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transcript
Graphene and Graphene Oxide Based Biosensor
For DNA Detection
Chen Yao
⇤
E-mail: c.yao@student.rug.nl
Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 Graphene Family Material 3
3 Material Properties Related to DNA Detection 5
3.1 Surface area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Surface Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Graphene-Based Sensors 9
4.1 Electrochemical DNA Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Electronic Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Optical DNA Biosensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5 Conclusions and Outlook 15
Abstract
1
Owing their extraordinary electrochemical, electronic and optical properites, Graphene-
based materials show huge potential to fabricate the biosensor to detect DNA(cDNA,
ssDNA, dsDNA). There are three main types of graphene DNA sensors, electrochem-
ical, electronic and optical. In this review, I will survey properties and applications
of variety noval graphene DNA detecting sensors and o↵er insights on the underlying
DNA detection mechenisms.
1 Introduction
High selective, rapid, fast responding and cost e↵ective DNA detection biosensor is expected
in disease diagnosis and treatment, cancer detection and gene mutation in recent years.Using
nanomaterial to fabricate the biosensor drove the scientists attention .1–3 Graphene-family
material (especially for graphene and graphene oxide) is really interesting in this type biosen-
sor assembling due to its extremely high surface area, exceptional electronic and electro-
chemical properties.4 In this article, I aim to survey properties and applications of variety
noval graphene DNA detecting sensors and o↵er insights on the underlying DNA detection
mechenisms.
As a famous type of two-dimensional nanomaterial, graphene was first discovered in 2004
and won the Nobel Prize in 2010. The typical unique nanostrucuture is two-dimensional
carbon sheet with honeycomb-like arrangement of atoms, shown in figure 1. Due to this
special nanostructure, graphene owes the attractive electronic and electrochemical proper-
ties. It shows impressive carrier mobiliity and carrier density at room temperature.5 The
electrochemical potential of graphene is 2.5 V in 0.1 PBS which is higher than most of the
carbon based material.6 All those promising properties drove the attention of the scientists
and companies on the work of developing electronic, electrochemical and optical DNA de-
tection sensor based graphene-family material. How the DNA interacting with the graphene
is also vary important in DNA detection. In this review, I will summarize the varies DNA
detection sensors based on graphene family material and the involved interaction between
2
DNA sequences and graphene material. Some methods of the functionalization of graphene
material could improving the performance of the sensors, which also will be mention in this
article.
2 Graphene Family Material
As developing in the past decade, there are plenty of graphene-family material having been
fabricated for variety applications. Graphene, few-layer-graphene (FLG), graphene oxide
(GO) and reuduced graphene oxide (rGO) are most advanced for bio-detection application.
Single layer graphene was first isolated from graphite using special adhesive tapel in 2004
by a research group from Mechester University led by Geim.7 Then there are two main tech-
nologies becoming vary popular in graphene production, repeated mechanical exfoliation of
graphite flakes and growth by chemical vapor deposition.8 The chemical process to fabricat-
ing graphene shows better biological performance might due to larger substrate areas than the
other ways. The typical graphene nanostructure is already mentioned above.(shown in figure
1) While there are still some problems for pristine graphene that it can not be suspended
in aqueous solution vary well, which is important in biological applications. Therefore, the
other types of the graphene-family material are more interesting for DNA detection which
will discuss in later sections. Few-layer-graphene was found as byproduct of the fabrication
for pristine graphene. It is general that these ultrathin graphene film, 1–10 layers, on crys-
talline transition metals substrates might introduce some contamination into the products
might showing unexpected thermal expansion or electronic behaviors.8
Graphene oxide(GO) is a highly chemically modified graphene which containing oxygen
functional groups and the chemical atom analysis shows the ratio of carbon to oxygen be
around three to one.1 It is one of the most admired graphene nano-material for biological
applications in recent years because it could be made as a stable, homogeneous GO aqueous
suspension, which is really important in DNA detection field.9 Just like in figure 1, as a
3
1.jpg
Figure 1: Example members of the graphene nanomaterial family and selected propertiesrelevant to colloidal behavior and biological interactions. Graphene oxide sketch adaptedwith permission.8 Copyright 2009 C. Hamilton.
highly oxidized product of graphene, the surface structure of GO is consists of a single
layer graphene with oxygen functional groups such as carboxylate acid, epoxy and alcohol
groups on the periphery and the carbon to oxygen ratio have been analyzed to be around
three to one. Those functional groups provide pH dependent nagative charge and colloidal
stability.10–12
There are also unmodified graphenic domains are hydrophobic and capable showing
the interactions which both relative to DNA absorption.13 This could stabilize the DNA
molecules in the solution which is a really crucial property for DNA detection. The layer
number distribution of the GO sample sometimes have influence the performance of the
sample, while there are seldom papers reported the detailed mechanism. There are three
main methods to product GO are Brodie, Staudenmaier and Hummers Methods.11 All those
methods are involved in introducing the way to oxidized the graphite via di↵erent oxides.
For example, in Brodie and Staudenmaier methods, they use a oxide mixture of potas-
sium permanganate and sulfuric acid.14 These ways of chemical exfoliation from graphite to
GO provide outstanding process to produce a stable homogeneous GO aqueous suspension
which could use to fabricate continuous high quality thin film. And also the large amount
of chemically active oxygen defects give the sample the possibility of chemical functionlaized
treatment to improve the biological application.
4
So called reduced graphene oxide has the surface that oxygen functional groups on orig-
inal GO are partly removed by chemical or physical treatment. The main purpose of this
reduction process is to restore the p-conjugated structure and the electrical conductivity.
Even though the remaining functional group on the surface of rGO might lower the elec-
tronic properties via reducing the conductivity, the electronic performance of rGO-based
biological sensors are benefit from the enhanced interaction between the remaining func-
tional groups and the analyte.15Thus the promising electrical conductivity and the chemical
active defects make the rGO as a vary attractive material using for fabricate the electronic
DNA sensors.1,2 The general reducing conditions for producing rGO is including two types of
treatments, high temperature thermal treatment and chemical treatments with the reducing
chemicals.16
3 Material Properties Related to DNA Detection
As we mentioned above, there are some properties of the graphene-based material have huge
influence on the performance of the graphene-based biological sensors. In this section, we
will summary how those properties related to the biological application.
3.1 Surface area
In figure 1, the fundamental surface structure of graphene and graphene oxide are shown. For
monolyer graphene, each carbon atoms are sp2-hybridized and are assigned on the surface by
layers. All those atoms are exposed outside. According to the BET test results, the specific
surface area of graphene could reach to 2630 m? which is vary high comparing to other
carbon -based material.11. This is at least one order of magnitude higher than other types
of the nanomaterials.17 As for graphene oxide, 600–900 m2 g1 of surface area was estimated.
This value of surface area roughly close to the theoretical value which is 890 m2 g1, even
though it is depended on the degree of oxidation of the GO and also on its aggregation
5
level.18 The BET surface area measurements for reduced graphene oxides yielded 466 m2/g
which is related to the degree of GO exfoliation before the reduction. There is an potential
assumption being given to explain the decline of the surface area from graphene to GO and
rGO that the aggregation of the grahene oxide upon the reduction.19
3.2 Surface Chemistry
The surface chemistry situation for those graphene-based material are di↵erent even before
the functionalization due to the various surface structures and areas as we mentioned above.
Therefore, They demonstrated particular properties of surface-interaction among small gas
molecules to large biomolecules. There are two types interaction, covalent interation and
non-covalent interaction. In my work, I mainly focused on the non-covalent interaction
which is related to the DNA detection.
The surface of natural graphene is hydrophobic and the material has no significant sol-
ubility in most solvants.1,20 To get the possibility to fabricate the graphene-based devices
in soluble way, some scientist established some methods to fuctionalize the surface via non-
covalent interaction or covalent reaction to introduce some hydrophilic groups. The most
general method based on covalent reaction in terms of increasing the solubility involves the
oxidation of graphene to introduce the oxygenated species like carboxyl, epoxy and hydroxyl
groups on the surface of graphene producing graphene oxide.20 One drawback of this method
is the level of oxidation on surface can not be controlled.21 The non-covalent interactions
of graphene are formed based on van der Waals forces or – stacking.20,22 One of the benifit
of this type of interactions is that the surface structure of pristine graphene is preserved
not like the covalent interaction cases. From small gas molecules to large molecular weight
biomolecules, they all could be absorbed on the surface of graphene.23Here we main focus on
the DNA-graphene interaction. The nature of the interaction between the material surface
and DNA bases are not trully understood, it is still considered as non-covalent interaction.
Several types of forces are studied and regarded as the main contribution of the interaction
6
including – stacking, electrostatic, van der Waals, and hydrophobic interactions.22 Among
all these forces, – stacking is contributed the most which explained why single-stranded DNA
shows stronger binding to graphene than double-stranded DNA where the intramolecular hy-
drogen bonding of bases are shown. In addition, The binding strength between the di↵erent
bases with graphene surface vary as the di↵erence of their polarizability.22
As product of graphene oxidation, graphene oxide shows better dispersability in variety
solvants due to the surfaces of GO contains hydrophilic regions, by which means that the
hydrogen bonding between surfaces and biomolecules or metal ions could form.1,24 Just like
we mentioned above, the surface of GO could be viewed as two types of domains, oxidized
regions that the carbon atoms are sp3 hybridized bonding with oxygen functional groups
and the unoxidized regions that the carbon there are sp2 hybridized.25 One of the most im-
portant reaction of GO is its reduction because the product reduced graphene oxide shows
higher electrical conductivity than GO. This reduction proecess could be accomplished via
chemical, electrocehmical or thermal reduction methods.21 And also due to high reactivity of
chemistry of GO, there are many ways to fucntionalize the surface though chemical reactions
which gives many possible modified structures utilizing for DNA detection and also other
molecules binding shown in figure 2. For example, Lu and his coworker reported that they
functionalized the GO surface with oligonucleotide molecular beacon (MB) which increas-
ing the seperation ability of ss DNA and dsDNA.26 This will talk more specifically later.
GO demonstrates the balance between the reasonable dispersability in solvants and relative
high non-covalent interaction domains, making this material as promising platform for high
sensitive and selective detection of DNA as I talked.27–29 The general mechanism of DNA
absorption on GO surface is roughly like for graphene, while the oxygenated species on the
GO’s surface contribute to the binding too.27,30 But still there are some works indicated
that they found the proof of DNA chemical grasping on GO.25 Hydrophobic forces and -
stacking play the most crucial roles in the interactions which can overcome the electrostatic
repulsion. After binding di↵terent types of DNA, the whole material demonstrates di↵er-
7
ent electrochemistry, electronic conducting or optical properties which could be detected via
some specific measurments.1
2.jpg
Figure 2: Schematic illustration of GO-based electrodes for electrochemical applications.25
Copyright 2010 C. Da Chen.
3.3 Electrochemistry
One popular type of DNA sensor is known as electrochemical sensor which is fabricated based
on the detection of the change for electrochemistry properties after DNA absorption.1 There-
fore, to understand the electrochemistry properties of graphene-based material is important.
It is possible to investigate the electrochemistry properties based on the results from the
enormous amount of publishments on graphite and carbon based nanotubes. Because it was
shown that there is no di↵erence of electrochemistry properties from SWCNTs to graphite.31
Graphene shows a wide electrochemical potential of ca. 2.5 Vin 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0), which
is comparable to the graphite.4 The charge-transfer resistance on graphene is much lower
that of graphite electrodes.32 As for GO and rGO, they both exhibit high electrochemical
capacitance with excellent cycle performance and rGO shows even higher electrochemical
8
capacitance and cycling durability than carbon nanotubes (CNTs).The specific capacitance
was found to be 165 and 86 F/g for rGO and CNTs, respectively.25 Cyclic voltammetry of
graphene oxide sheets exhibits significant reduction waves starting at 0.60 V (vs. Ag/AgCl
reference electrode), reaching a maximum at 0.87 V.
4 Graphene-Based Sensors
With all these merits of graphene-based material, they have become crucial candidates for
DNA sensing application in liquid situation. As I mentioned above, the varietion of the
amounts of di↵erent DNAs on the material surface will change the electrochemical, electronic,
or optical behaviors which could be detected via some technologies to achieve the sensing
job. Here, we provide the review of the sensors in three categories based on the parameters
they detected, which are eletrochemical, electronic and optical DNA sensors. Furthermore,
many derivation graphene-based material obtained from the functionalization through the
formation of donor-acceptor complex ,these could improve the DNA sensor performance.33
The nanoparticles, organic compounds and biomolecules are utilized for functionalization.25
4.1 Electrochemical DNA Sensors
Graphene has a large electrochemical potential window of ca. 2.5 Vin 0.1 M PBS (pH 7.0)
in solution, therefore the detection of the molecules with either high oxidation or reduction
potentials becomes achievable.33 Graphene-based modified electrode is used for detection of
DNA hybridization for electrochemical changes. This type of DNA sensors o↵er really fast
response speed, high sensitivity and finest selectivity for the specific DNA hybridization.2,25
The main mechanism of novel electrochemical DNA sensor is that the DNA duplex (between
the probe and target DNAs) formed from the ss DNA grasping on the electrode surface, which
is labeled with an electrochemical indicator to recognize it. This immobilization of DNA onto
the surface caused an increase in the electrochemical impedance value, a further increase in
9
electrochemical impedance value is observed after the hydridization.34 An interesting work
demonstrated by Wang’s group that a supersandnwich structure of biosensors which showed
high sensitivity, the detection limit is 100fM. The capture probe modified electrode was
denoted as cDNA/Au NPs/rGO/GCE where thiol is labeled at DNA.35
3.jpg
Figure 3: Schematic illustration of the experimental protocol. The platform can easily loadthe ssDNA probe and the detection mechanism is a↵ected by the ratio of polyaniline andgraphene (P/G). (above) ds-DNA releases from the platform when the mass ratio of P/Gis less than 1/20, (below) ds-DNA remains on the platform when the ratio of P/G is largerthan 1/10.36 Copyright 2015 C. Qing Zheng.
But there is a disadvantage of this type of label-needed sensors that the electrochemical
labels are involved making the architecture kind complex and the non-direct way to detect
target DNA decreasing the sensibility.35 Furthermore, the intrinsic electrochemical activity
of the nucleobases (primarily purine) at the GO-based electrodes provides the potential
application for the label-free electrochemical detection of nucleobases.2 This new type of
label-free DNA sensors has been proved to be one successful method to directly detect
the target DNA which requiring no labeling process or external indicators.35 Generally,
the multilayer composites architecture is used here. Peng and his coworker reported a high
10
sensitive label-free electrochemical DNA sensor interface based on Au nanoparticles/toluidine
blue-GO composites thin film for the e↵ective detection of MDR1 gene. The peak current
was straightforward related to the concentration of the target DNA from 1.0 1011M to1.0
109M, with a detection limit of 2.95 1012M.35 Ping and his coworker fabricated dynamic
P/Gratio-based DNA sensor by deposition of polyaniline and pristine graphene nanosheet
(P/Gratios) composites in di↵erent mass ratios, DNA probe and bovine serum albumin
(BSA) layer by layer on the surface of a graphene-based electrode. It was capable to detect
C-DNA in a range from 0.01 pm to 1 m through changing ratios of polyaniline to graphene
and SNPs are also detectable for such sensor.36 The illustration of the detecting process is
shown in figure 3.
4.2 Electronic Sensors
The single layer graphene is a semi-metal with high carrier mobility (20,000cm2 V-1 s-1)and
carrier density 10-13cm-2 that are vary promising for fabrication of electronic sensors.33
Graphene electronic sensors are generally referred as Field e↵ect transistor(FET) which
mainly applied its field-e↵ect characteristics. The FET relies on an electric field to control
the shape and conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier could based on graphene-
based material. There are several principles could use to explain how this type FET working
as sensors. One general guess is that the graphene condcutance can be sensitively inflected by
minute gating signals. Some other claimed that the doping e↵ects, charge carrier scattering,
or change of local dielectric environment could also be used to realize the graphene-based
electronic detection.2 Mohanty and his coworker reported an electronic DNA sensor based
on a microsized graphene oxide sheet.The probe ss DNA was physical absorpted on the
GO sheet and the conductance of GO increased which means that the hybridization of
the target ssDNA as a result of doping e↵ect under dry condition.In addition, they also
demonstrated that the hybridization of a pair of target and probe ss DNA produced hole
doping e↵ect.3demonstrated another assumption on other electronic sensor that the detection
11
(decrease of graphene conductance) is based on DNA induced n-doping on graphene instead
of the field-e↵ect and impurity screening mechanism.2
4.jpg
Figure 4: Schematic illustration of the graphene FET device operated by liquid gate37
Copyright 2016. Chun-Yu Chan.
Recent years, the operation of GFET sensors in aqueous condition has promoted for
biosensing. Zheng and his coworker developed a novel PNA-functionalized G-FET biosensor
based on CVD grown monolayer which could avoid the contaimination and large number of
defects on graphene surface. The author claimed that this device was used for the directional
technique and high-a�nity PNA-DNA hybridization for ultrasensitive, label-free, and highly
specific detection of DNA. It showed a great sequence-specific a�nity to target DNA and
achieved an excellent DNA detection sensitivity as high as 10 fM.38 Chan and his coworker
presented a graphene-based bio-field-e↵ect transistor (bioFET) for the detection of avian
influenza A virus subtype H7 gene based on CVD graphene and AuNPs. The scheme of
the bioFET device is shown in figure 4. The probes conjugated to the AuNPs were applied
to hybridize with the target gene in a sandwich assay format for signal amplification. This
biosensor demonstrated lower limit of detect of 64 fM, which is the lowest record for graphene-
based for DNA detection.37
12
4.3 Optical DNA Biosensors
As I mentioned above graphene oxide exhibit outstanding optical properties. Unlike the zero-
gap graphene material, GO can fluoresce at a really wide range of wavelength, from near-
infrared to ultraviolet.33 This makes GO becoming a promising candidate as fluorescence
label for DNA detection. And also Go is capable of quenching fluorescence. The quenching
e�ciency of GO is preferable than the traditional organic quenchers. Therefore, GO can
play either an donor or accepter role in fluorescence energy transfer(FRET).33 Some claimed
that the ratio and type of its oxygenation of the surface could use to control the optical
characteristics of GO.39
5.jpg
Figure 5: Three possible mechanisms of hybridization between a probe DNA adsorbed by GOand its cDNA (target DNA). The oxygenated groups and defeats on GO are not drawn forclarity of the figures. In all the cases, the probe DNA with a fluorophore label is preadsorbedand the cDNA is added afterward. The tendency of GO adsorbing ds-DNA is lower thanthat of the adsorption of ss-DNA. (A) LangmuirHinshelwood mechanism. (B) EleyRidealmechanism. (C) Displacement mechanism.40 Copyright 2013. Biwu Liu.
An novel GO-based DNA biosensor was exhibited by Fei Liu and his coworker. The
GO sheets were applied in an array format to recognize the specific target DNA-DNA hy-
13
bridization interation.When the probe DNA bond to the surface of GO is hybridized with
the AuNPs labeled complementary DNA strand, then the fluorescence emission intensity of
the GO is decreased remarkably.41 In this case the GO served as the energy donors and the
AuNPs played the role in FET as the energy acceptor. There are still some cases that the
GO is treated as quenchers. One example is from Wang that the planar GO surface of the
sensor allows simultaneous quanching of multiple ssDNA probes labeled with di↵erent dyes
leading a multicolor sensor for the detection of multiple target DNA.42 Lu and his coworker
demonstrated similar principle works with dye-labeled DNA.20 A really interesting work did
by Liu and his coworker was to determine a possible mechanisms of how DNA hybridization
took place in the presence of GO via a fluorophore-labeled DNA probe with experimental
proof and exhibited some other mechanisms. If the interaction based on the LangmuirHin-
shelwood mechanism, the cDNA is also adsorbed followed by di↵usion through the pathway
on GO. When the cDNA achieves a probe DNA, a duplex is formed on the GO surface and
then desorbed like in figure 5a. Another possible mechanism is the leyRideal mechanism,
where the adsorbed probe DNA directly reacts with the target cDNA that is dissolved in the
solution phase at the GO/water interface like in figure 5b. And another mechanism shown in
figure 5c is also impact on the whole process, that some of the probe DNA could be displaced
by the target cDNA into the solution phase to hybridize with the free cDNA in solution. For
DNA detection, Huang and his coworker exhibited a GO based optical biosensor for DNA
single-base mismatch study. By applying a 40-mer probe DNA (P1), both short (20-mer)
and long (60-mer) targets led to much lower fluorescence signals than the complementary
target T1 that was of the same length as P1. But still the exact mismatch location of the
target DNA still cannot be determined via this way.43,44
14
5 Conclusions and Outlook
Graphene series material become really promising candidates for a wide range of applica-
tion from physic, chemistry to biography in a short history. As I reviewed above, the DNA
sensors fabricating using graphene-based material especially graphene oxide exhibite really
outstanding performence with many merits like high sensitivity and selectivity, wide de-
tection range, quick responsibility and low cost. Each type of the DNA detection sensor
demonstrates outstanding behavior to recognize varieties types of DNA strand with relatice
low concentration requirement.
But the exact mechanism of the each type of DNA sensor is poorly understood and
critical experimental proof are lack. For the future development, how to solve the problems
about graphene material production with highly controllable and scalable and to construct
more e�cient and direct detection structure of devices become more crucial. In witness the
development of the graphene-based DNA sensors, we could predict that they will turn into
a important series of DNA sensors in industry field someday in sooner future.
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