Trauma and Frustration as Trauma and Frustration as Predictors of Martyrdom in Predictors of Martyrdom in Low SES Palestinian MalesLow SES Palestinian Males

Jerry D. Smith, Jr., Psy.D.Jerry D. Smith, Jr., Psy.D.

Review of Review of LiteratureLiterature

Definitions of MartyrdomDefinitions of Martyrdom

Martyrdom TypologiesMartyrdom Typologies

PassivePassive ActiveActive AccidentalAccidental** MilitantMilitantCognizantCognizant Self-Self-sacrificialsacrificial

**“Accidental martyr” taken from "Martyrs for a just cause: The eulogies of Cesar Chavez." by R. J. Jensen, T. “Accidental martyr” taken from "Martyrs for a just cause: The eulogies of Cesar Chavez." by R. J. Jensen, T.

R. Burkholder, and J. C. Hammerback, Pall 2003, R. Burkholder, and J. C. Hammerback, Pall 2003, Western Journal of Communication, 67(4)Western Journal of Communication, 67(4), p. 335-356., p. 335-356.

History of MartyrdomHistory of Martyrdom

Theories of MartyrdomTheories of Martyrdom

Frustration AggressionFrustration Aggression

Narcissistic RageNarcissistic Rage

PsychopathologyPsychopathology

Social ProblemsSocial Problems

Frustration-aggression Frustration-aggression theorytheory

When one’s environment does not When one’s environment does not meet the expectations of the meet the expectations of the individual, frustration occurs. individual, frustration occurs. Aggression is the inevitable result of Aggression is the inevitable result of repeated and/or sustained frustration repeated and/or sustained frustration (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & (Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Hudson, 1999; Miller, Sears, 1939; Hudson, 1999; Miller, 1941) .1941) .

Narcissistic-rage theoryNarcissistic-rage theory

Unchecked narcissism leads to violent Unchecked narcissism leads to violent behavior with little regard for pain behavior with little regard for pain caused to others (Hudson, 1999 ).caused to others (Hudson, 1999 ).

Psychopathology theoryPsychopathology theory

Psychosis, delusions, disturbed Psychosis, delusions, disturbed personal identities, and other forms personal identities, and other forms of psychopathology result in the of psychopathology result in the drive to engage in suicide attacks drive to engage in suicide attacks (Rosenberger, 2003; Salib, 2003; (Rosenberger, 2003; Salib, 2003; Volkan, 2002).Volkan, 2002).

Social problems theorySocial problems theory

By engaging in aggressive behavior By engaging in aggressive behavior individuals may seek to feel better individuals may seek to feel better about their lives, establish control about their lives, establish control where none is perceived, improve where none is perceived, improve living conditions, achieve social living conditions, achieve social recognition and/or status, etc (Elnur, recognition and/or status, etc (Elnur, 2003; Hammond, 1998; Hill, 2002; 2003; Hammond, 1998; Hill, 2002; Shaffer, 1975; Von Hippel, 2002) . Shaffer, 1975; Von Hippel, 2002) .

Socioeconomic StatusSocioeconomic Status

Contradicting researchContradicting research

Lower SES associated with increased Lower SES associated with increased suicide attacks (De Silva, Hobbs, & suicide attacks (De Silva, Hobbs, & Hanks, 2001; Shameen, 2002) Hanks, 2001; Shameen, 2002)

Higher SES associated with increased Higher SES associated with increased suicide attacks (Coney, 2003; Krueger & suicide attacks (Coney, 2003; Krueger & Meleckova, 2002) Meleckova, 2002)

SES unrelated to suicide attacks (Hudson, SES unrelated to suicide attacks (Hudson, 1999; Krueger & Meleckova, 2002; 1999; Krueger & Meleckova, 2002; Kushner, 1996; Laqueur, 2004; Taylor, Kushner, 1996; Laqueur, 2004; Taylor, 1988) 1988)

Social Influence and Social Influence and ControlControl

Control practicesControl practices

Similar to religious cults (Hudson, Similar to religious cults (Hudson, 1999)1999)

TechniquesTechniques

Milieu controlMilieu control

Mystical Mystical manipulationmanipulation

Demand for purityDemand for purity

Dispensing of Dispensing of existenceexistence

Sacred scienceSacred science

Loading the languageLoading the language

(Walsh, 2001) (Walsh, 2001)

Group thinkGroup think

illusions of invulnerabilityillusions of invulnerability excessive optimism and risk takingexcessive optimism and risk taking presumptions of moralitypresumptions of morality one-dimensional view of enemy as evilone-dimensional view of enemy as evil intolerance to challenges to shared intolerance to challenges to shared

beliefsbeliefs

(Hudson, 1999)(Hudson, 1999)

Wish fulfillmentWish fulfillment

tendency to want to believe in things tendency to want to believe in things that are seen as beneficialthat are seen as beneficial

(Hafez, 2006; Tomar, 2003) (Hafez, 2006; Tomar, 2003)

Media effectsMedia effects

repeated exposure to media reports repeated exposure to media reports can result in PTSD and peri-can result in PTSD and peri-traumatic symptoms traumatic symptoms

(Pfefferbaum, B., Pfefferbaum, R.L., Gurwitch, R.H., (Pfefferbaum, B., Pfefferbaum, R.L., Gurwitch, R.H., Doughty, D.E., Pynoos, R. S., Foy, D. W., Brandt, E.N., & Doughty, D.E., Pynoos, R. S., Foy, D. W., Brandt, E.N., & Reddy, C., 2004; Pfefferbaum, B., Sconzo, G.M., Flynn, Reddy, C., 2004; Pfefferbaum, B., Sconzo, G.M., Flynn, B.W., Kearns, L.J., Doughty, D.E., Gurwitch, R.H., Nixon, B.W., Kearns, L.J., Doughty, D.E., Gurwitch, R.H., Nixon, S.J., & Nawaz, S., 2003)S.J., & Nawaz, S., 2003)

Media effects cont.Media effects cont.

advertising more likely to be noticed and advertising more likely to be noticed and psychologically processed by people in psychologically processed by people in their late teens and early 20s (Dermody & their late teens and early 20s (Dermody & Scullion, 2003)Scullion, 2003)

rhetorical devices, repetition of messages, rhetorical devices, repetition of messages, priming, framing, etc. highly effective at priming, framing, etc. highly effective at influencing political outcomes (Baines and influencing political outcomes (Baines and Worcester, 2005; Bar-Tal, 2005; Li and Worcester, 2005; Bar-Tal, 2005; Li and Brewer, 2004; McGoldrick, 2005)Brewer, 2004; McGoldrick, 2005)

Abuse and MartyrdomAbuse and Martyrdom

Neglect & lack of Neglect & lack of empathyempathy

evidence that martyrdom may result evidence that martyrdom may result from child abuse (physical and from child abuse (physical and emotional abuse, neglect, etc.) and a emotional abuse, neglect, etc.) and a lack of empathy that is past down lack of empathy that is past down from mothers to their sons from mothers to their sons (DeMause, 2002; Janowitz, 2006; (DeMause, 2002; Janowitz, 2006; Kaganovskiy, 2003)Kaganovskiy, 2003)

MisogynyMisogyny

misogynist culture isolates and oppresses misogynist culture isolates and oppresses women who in turn act out their women who in turn act out their frustration with their sonsfrustration with their sons

sons respond to the abusive behavior of sons respond to the abusive behavior of their mother by disassociating with their mother by disassociating with “womanly activities,” including child “womanly activities,” including child rearing, and abusing their wivesrearing, and abusing their wives

(Berko & Erez, 2005; DeMause, 2002; Lachkar, 2002; Steiner, 1974) (Berko & Erez, 2005; DeMause, 2002; Lachkar, 2002; Steiner, 1974)

Cycle of AbuseCycle of Abuse

Misogynist cultureoppresses women

Women take outfrustration on their

sons

Sons become resentfuland reject womenand feminine roles

Borderline personalityBorderline personality

cycle of abusive and neglectful child-cycle of abusive and neglectful child-rearing practices may lead to rearing practices may lead to borderline personalities (Lachkar, borderline personalities (Lachkar, 2002)2002)

Marketing martyrdom to Marketing martyrdom to childrenchildren

Erikson’s theory of developmental Erikson’s theory of developmental psychologypsychology

adolescents seeking to define adolescents seeking to define themselves are susceptible to themselves are susceptible to propagandapropaganda

(Erikson, 1968)(Erikson, 1968)

ExampleExample

Palestinian Authority’s 2001 Palestinian Authority’s 2001 Martyrdom CampaignMartyrdom Campaign

5-minute music video 5-minute music video with in 1 year 3 child suicide with in 1 year 3 child suicide

bombers quoted lines from the video bombers quoted lines from the video in farewell lettersin farewell letters

(Timmerman, 2002)(Timmerman, 2002)

Palestinian Authority’s 2001 Palestinian Authority’s 2001 Martyrdom CampaignMartyrdom Campaign

21 suicide attacks in 12 years prior to 21 suicide attacks in 12 years prior to 2001 campaign2001 campaign

110 suicide attacks in 3 years 110 suicide attacks in 3 years following 2001 campaignfollowing 2001 campaign

(Yom & Saleh, 2004)(Yom & Saleh, 2004)

Creating a martyrCreating a martyr

Sympathizer

Passive supporter

Group member

Martyr

(Hudson, 1999; Soibelman, 2004)

Moral disengagementMoral disengagement

Moral justificationMoral justification

Displacement of responsibilityDisplacement of responsibility

Minimization of victim sufferingMinimization of victim suffering

Dehumanization of victimsDehumanization of victims

(Hudson, 1999)(Hudson, 1999)

IncentivesIncentives

SocialSocial elevation of social status of the martyr elevation of social status of the martyr

and family (Post, Sprinzak, & Denny, and family (Post, Sprinzak, & Denny, 2003; Post, 2005) 2003; Post, 2005)

EconomicEconomic family receives financial aid or reward family receives financial aid or reward

(Post, et al., 2003)(Post, et al., 2003)

Incentives cont.Incentives cont.

ReligiousReligious forgiveness of sins, fulfillment of denied sexual forgiveness of sins, fulfillment of denied sexual

desires, interceding on behalf of family at desires, interceding on behalf of family at judgment (Knapp, 2003; Soibelman, 2004) judgment (Knapp, 2003; Soibelman, 2004)

PsychologicalPsychological creating meaning and purpose in life, proclaim creating meaning and purpose in life, proclaim

a sense of identity, achieve self-worth (Kaplan, a sense of identity, achieve self-worth (Kaplan, 1981; Moghadam, 2003) 1981; Moghadam, 2003)

SuicideSuicide

Some contradicting findingsSome contradicting findings

However, majority of research finds However, majority of research finds that militant martyrs have similar risk that militant martyrs have similar risk factors for suicide as traditional factors for suicide as traditional suicidal individuals (Berko & Erez, suicidal individuals (Berko & Erez, 2005; Lester, Yang, & Lindsay, 2004; 2005; Lester, Yang, & Lindsay, 2004; Post, 2005)Post, 2005)

ResultsResults

Frustrating environment Frustrating environment (FE)(FE)

an environment that does not meet the an environment that does not meet the expectations of the individualexpectations of the individual ex. oppressive, lack of shelter, lack of safety, ex. oppressive, lack of shelter, lack of safety,

lack of food, lack of individual expression, lack lack of food, lack of individual expression, lack of self-determination, etc.of self-determination, etc.

Frustration ContinuumFrustration Continuum

FEFE Non-FENon-FE

Ego strength (ES)Ego strength (ES)

the extent to which one’s sense of self the extent to which one’s sense of self has been impacted by psychological has been impacted by psychological victimizationvictimization

Ego Strength ContinuumEgo Strength Continuum

Positive ESPositive ES Negative ES Negative ES

Traditional viewTraditional view

Social problems vs. individual Social problems vs. individual psychopathypsychopathy

it’s EITHER/ORit’s EITHER/OR

ES-FT viewES-FT view

Frustration interacts with individual Frustration interacts with individual psychologypsychology

it’s BOTHit’s BOTH

more specifically…more specifically…

frustration interacts with ego strength frustration interacts with ego strength to create certain tendenciesto create certain tendencies

Ego Strength-Frustration Tendencies Ego Strength-Frustration Tendencies (ES-FT) Model(ES-FT) Model

Frustrating Frustrating EnvironmentEnvironment

Non-Frustrating Non-Frustrating EnvironmentEnvironment

Negative Ego Negative Ego StrengthStrength

Militant martyrMilitant martyr

Self-sacrificial Self-sacrificial martyrmartyr

Martyrdom-group Martyrdom-group leaderleader

Socially isolatedSocially isolated

WithdrawnWithdrawn

DepressedDepressed

Positive Ego Positive Ego StrengthStrength

Political ActivistPolitical Activist

Militant group Militant group leaderleader

Militant group Militant group membermember

Socially integratedSocially integrated

AcculturatedAcculturated

Clinical Clinical ImplicationsImplications

theory allows both parties a means theory allows both parties a means of reassessing their current actions, of reassessing their current actions, current motivations, desired current motivations, desired outcomes, and opportunities for outcomes, and opportunities for collaboration collaboration

theory warrants the provider with an theory warrants the provider with an outline, similar to current outline, similar to current treatments for abused persons, for treatments for abused persons, for working with individuals working with individuals

theory helps replace the image of a theory helps replace the image of a murderous, abhorrent perpetrator of murderous, abhorrent perpetrator of mass atrocities with that of a human mass atrocities with that of a human being, with human needs and human being, with human needs and human frailties frailties

mental health professionals can mental health professionals can devise treatments at the individual devise treatments at the individual and group level to help resolve some and group level to help resolve some of the psychological ailments faced of the psychological ailments faced after enduring systemic victimization after enduring systemic victimization

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