressman,A.(2014).UrbanAgricultureintheUnitedStates:Characteristics,Challenges,andTechnicalAssistanceNeeds.JournalofExtension,1–11.

Dubbeling,M.,&deZeeuw,H.(2011).UrbanAgricultureandClimateChangeAdaptation:EnsuringFoodSecurityThroughAdaptation.InResilientCities:CitiesandAdaptationtoClimateChange.ProceedingsoftheGlobalForum(pp.1–580).

Edelman,M.,Weis,T.,Baviskar,A.,Borras,S.M.,Jr,Holt-Giménez,E.,Kandiyoti,D.,&Wolford,W.(2014).Introduction:CriticalPerspectivesonFoodSovereignty.TheJournalofPeasantStudies,41(6),911–931.

Ehlert,J.,&Voßemer,C.(2015).FoodSovereigntyandConceptualizationofAgency:Amethodologicaldiscussion.AustrianJournalofSouth-EastAsianStudies,8(1),7–26.http://doi.org/10.14764/10.ASEAS-2015.1-2

FFCF2016.FarmFolkCityFolk.RetrievedApril122016,fromhttp://www.farmfolkcityfolk.ca/

Fieldhouse,P.(1995).FoodandNutrition:CustomsandCulture.London:ChapmanandHall.

Godfray,H.C.J.,Beddington,J.R.,Crute,I.R.,Haddad,L.,Lawrence,D.,Muir,J.F.,etal.(2010).FoodSecurity:TheChallengeofFeeding9BillionPeople.Science,327(5967),812–818.

Guthman,J.(2008).NeoliberalismandthemakingoffoodpoliticsinCalifornia.Geoforum,39(3),1171–1183.

Johnston,J.(2007).TheCitizen-ConsumerHybrid:IdeologicalTensionsandtheCaseofWholeFoodsMarket.TheoryandSociety,37(3),229–270.

Hassanein,N.(2003).PracticingFoodDemocracy:aPragmaticPoliticsofTransformation.JournalofRuralStudies,19(1),77–86.

Heynen,N.(2013).UrbanpoliticalecologyI:Theurbancentury.ProgressinHumanGeography,38(4),598–604.

Heynen,N.C.,Kaika,M.,&Swyngedouw,E.(2006).IntheNatureofCities:UrbanPoliticalEcologyandthePoliticsofUrbanMetabolism.Taylor&Francis.

Iles,A.,&deWit,M.M.(2015).SovereigntyatWhatScale?AnInquiryIntoMultipleDimensionsofFoodSovereignty.Globalizations,12(4),481–497.

turodelaalim

entación

Kennedy,S.H.(2008).TheGarden.BlackValleyFilms.

Koont,S.(2011).SustainableUrbanAgricultureinCuba.Berlin:Springer.

Laidlaw,J.,&Magee,L.(2015).TowardsUrbanFoodSovereignty:TheTrialsandTribulationsofCommunity-BasedAquaponicsEnterprisesinMilwaukeeandMelbourne.LocalEnvironment,21(5),573–590.

Lee,G.-G.,Lee,H.-W.,&Lee,J.-H.(2015).GreenhouseGasEmissionReductionEffectinthetransportationsectorbyurbanagricultureinSeoul,Korea.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning,140,1–7.

Levkoe,C.Z.(2011).TowardsaTransformativeFoodPolitics.LocalEnvironment,16(7),687–705.

Lin,B.B.,Philpott,S.M.,&Jha,S.(2015).TheFutureofUrbanAgricultureandBiodiversity-EcosystemServices:ChallengesandNextSteps.BasicandAppliedEcology,16(3),189–201

Lovell,S.T.(2010).MultifunctionalUrbanAgricultureforSustainableLandUsePlanningintheUnitedStates.Sustainability,2(8),2499–2522.

Lovell,S.T.,&Taylor,J.R.(2013).SupplyingurbanecosystemservicesthroughmultifunctionalgreeninfrastructureintheUnitedStates.LandscapeEcology,28(8),1447–1463.

Lowenstein,D.M.,Matteson,K.C.,&Minor,E.S.(2015).Diversityofwildbeessupportspollinationservicesinanurbanizedlandscape.Oecologia,179(3),811–821.

Lwasa,S.,Mugagga,F.,Wahab,B.,Simon,D.,Connors,J.P.,&Griffith,C.(2015).Ameta-analysisofurbanandperi-urbanagricultureandforestryinmediatingclimatechange.CurrentOpinioninEnvironmentalSustainability,13,68–73.

Martellozzo,F.,Landry,J.-S.,Plouffe,D.,Seufert,V.,Rowhani,P.,&Ramankutty,N.(2014).UrbanAgriculture:AGlobalAnalysisoftheSpaceConstrainttoMeetUrbanVegetableDemand.EnvironmentalResearchLetters,(9),1–9.

Marx,K.(1967).Capital:VolumeIII:ACritiqueofPoliticalEconomy:TheProcessofCapitalistProductionasaWhole.(F.Engles,Ed.)(pp.1–645).NewYork:InternationalPublishers.

McClintock,N.(2010).WhyFarmtheCity?TheorizingUrbanAgricultureThroughaLensofMetabolicRift.CambridgeJournalofRegions,EconomyandSociety,3(2),1–17.

McClintock,N.(2014).Radical,ReformistandGarden-VarietyNeoliberal:ComingtoTermswithUrbanAgriculture'sContradictions.LocalEnvironment,19(2),147–171.

McMichael,P.(2014).HistoricizingFoodSovereignty.TheJournalofPeasantStudies,41(6),933–957.

turodelaalim

entación

Mincyte,D.,&Dobernig,K.(2016).UrbanFarmingintheNorthAmericanMetropolis:RethinkingWorkandDistanceinAlternativeFoodNetworks.EnvironmentandPlanningA,48(9),1767–1786.

Mougeot,L.J.A.(2005).Agropolis.IDRC.

Pearson,L.J.,Pearson,L.,&Pearson,C.J.(2010).Sustainableurbanagriculture:stocktakeandopportunities.InternationalJournalofAgriculturalSustainability,8(1),7–19.

Pfeiffer,A.,Silva,E.,&Colquhoun,J.(2014).Innovationinurbanagriculturalpractices:Respondingtodiverseproductionenvironments.RenewableAgricultureandFoodSystems,30(01),79–91.

Polletta,F.,&Jasper,J.M.(2001).CollectiveIdentityandSocialMovements.AnnualReviewofSociology,27,283–305.

Pourias,J.,Aubry,C.,&Duchemin,E.(2015).IsFoodaMotivationforUrbanGardeners?MultifunctionalityandtheRelativeImportanceoftheFoodFunctioninUrbanCollectiveGardensofParisandMontreal.AgricultureandHumanValues,1–17.

Pribadi,D.O.,&Pauleit,S.(2015).Thedynamicsofperi-urbanagricultureduringrapidurbanizationofJabodetabekMetropolitanArea.LandUsePolicy,48,13–24.

Reardon,T.A.,Bereuter,D.,&Glickman,D.(2016).GrowingFoodforGrowingCities:TransformingFoodSystemsinanUrbanizingWorld.ChicagoCouncilonGlobalAffairs.

Reynolds,R.(2009).OnGuerrillaGardening:AHandbookforGardeningWithoutBoundaries.BloomsburyPublishingUK.

Roman-Alcalá,Roman-Alcalá,A.(2015).BroadeningtheLandQuestioninFoodSovereigntytoNorthernSettings:ACaseStudyofOccupytheFarm.Globalizations,00(4),1–14.http://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2015.1033199

Satterthwaite,D.,McGranahan,G.,&Tacoli,C.(2010).UrbanizationanditsImplicationsforFoodandFarming.PhilosophicalTransactionsoftheRoyalSocietyB:BiologicalSciences,365(1554),2809–2820.

Schneider,M.,&McMichael,P.(2010).Deepening,andRepairing,theMetabolicRift.TheJournalofPeasantStudies,37(3),461–484.

Thebo,A.L.,Drechsel,P.,&Lambin,E.F.(2014).GlobalAssessmentofUrbanandPeri-UrbanAgriculture:IrrigatedandRainfedCroplands,9,1–10.

Tornaghi,C.(2014).CriticalGeographyofUrbanAgriculture.ProgressinHumanGeography,38(4),551–567.

Valley,W.,&Wittman,H.(2016).UrbanAgricultureinVancouver,BC:Motivations,MeaningsandMulti-functionality.InM.Deakin,D.Diamantini,

turodelaalim

entación

&N.Borrelli(Eds.),GovernanceofCityFoodSystems:CaseStudiesFromAroundTheWorld(pp.41–61).

Vidgen,H.A.,&Gallegos,D.(2014).Definingfoodliteracyanditscomponents.Appetite,76(C),50–59.

Weissman,E.(2015).EntrepreneurialEndeavors:(Re)ProducingNeoliberalizationThroughUrbanAgricultureYouthProgramminginBrooklyn,NewYork.EnvironmentalEducationResearch,21(3),351–364

Weissman,E.(2014).Brooklyn'sAgrarianQuestions.RenewableAgricultureandFoodSystems,30(01),92–102.http://doi.org/10.1017/S1742170514000222

Wekerle,G.R.,&Classens,M.(2015).FoodProductionintheCity:(Re)NegotiatingLand,FoodandProperty.LocalEnvironment,20(10),1175–1193.

Widener,P.,&Karides,M.(2014).FoodSystemLiteracy:EmpoweringCitizensandConsumersBeyondFarm-to-ForkPathways.Food,CultureandSociety:anInternationalJournalofMultidisciplinaryResearch,17(4),665–687.

Wittman,H.(2009A).Reframingagrariancitizenship:Land,lifeandpowerinBrazil.JournalofRuralStudies,25(1),120–130.

Wittman,H.(2009B).ReworkingtheMetabolicRift:LaVíaCampesina,AgrarianCitizenship,andFoodSovereignty.TheJournalofPeasantStudies,36(4),805–826.

Wittman,H.(2015).FromProtesttoPolicy:Thechallengesofinstitutionalizingfoodsovereignty.CanadianFoodStudies/LaRevueCanadienneDesÉtudesSurL'alimentation,2(2),174–182.

Wortman,S.E.,&Lovell,S.T.(2013).EnvironmentalChallengesThreateningtheGrowthofUrbanAgricultureintheUnitedStates.JournalofEnvironmentalQuality,42(5),1283–1294.

Sharma,K.,Cheng,Z.,&Grewal,P.S.(2014).Relationshipbetweensoilheavymetalcontaminationandsoilfoodwebhealthinvacantlotsslatedforurbanagricultureintwopost-industrialcities.UrbanEcosystems,18(3),835–855.http://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-014-0432-6

Wright,E.O.(2010).EnvisioningRealUtopias.LondonandNewYork:Verso.

Yamashita,L.,&Robinson,D.(2016).MakingVisiblethePeopleWhoFeedUs:EducatingforCriticalFoodLiteracyThroughMulticulturalTexts.JournalofAgriculture,FoodSystems,andCommunityDevelopment,6(2),1–13

Zezza,A.,&Tasciotti,L.(2010).Urbanagriculture,poverty,andfoodsecurity:Empiricalevidencefromasampleofdevelopingcountries.FoodPolicy,35(4),265–273.

Zimmer,A.(2010).UrbanPoliticalEcology.Theoreticalconcepts,challenges,andsuggestedfuturedirections.Erdkunde,64(4),343–354

turodelaalim

entación

NazioartekoHizketaldiaELIKADURARENETORKIZUNAETANEKAZARITZARENERRONKAKXXI.MENDERAKO:

Munduanork,nolaetazer-nolakoinplikaziosozial,ekonomikoetaekologikorekinelikatukoduenizangodaeztabaidagaia

InternationalColloquiumTHEFUTUREOFFOODANDCHALLENGESFORAGRICULTUREINTHE21stCENTURY:

Debatesaboutwho,howandwithwhatsocial,economicandecologicalimplicationswewillfeedtheworld.

April24th-26th.EuropaCongressPalace.VitoriaGasteiz.Álava.BasqueCountry/Europe

ColoquioInternacionalELFUTURODELAALIMENTACIÓNYRETOSDELAAGRICULTURAPARAELSIGLOXXI:

Debatessobrequién,cómoyconquéimplicacionessociales,económicasyecológicasalimentaráelmundo.

ef/egdeAbril,ehij.PalaciodeCongresosEuropa.Vitoria-Gasteiz.Álava.PaísVasco.Europa.

GUNTZAILEAK/COLABORAN/COLLABORATINGORGANIZATIONS

LAGUNTZAEKONOMIKOA/APOYAN/WITHSUPPORTFROM

2017koapirilaren24/26.EuropaBiltzarJauregia.Vitoria-Gasteiz.Araba.EuskalHerria.Europa.

EL FUTURO DE LA ALIMENTACIÓN Y RETOS DE LA …elikadura21.eus/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/84... ·...

Documents