Motivation at Work

Definition of Motivation

Motivation - the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior

3 Groups of Motivational Theories

• Internal– Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to

motivation and behavior– Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

• Process– Emphasize the nature of the interaction between the

individual and the environment– Example: Expectancy theory

• External– Focus on environmental elements to explain behavior– Example: Two-factor theory

Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories

• Max Weber—work contributes to salvation; Protestant work ethic

• Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs

• Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people

• Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Safety & Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA

Lowest

to hi

ghest

orde

r

Motivational Theories X & Y

Physiological

Safety & Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA Theory Y - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needsTheory X - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X

• Naturally indolent• Lack ambition, dislike

responsibility, and prefer to be led

• Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs

• Naturally resistant to change• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on

Theory Y• Experiences in organizations result in passive

and resistant behaviors; they are not inherent• Motivation, development potential, capacity

for assuming responsibility, readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals are present in people

• Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Physiological

Safety & Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Achievement

Need for Achievement - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties

McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Power

Need for Power - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life

McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Affiliation

Need for Affiliation - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people

Self-actualization

3 Motivational Need Theories

Maslow Alderfer McClelland

HigherOrderNeeds

LowerOrderNeeds

Esteem selfinterpersonal

Safety & Security interpersonal

physical

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Relatedness Need for Affiliation

Existence

Growth

Belongingness(social & love)

Physiological

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHygiene Factor - work condition related to

dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain– maintenance factor– contributes to employee’s feeling not

dissatisfied– contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth– job enrichment– leads to superior performance & effort

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Traditional view

Satisfaction No satisfaction

Herzberg's view

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Motivators

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy & administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

Dissatisfactionand

demotivation

Not dissatisfiedbut

not motivated

Positivesatisfaction

and motivation

Hygiene Factors

•Company policies•Quality of supervision•Relations with others•Personal life•Rate of pay•Job security•Working conditions

Motivational Factors

•Achievement•Career advancement•Personal growth•Job interest•Recognition•Responsibility

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Motivation-Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M

High H high motivation few complaints

low motivation few complaints

Low H high motivation many complaints

low motivation many complaints

(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

Needs TheoriesMaslow Herzberg

Hygiene

Motivators

Factors

Social

Safety

Physiological

Self-Actualisation

Esteem

Adams’s Theory of Inequity

Inequity - the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving

Motivational Theory of Social Exchange

Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs

Negative Outcomes < Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs

Positive Outcomes > Outcomes Inequity Inputs Inputs

Person Comparison other

Strategies for Resolution of Inequity

• Alter the person’s outcomes• Alter the person’s inputs• Alter the comparison other’s outputs• Alter the comparison other’s inputs• Change who is used as a comparison

other• Rationalize the inequity• Leave the organizational situation

New Perspectives on Equity Theory

Equity Sensitive

I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other

New Perspectives on Equity Theory

Benevolent I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other

New Perspectives on Equity Theory

Entitled

I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other

Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs

Valence - value or importance placed on a particular reward

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance

Instrumentality - belief that performance is related to rewards

Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 27

Expectancy Theory(Vroom)

3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence

1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy

2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality

IndividualEffort

IndividualPerformance

PersonalGoals

OrganisationalRewards

1 2

3

Expectancy Model of Motivation

Performance RewardEffortEffort

Perceived effort–performance probability

Perceived value of reward

Perceived performance– reward probability

“If I work hard,will I get the jobdone?”

“What rewardswill I get when the job is well done?”

“What rewardsdo I value?”

How Expectancy Theory Works

Expectancy

Effort - Performance Link

E=0

No matter how much effort you put in, probably not possible

to memorise the text in 24 hours

Instrumentality

Performance - Rewards Link

I=0

Your tutor does not looklike someone who has £1 million

Valence

Rewards - Personal Goals Link

V=1

There are a lot of wonderful things you could do with £1 million

Your tutor offers you £1 million if you memorise the textbook by tomorrow morning.

Conclusion: Though you value the reward, you will not be motivated to do this task.

3 Causes of Motivational Problems

• Belief that effort will not result in performance

• Belief that performance will not result in rewards

• The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards

• The path-goal theory, also known as the path-goal theory The path-goal theory, also known as the path-goal theory of leader effectiveness or the path-goal model was of leader effectiveness or the path-goal model was  developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University  developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996.graduate, in 1971 and revised in 1996.

• The theory was inspired by the work of Martin G. The theory was inspired by the work of Martin G. Evans (1970).Evans (1970).

• The path-goal theory was also influenced by The path-goal theory was also influenced by the expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor the expectancy theory of motivation developed by Victor Vroom in 1964Vroom in 1964

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Origins of Path-Goal Theory

• The path goal leadership theory is a model that tries to understand the work motivation of every individual.

• It states the work motivation of any individual is dependent on his/her assessment on:1. Whether the effort would lead to good performance2. The probability of a reward as a result of the good performance3. The value of this reward

• The Path-Goal Leadership Theory states that by clarifying the path to achieving good performance and removing pitfalls and enhancing personal satisfaction for the job, a leader is able to effective motivate his subordinate in work.

• Directive behavior Directive behavior lets subordinates know what tasks need lets subordinates know what tasks need to be performed and how they should be performed.to be performed and how they should be performed.

• Supportive behavior Supportive behavior lets subordinates know that their leader lets subordinates know that their leader cares about their well-being and is looking out for them.cares about their well-being and is looking out for them.

• Participative behavior Participative behavior enables subordinates to be involved enables subordinates to be involved in making decisions that affect them.in making decisions that affect them.

• Achievement-oriented behavior Achievement-oriented behavior pushes subordinates to do pushes subordinates to do their best. Includes setting difficult goals for followers, their best. Includes setting difficult goals for followers, expecting high performance, and expressing confidence.expecting high performance, and expressing confidence.

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Goal Setting

GoalsSpecificDifficultAccepted

Effects on PersonDirects attention

EnergisesEncourages persistency

New strategies developed

Feedback

Performance

Self-Motivation

• Self-fulfilment and satisfaction• Difficult goals lead to higher performance• Motivation to act depends on the

attractiveness of the outcome

Moral Maturity

Moral Maturity - the measure of a person’s cognitive moral development

Morally mature people behave and act

based on universal ethical principles.

Morally immature people behave and act based on egocentric

motivations.

Begin with the end in mind• What are your talents?• What is your ultimate career goal?• What can you achieve in 2 years?• What are your personal goals?