Research Methodology (Theory of research)

& Research Design (The action

of Research): Method & Techniques

Dissertation Module

Kevin Standish

Learning outcomes

• Distinguish Research Methodology from Research methods

• Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

• Describe Variables and hypothesis

• Identify sampling methods

The Research Process

1. Identification of general problem/question

2. Literature review

3. Specify questions/hypotheses

4. Determination of research design/methodology

5. Data collection

6. Data analysis/presentation

7. Interpretation of findings

8. Discussion of findings

Research MethodologyThe Theory of Research

Research methodology

The way/science

Structure of Research

begin with broad questions

narrow down, focus in

operationalize

OBSERVE

analyze data

reach conclusions

generalize back to questions

The "hourglass" notion of research

Deduction and Induction

Deduction

Induction

Research Methodology

• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.

• It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

• In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them

Research methodology..• Research Methodology says the

howto do/conduct research

systematically & scientifically.

• Research methodology not only provides

the knowledge of various types of methods & techniques

for Sampling , data collection, data analysis & report writing etc.

but also guides

that which particular method or technique

for sampling/data collection/data analysis should be used or not

& why should /shouldn't do so.

Research Methodology

Research Methodology

• There are different ways of “knowing” and the epistemological standpoint will determine the nature of that knowing

• One may explore their reality using statistical data as evidence while another may have first-hand accounts of how the person has been effected, which is their reality.

• Each represents a particular Paradigm of knowledge. Neither is right or wrong it is just a different view.

Research MethodThe Action of Research: Design; Sample; Method; Collection; How Data will be analysed

Observational ResearchGathering data by observing people, actions and situations(Exploratory)

Experimental ResearchUsing groups of people to determine cause and effectrelationships(Causal)

Survey ResearchAsking individuals about attitudes, preferences or behaviors(Descriptive)

Three Research Approaches

Types of Research Designs

ExploratoryResearch

DescriptiveResearch

CausalResearch

Test hypotheses about cause and effectrelationshipsX causes Y

Gathers preliminary information to definethe problem and suggest hypothesesLiterature search, expert interviews, focusgroups, case studies, company audits,

qualitative research

Describes things as the market potential ofa product, consumer demographics andattitudesSecondary data analysis, surveys, observations,panels, simulations

Research Methods

Descriptive research

Analytical research

Applied research

Basic research

Research Methods

Quantitative research

Qualitative research

Conceptual research

Empirical research

The Right and the Left

• Quantitative research - numbers, numbers, numbers

• Qualitative research - words, words, words

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Assumptions about the World• Based upon the idea of “logical

positivism”, that is, there is a singular reality with stable, social facts that are separate from the feelings and beliefs of individuals.

• Based on the notion of “constructivism”, which assumes multiple realities that are socially constructed through individual and collective perceptions or views of the same situation.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Research Purpose

• Seeks to establish relationships and explain causes of changes in measured variables. That is, the goal of science is to explain and predict.

• Concern is with the understanding of the social phenomenon from the participants’ perspectives. This requires, to some degree, researcher participation.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Methods and Process• The scientific method, also

known as a priori or pre-established design.

• Use of emergent design utilizing constant comparison and revision.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Prototypical Studies• Experimental or correlational

designs are used to reduce error, bias and the influence of extraneous variables--control of bias is through design.

• Use of ethnography, which helps readers understand the multiple perspectives of the situation by the persons studied. Subjectivity in data analysis and interpretation is acknowledged.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Researcher Role

• Detachment from study in order to avoid bias.

• Immersion in situation and the phenomenon being studied.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Context

• Context-free generalizations • Generalizations are contextually-bound.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Precision

• Obtained through the use of measurement and statistics

• Provided by detailed description of phenomenon

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Verification

• Results replicated by others. • Extension of understandings by others.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Explanation

• Traditionally, parsimonious explanations were sought, but this may be changing due to technology.

• Summary through narrative--importance is placed on reducing complex realities to simple explanations.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Logical Reasoning

• DEDUCTIVE--What’s the classic example?

• INDUCTIVE--anyone have an example?

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Conditional Conclusions• Statements of statistical

probability.• Tentative summary

interpretations.

Types of Quantitative Studies

• Descriptive

• True experimental

• Quasi-experimental

• Correlational

• Predictive

Types of Qualtitative Studies

• Qualitative research gathers information that is not in numerical form:

• diary accounts,

• open-ended questionnaires,

• unstructured interviews

• unstructured observations.

• Qualitative data is typically descriptive data and as such is harder to analyze than quantitative data.

• Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies).

Types of Qualtitative Studies

• Qualitative paradigms offer the researcher an opportunity to develop an idiographic understanding of participants’ experiences and what it means to them, within their social reality, to be in a particular situation (Bryman, 1992).

• methods include: Content / thematic analysis (CA/ TA); Grounded Theory (GT);

• Discursive psychology / Discourse analysis (DA); • Narrative psychology (NA); • Phenomenological psychology methods such as

interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA).

Research Using Primary Data

• Cross-sectional

• Case Control

• Cohort

• Randomized controlled trial

Cross-sectional Study

• Data gathered at one point in time

• Often used for surveys

• Can not make inferences about causality

Case Control Study

• Start with the outcome- identify a sample with the condition of interest

• Identify a similar control group

• Look back to determine exposure

• Calculate the risk in the cases and controls- odds ratio used

• Can not use to establish prevalence

Cohort Study

• Start with an identified group

• Determine exposure in everyone at the same time

• Follow the group to determine who develops the outcome of interest

• Can be used to determine prevalence

• Association measured as relative risk (rate ratios)

Randomized Controlled Trial

• Gold standard for determining associations

• Identify a group

• Randomly assign individuals to exposure

• Only reliable way to control for confounding

Research Using Secondary Data

• Literature review

• Systematic review

• Metanalysis

• Analysis of existing data collected for another purpose

Literature Review

• Gather articles on a topic of interest

• Summarize the findings

Systematic Review

• Gather articles using a pre-defined search strategy- may include unpublished studies

• Develop a-priori objective criteria to evaluate the quality of the studies

• Summarize the quality of the data and the results

Metanalysis

• Do a systematic review

• Obtain the primary data if possible

• Summarize the data quantitatively

Research Method vs Methodology Comparison

Research Methods Research Methodology

• research methods are the methods by which you conduct research into a subject or a topic

• Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys and the like

• research methods aim at finding solutions to research problems

• research methodology explains the methods by which you may proceed with your research

• research methodology involves the learning of the various techniques that can be used in the conduct of research and in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies search

• research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out solutions

Research Method vs Methodology ComparisonExamples:-

research methods Research methodology

If the subject for Research is ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’

then the research methods that are involved are study of various works of the different poets and the understanding of the employment of figures of speech in their works

If the subject for Research is ‘employment of figures of speech in English literature’

then the research methodology pertaining to the topic mentioned above involves the study about the tools of research, collation of various manuscripts related to the topic, techniques involved in the critical edition of these manuscripts and the like

Research Method vs Methodology Comparisonwith Examples cont…

research methods Research methodology

If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic

then the research methods include experiments, tests, study of various other results of different experiments performed earlier in relation to the topic or the subject and the like

If the subject into which you conduct a research is a scientific subject or topic

then research methodology pertaining to the scientific topic involves the techniques regarding how to go about conducting the research, the tools of research, advanced techniques that can be used in the conduct of the experiments and the like

Research Method vs Methodology Conclusion

We can say that Research Methodology has many dimensions and Research Methods do constitute a part of the research methodology.

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods.

Variables

Meaning

• Known as a property of proposition being studied

• Also known as the constructs of a proposition

• A symbol to which we assign numerals or values

• Numerical value assigned to a variable is based on its

properties

• 3 types of Variables: Dichotomous; Discrete; Continuous

1. Dichotomous Variables

• These variables are so called because they have TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a property.

• For example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist, employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.

• The dichotomous variables can be assigned with a numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.

2. Discrete Variables

• These are categorical variables.

• For example, the demographic variables race or religion are the examples of discrete variables.

• Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.

• The numerical values assigned to these variables will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.

3. Continuous Variables

• These variables take on values with a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set.

• For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100, age may be 2.5 years, present income of a person could be £. 15000, you may disclose your property worth more than £.500,000.

Variables

• variable…• any observation that can take on

different values

• attribute…• a specific value on a variable

Examples

Variable Attribute

age

Examples

Variable Attribute

age 18, 19, 20, etc...

Examples

Variable Attribute

Gender or sex

Examples

Variable Attribute

Gender or sex Male, female

Examples

Variable Attribute

satisfaction

Examples

Variable Attribute

satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied

4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

Types of Variables

• independent variable (IV)…• what you (or nature) manipulates in

some way

• dependent variable (DV)…• what you presume to be influenced by

the IV

Examples: Sports participation

IV DV

exercise participation

health status

attitude

social support

intervention

The purpose of the study was to…

• test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is effective in promoting moral development in youth

• examine the relationship between age and VO2max.

• test whether there are gender differences the value placed on sport participation

• determine whether students’ perceptions of the amount of positive, negative, and informational feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of their self-esteem and level of achievement

IV, DV?

Types of Relationships

• correlational vs. causal relationships

correlation does not imply causation!(it’s necessary but not sufficient)

variables perform in a synchronized manner

one variable causes the other variable

Types of Relationships

• patterns of relationships…• no relationship

• positive relationship

• negative relationship

• curvilinear relationship

- +-

+

resting HR

fitn

ess

- +-

+

vocabulary

fitn

ess

- +-

HR

exe

rcis

e in

ten

sity

- +-

arousalp

erf

orm

ance

+ +

Hypotheses

• hypothesis…• a specific statement of prediction

• types of hypotheses• alternative vs. null

• one-tailed vs. two-tailed

Hypotheses

• alternative hypothesis (HA)…• An effect (that you predict)

• null hypothesis (HO) …• Null effect

Hypotheses

hypothesis there is a relationship between age

and exercise participation

HA there is a relationship

HO there is not a relationship

this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no

direction is predicted

Hypotheses

hypothesis an incentive program will increase

exercise participation

HA participation will increase

HO participation will not increase or

will decrease

this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a

specific direction is predicted

Sample vs. Population

Population = collection of ALL possible observations

Sample = subset of a population

Random Sample

representative of a population

all observations have equal chance of being selected

Why Do We Use Samples?

Cost

Time

Inaccessibility of the population

Accuracy

Destruction of the observations

Steps in Developing a Sample Plan

Step 1: Define thePopulation of

Interest

Step 2: ChooseData Collection

Method

Step 3: ChooseSampling Frames

Step 4: Select aSampling Method

Step 5: DetermineSample Size

Step 6: Develop andSpecify Operational

Plan

Step 7: ExecuteOperational Sampling

Plan

Sampling Methods

• Probability vs. Nonprobability

• Probability• members in the population have a known

chance (probability) of being selected into the sample

• Nonprobability• the probability of selecting members from the

population is not known

Sampling Design Process

73

Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience

Judgmental

Quota

Snow-ball

Determine Appropriate Sample Size

Execute Sampling Design

Classification of Sampling Methods

SamplingMethods

ProbabilitySamples

SimpleRandom

Cluster

Systematic Stratified

Non-probability

QuotaJudgment

Convenience Snowball

Sampling

• Once you are clear about your procedure, you need to locate participants will undergo the research procedure

• Quantitative methodology is concerned with representativeness of the sample

• The key question here is sample size as the bigger sample size the more precise the results

• Qualitative research is less focused on sample and generalizability. Sampling tends to mean a relevant case, theory base case, a critical case, an interview et cetera

Key questions to answer in your methodology• What kind of research methods are you going to use? Are they

mostly:

• Quantitative, or qualitative, or a mixture of both?

• What do you think your methods will enable you to discover?

• What might they prevent you from discovering?

• What kinds of research methods would be best suited to the kind of research you are undertaking and the research questions you are pursuing?

• What sort of problems do you envisage in setting up these methods?

• What are their benefits?

• What will you need to do to ensure they gather useful data?

Summary

• “Methodology” implies more than simply the methods you intend to use to collect data.

• It is necessary to include a consideration of the concepts and theories which underlie the methods.

• you have to show that you understand the underlying concepts of the methodology.

• When you describe your methods it is necessary to state how you have addressed the research questions and/or hypotheses.

• The methods should be described in enough detail for the study to be replicated, or at least repeated in a similar way in another situation.

• Every stage should be explained and justified with clear reasons for the choice of your particular methods and materials.