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1
LOCUS OF CONTROL AND THE ACHIEVEMENT OF SHORT TERM CAREER GOALS
By
Vivien Roberts
201237253
MINOR-DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MASTERS IN PHILOSOPHY Personal and Professional Leadership
in the FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: DR. LMM HEWITT
i
DECLARATION OF INTENT AND ADHERENCE
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that:
1. The contents of this document is my own work.
2. I adhered to the ethical obligations and principles of research ethics, as
prescribed by the facultys guidelines for ethics in research, during all
phases of the research process.
Vivien Roberts ________________________________
PRINCIPAL RESEARCHER
________________________________
SIGNATURE
________________________________
PLACE
________________________________
DATE
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to the following people
who contributed hugely to the successful completion of this research
project:
My patient husband, Glen G. Roberts, who endlessly supported me
throughout this period without a murmur. He repeatedly demonstrated
his tireless commitment in providing comforts as I dedicated hours of
our time to this study. Thank you Glen.
My supervisor Dr Magda Hewitt who provided exhaustive direction and
feedback and yet managed to motivate and spur me forward. She was
my strength and this study would not have been completed without her
constant input. I am almost through Magda.
All those who prepared me for this journey of discovery. I loved every
moment and celebrate the changes. Thank you.
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ABSTRACT
Statistics South Africa (2015) reports that the unemployment rate in South-
Africa averaged 25.27 percent from 2000 until 2015. Nearly 1.3 million
unemployed people are between the ages of 15 and 34 years. Many
interventions are on offer to assist this group with their endeavours to find full
time employment. This study involved putting job-seekers through the Career
Workshop Programme (CWP), a job search intervention that prepares job-
seekers to confidently attempt to penetrate the job-market. The assumption of
this study was that a job search intervention like a CWP may assist
unemployed people to achieve their short-term career goals.
Behaviourally, research has shown that a higher internal locus of control (LoC)
influences functional career thinking and that confidence levels, beliefs and
perceptions around career expectations are positively orientated towards
career efficacy (Austin & Cilliers, 2011; Breeding, 2008). The key focus of this
study was to determine to what extent biographical factors and LoC contribute
to unemployed people achieving their short-term career goals, if they have
attended a CWP. Autonomy was included in the assessment because of the
role autonomy plays in problem-solving and being able to work independently
towards achieving goals. LoC assessments were done before and after the
CWP intervention and results were interpreted to ascertain the relationship
between the CWP and LoC, as well as the relationship between LoC and
achieving of short-term career goals.
The study was quantitative in nature, and a cross-sectional field survey, ex
post facto study design was employed. A sample size of N = 149 participants
was obtained. Various statistical analysis was performed to test assumptions.
The results of the study revealed that there is no significant difference in the
mean scores of internal LoC and external LoC for males and females.
Significant relationships between autonomy and LoC is reported, between age
and autonomy, and between age and LoC.
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There was no significant difference in the scores for autonomy, internal LoC
and external LoC based on the skills of the participant. It was also found that
there was not a significant difference between the scores of autonomy, internal
LoC and external LoC with reference to the participants education levels.
In terms of time taken to achieve career goals, it was found that there were
significant differences in the mean scores for autonomy and external LoC
between the period 0 to 4 months time taken to achieve career goals, and the
time period 5 to 8 months time taken to achieve career goals.
An interesting outcome in LoC is that there was an increase in external LoC
and a decrease in internal LoC after the CWP intervention, which is contrary
to the literature quoted to support the initial hypothesis.
From a theoretical perspective it was concluded that the outcomes of this study
were not all supportive of the literature used to base the initial hypotheses on.
This study informs that there are further factors influencing LoC and autonomy.
Conclusions drawn are that the literature reported that a shift in LoC is
successfully indicated in those who have participated in job search intervention
to achieve their career goals. Economic benefits have also been proven to be
evident in those who have participated in job search training. However this
studys results showed that the elements influencing LoC (internal and
external) and autonomy as proven in previous literature did not necessarily
create or influence the shifts expected from using the CWP intervention in the
study. Autonomy was positively influenced by the CWP intervention; and age
and time period taken to achieve career goals were determining factors in the
outcomes.
It is recommended that the findings of this research be made available to
organisations including employers who want to play a role in developing
careers.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CWP Career Workshop Program
ERS Employment Resource Services
GLM General Linear Model
LCI Locus of Control Instrument
LSD Least Significant Difference
NPCR National Planning Commission Report
vi
Table of Contents
DECLARATION OF INTENT AND ADHERENCE ...................................................... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... II
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. III
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ V
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... X
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... XI
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCING THE PROBLEM ......................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 1
1.2 KEY FOCUS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 1
1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY............................................................................. 1
1.4 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................... 3
1.5 THE THEORETICAL STUDY OBJECTIVES .............................................................. 4
1.6 MOTIVATION FOR STUDY ..................................................................................... 4
1.7 PROPOSED CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ......................................................... 6
1.7.1 Theoretical contributions. ............................................................................ 6
1.7.2 Practical contributions. ............................................................................... 6
1.7.3 Methodological contributions. .................................................................... 6
1.8 SYNTHESIS ........................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 8
2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 LOCUS OF CONTROL AS A CONSTRUCT .......................................................... 8
2.3 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA AND LOC ........................................................................ 10
2.3.1 Gender and LoC. .................................................................................... 11
2.3.2 Age and LoC. ......................................................................................... 12
2.3.3 Skills and LoC. ....................................................................................... 12
2.3.4 Educational levels and LoC. ................................................................. 13
2.4 AUTONOMY AND LOC ....................................................................................... 13
2.5 LOC AND ACHIEVEMENT OF SHORT-TERM CAREER GOALS ............................... 14
2.6 LOC AND TRAINING INTERVENTIONS ................................................................. 16
2.7 LOC, ACHIEVEMENT OF SHORT TERM GOALS AND CWP AS MEDIATOR ............ 17
2.8 SYNTHESIS ........................................................................................................ 19
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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOD ....................................................................... 20
3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 20
3.2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................... 20
3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH .................................................................................... 21
3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................................... 22
3.4.1 Cross-sectional field survey. .................................................................. 22
3.4.2 Ex post facto research. .......................................................................... 22
3.5 RESEARCH METHOD ........................................................................................ 22
3.5.1 Population. ............................................................................................. 23
3.5.1.1 Sample and participants. ............................................................... 23
3.5.2 Biographical data of the sample N = 149. ............................................. 23
3.6.1 Background and rationale for inclusion. ................................................ 29
3.6.2 Composition of the instrument. .............................................................. 29
3.6.3 Validity and reliability of the instrument. ................................................ 30
3.7 RESEARCH PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 30
3.8 CAPTURING AND EDITING THE DATA ................................................................. 31
3.9 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 32
3.9.1 Parametric and non-parametric techniques. ......................................... 33
3.10 ETHICS ........................................................................................................ 35
3.11 SYNTHESIS .................................................................................................. 35
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS OF THE STUDY ................................................................ 37
4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 37
4.2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS .................................................................................. 37
4.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 Phase 1 - Descriptive statistical analysis. ............................................. 38
4.3.2 Phase 2 Statistical analysis. ............................................................... 40
4.3.2.1 Gender, autonomy and LoC. ......................................................... 41
4.3.2.2 Inter-correlations between autonomy, age, internal LoC and
external LoC. .................................................................................................. 43
4.3.2.3 Skilled/semi-skilled, autonomy and LoC after the CWP intervention.
46
4.3.2.4 Educational level, autonomy and LoC after the CWP. .................. 48
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4.3.2.5 Analysis of variance results for achieving career goals according to
autonomy, internal LoC and external LoC with time periods. ....................... 51
4.3.3 Phase 3 statistical analysis- linear model. .......................................... 56
4.3.3.1 Autonomy before and after CWP intervention General Linear
Model. 57
4.3.3.2 Internal LoC before and after CWP intervention General Linear
Model. 62
4.3.3.3 External LoC before and after the CWP intervention General
Linear Model................................................................................................... 66
4.4 SYNTHESIS ...................................................................................................... 70
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....... 72
5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 72
5.2 LITERATURE FINDINGS ..................................................................................... 72
5.3 EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 74
5.4 SYNTHESIS ...................................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 77
6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 77
6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS .......................................................................... 77
6.3 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................. 78
6.3.1 Theoretical conclusions. ........................................................................ 79
6.3.2 Practical conclusions. ............................................................................ 79
6.3.3 Methodological conclusions. .................................................................. 79
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 80
6.4.1 Theoretical recommendations. .............................................................. 80
6.4.2 Practical recommendation ....................................................................... 80
6.4.3 Methodological recommendations. ........................................................ 80
6.5 CONTRIBUTION ................................................................................................ 81
6.5.1 Theoretical contribution. ......................................................................... 81
6.5.2 Practical contribution. ............................................................................. 81
6.5.3 Methodological contribution. .................................................................. 81
6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY. ............................................................................ 82
6.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY. ................................................................. 82
6.8 FINAL CONCLUSION THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ......................................... 82
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REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 84
ANNEXURE A: CONSENT FORM ........................................................................... 94
ANNEXURE B: LCI RESULTS ................................................................................. 95
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1: PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL MODEL .................................................................. 3
FIGURE 2: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS - SKILLS LEVEL .................................... 25
FIGURE 3: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS LEVEL OF EDUCATION, N=149 .......... 26
FIGURE 4: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS HOME LANGUAGE, N=149 ................. 27
FIGURE 5: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS YEARS OF WORK EXPERIENCE .......... 28
FIGURE 6: PROFILE PLOTS ........................................................................................... 46
FIGURE 7: AUTONOMY SCORES IN RELATION TO ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM CAREER
GOALS OVER TIME PERIODS ................................................................................ 55
FIGURE 8: : INTERNAL LOC SCORES IN RELATION TO ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM CAREER
GOALS OVER TIME PERIODS ................................................................................ 56
FIGURE 9: PROFILE PLOT ............................................................................................. 60
FIGURE 10: PROFILE PLOT ........................................................................................... 65
FIGURE 11: PROFILE PLOT ........................................................................................... 69
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS - AGE, N=149 ........................................ 24
TABLE 2: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS - GENDER .............................................. 24
TABLE 3: SAMPLE PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS - PREVIOUS CWP, N=149 .................... 25
TABLE 4: PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TECHNIQUES (ADAPTED FROM: PALLANT,
2007) .................................................................................................................. 33
TABLE 5 SUMMARY FOR AUTONOMY, LOC RESULTS BEFORE AND AFTER CWP
INTERVENTION ..................................................................................................... 39
TABLE 6: GENDER, AUTONOMY, INTERNAL LOC AND EXTERNAL LOC, GROUP STATISTICS
............................................................................................................................ 41
TABLE 7: LEVENES TEST FOR EQUALITY OF VARIANCES .............................................. 42
TABLE 8: PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION CO-EFFICIENT BETWEEN THE
AUTONOMY SCORE, INTERNAL LOC SCORE, EXTERNAL LOC SCORE AND AGE
SCORE ................................................................................................................. 44
TABLE 9: SKILLED AND UNSKILLED SCORES FOR AUTONOMY, INTERNAL LOC AND
EXTERNAL LOC AFTER THE CWP INTERVENTION ................................................. 47
TABLE 10: LEVENES TEST FOR EQUALITY OF VARIANCES ............................................ 48
TABLE 11: EDUCATION LEVELS, GROUP STATISTICS .................................................... 49
TABLE 12: LEVENES TEST FOR EQUALITY OF VARIANCES ............................................ 50
TABLE 13: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR AUTONOMY, INTERNAL LOC AND EXTERNAL
LOC WITH TIME PERIODS ..................................................................................... 52
TABLE 14: LEVENES TEST OF HOMOGENEITY OF VARIANCES FOR AUTONOMY, INTERNAL
LOC AND EXTERNAL LOC AFTER THE CWP INTERVENTION .................................. 53
TABLE 15: ANOVA FOR ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM CAREER GOALS PER TIME PERIOD .. 53
TABLE 16: WELCH ROBUST TEST OF EQUALITY OF MEANS ........................................... 54
TABLE 17: POST HOC LSD TESTS - MULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF LOC AND AUTONOMY 54
TABLE 18: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 57
TABLE 19: MULTIVARIATE TEST .................................................................................... 57
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TABLE 20: MAUCHLYS TEST OF SPHERICITY ................................................................ 58
TABLE 21: TESTS OF WITHIN SUBJECTS EFFECTS ........................................................ 58
TABLE 22: TESTS OF WITHIN-SUBJECT CONTRAST ....................................................... 59
TABLE 23: TESTS OF MEASURES OF BETWEEN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS ............................ 59
TABLE 24: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 61
TABLE 25: RANKS TEST ............................................................................................... 61
TABLE 26: FINAL STATISTICS........................................................................................ 61
TABLE 27: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 62
TABLE 28: MULTIVARIATE TESTS .................................................................................. 62
TABLE 29: MAUCHLYS TEST OF SPHERICITY ................................................................ 63
TABLE 30: TEST OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS .......................................................... 63
TABLE 31: TESTS OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS CONTRASTS ................................................... 64
TABLE 32: TESTS OF BETWEEN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS .................................................... 64
TABLE 33: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 65
TABLE 34: RANKS TEST ............................................................................................... 65
TABLE 35: FINAL STATISTICS........................................................................................ 66
TABLE 36: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 66
TABLE 37: MULTIVARIATE TESTS .................................................................................. 66
TABLE 38: MAUCHLYS TEST OF SPHERICITY ................................................................ 67
TABLE 39: TEST OF WITHIN-SUBJECT EFFECTS ............................................................ 67
TABLE 40: TESTS OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS CONTRASTS ................................................... 68
TABLE 41: TESTS OF MEASURES OF BETWEEN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS ............................ 68
TABLE 42: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 69
TABLE 43: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 69
TABLE 44: WILCOXON RANKS TEST.............................................................................. 70
TABLE 45: FINAL STATISTICS........................................................................................ 70
1
Chapter 1: Introducing the Problem
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter a background and motivation to the study will be provided. The
research question will be set against this background. The following aspects
will be addressed namely: the key focus of the study; the background to the
problem; the research question; theoretical, methodological and empirical
objectives; as well as a motivation for the study and the proposed value of the
research. This chapter concludes with the proposed value add of the study.
1.2 Key Focus of the Study
Since 1995, Employment Resource Services (ERS) in South Africa has offered
job search skills training intervention in the form of a Career Workshop
Programme (CWP). The aim of the CWP intervention is to help people identify
employment goals and develop the skills they need to compete for education
and employment opportunities.
Behaviourally, research has shown that a higher internal locus of control (LoC)
influences functional career thinking and that confidence levels, beliefs and
perceptions around career expectations are positively orientated towards
career efficacy (Austin, & Cilliers, 2011; Breeding, 2008).
The key focus of this study is to determine to what extent do biographical
factors and LoC contribute to people achieving their short-term career goals if
they have attended a CWP.
Next the background to the study will be discussed.
1.3 Background to the Study
Statistics released in May 2015 show that the unemployment rate in South
Africa for the first quarter of 2015 reached its highest level of 26.4% since
2003; and goes as high as 36.1% when statistics take discouraged work
seekers into account. 7.7 million people were without jobs or have stopped
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looking for work and 5.2 million people couldnt find a job (Statistics South
Africa, 2015). On the other hand, South Africa has a staggering 1 746 144 in-
demand scarce skills job opportunities (Department of Higher Education and
Training, 2012) as well as an estimated 600 000 unemployed graduates
(Kamhunga, 2012).
According to Statistic South Africa (2015) almost half the South African
population is under 25 years old and the youth unemployment rate is almost
50% - almost double the national unemployment rate. The World Economic
Forum released the 2014 Global Risks report (2014) in which South Africa was
named as having the worlds third highest unemployment rate for youth ranging
from 15 to 24 years of age. The National Planning Commission Report (2011,
p85) averred that if a young person in South Africa does not have a job by the
age of twenty-four he is unlikely to get one at all, and that if unresolved, this
trend poses the single greatest risk to social stability.
ERS offers CWP intervention that is held over two days for a total of twelve
hours. CWP participants are unemployed, underemployed or plan to embark
on some form of education or skills training program. They are typically literate
males and females of disadvantaged groups who have concerns regarding
their income (too low or non-existent) and careers. They are also usually from
the Gauteng province and they may have been encouraged to attend the
training by their ecclesiastical leaders.
The four main objectives of the CWP are to 1) Identify skills and strengths with
the purpose of matching them to a desired job goal, 2) Set and plan towards a
career goal, 3) Prepare job-seekers to successfully approach the competitive
job-market, and 4) Coach them through the process until they are placed into
employment. The CWP addresses the building of the necessary level of
confidence that is required for job seekers as they prepare to penetrate the
labour market. It covers aspects of behaviour necessary for individuals to be
self-reliant, provide for themselves, their families and go on to become
contributing citizens in their communities.
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The assumption is that a CWP intervention creates an awareness within
individuals and increases their sense of control, and this in turn enables
participants to act within their circle of influence, exercise personal leadership
and start to behave proactively in terms of achieving their short-term career
goals. Becoming employed appears to be linked to proactive job search and
career planning behaviours (Brown, Cober, Kane, Levy, & Shalhoop, 2006).
A short-term career goal, for the purpose of this research is defined as
accomplishing intermediate career objectives required for the achieving and
preparing of long-term career employment. In the following section the main
research objective as well as secondary research objectives will be presented.
1.4 Empirical Research Objectives
The main research objective is to investigate if there is a relationship between
biographical data, LoC, a CWP as an intervention and the achievement of
short-term career goals. It is suggested that LoC has a mediating effect
between biographical data and the achievement of short term career goals. A
further suggestion is that the relationship between LoC and the achievement
of short term career goals is positively mediated by a CWP as intervention.
Figure 1 provides a highlevel overview of the proposed conceptual model.
Figure 1: Proposed Conceptual Model
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Based on this the following sub - research objectives are set:
RQ1: To determine participant biographical data and its
relationship with locus of control
RQ2: To determine the relationship between the CWP intervention
and achievement of short term career goals
1.5 The Theoretical Study Objectives
Literature objective 1: To explore the theoretical construct LoC.
Literature objective 2: To explore the theoretical relationship
between biographical data and LoC.
Literature objective 3: To explore the theoretical relationship
between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-
term career goals (dependent variable).
Literature objective 4: To explore the theoretical relationship
between a CWP intervention and achieving of short-term career
goals.
Literature objective 5: To explore the theoretical relationship
between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-
term goals (dependent variable) with CWP intervention as a
mediator variable.
In the next section a motivation for the study will be provided.
1.6 Motivation for Study
In his State of the Nation address in February 2016, President Jacob Zuma
stated that because of slow economic growth there was a need for job growth
and that this resulted in graduates being at home instead of being able to work.
He asked that South Africans work together to provide opportunities for the
youth, with emphasis on the fact that the government was unable to perform
this task alone (President Zuma, 2016). In President Zumas 2014 State of the
Nation address (President Zuma, 2014) he discussed the success of the
Expanded Public Works Programme where over four million employment
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opportunities were created in the last five years, claiming that the new phase
of this programme would create six million employment opportunities by 2019.
President Zuma also announced that the local government-based Community
Work Programme would grow to deliver one million employment opportunities
also by the end of 2019. The involvement of communities is key to alleviating
unemployment.
A study done in the United States of America (USA) by Bartowski, Call, Heaton
and Forste (2007) revealed that not enough people using ERS were making
use of the CWP. ERS plans to respond to President Zumas invitation by
exploring ways to extend the CWP to a wider audience and making it freely
available to government, communities and employers.
In 2011, the government introduced the concept of a youth wage subsidy in
the form of an allowance aimed at supporting young job seekers while they are
actively seeking employment (National Planning Commission Report, 2011).
In October 2013, the Youth Wage Subsidy Bill (Employment Tax Incentive Bill,
2013) was adopted and the plan was to begin implementation in 2014. The
CWP could be used as part of an integrated training and development initiative
for youth applying for the subsidy.
Unemployment has been proven to have a detrimental effect on ones
wellbeing. Jahoda (1982) proposed the latent deprivation model to account for
the decrease in wellbeing in those who are unemployed. She tells of the
distress experienced by people who are out of work because they are losing
out on the psychological advantages of being employed. Jahoda (1982) also
tells of the importance of employment in terms of adding meaning to life.
Africans, females and young people continue to suffer most from the triple trials
of unemployment, poverty and inequality, President Zuma said, but working
together, solutions are possible (President Zuma, 2012).
Next, the proposed contribution of the study will be discussed.
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1.7 Proposed Contribution of the Study
This part of the discussion will cover the theoretical, practical and
methodological contributions of this research.
1.7.1 Theoretical contributions.
This study investigates LoC in relation to a job-search intervention programme;
biographical data such as gender, age and language; and achieving short-term
career goals. The study aims to theoretically contribute by confirming existing
knowledge about the relationship between LoC, a job-search intervention and
achieving short-term
1.7.2 Practical contributions.
This study could result in a conceptual career training framework being
developed that could include triangulation with various partners and platforms
thereby reaching and impacting a broad range of unemployed and
underemployed people.
The economy requires inflows to cover outflows and one of the challenges in
South Africa is the low tax base (Visser, 2014). People who are employed end
up engaging in society and pay their taxes and at this stage become a part of
society that contributes to the economy rather than take from the economic
pool. As more people become employed the numbers of discouraged work
seekers and other potential labour market participants decrease and add to
the labour force pool. This in turn will expand the tax base which will facilitate
meeting the increasing financial demand.
1.7.3 Methodological contributions.
Frese, Lumpkin, Rauch and Dess (2009) suggested that outcomes may vary
because of the differences in the research design or methodological
preferences. It is difficult to make general deductions when examining single
studies that include single samples, particularly if response rates are low. The
attempt in this research is supported to use existing models with existing,
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improved measuring instruments, so as to build or confirm on current
methodologies.
1.8 Synthesis
Chapter 1 introduced the key focus of the study background was provided. The
empirical research objective was set and sub-research objecitves were
formulated. Proposed contributions were stated.
Chapter 2 will explore the literature as stated in Chapter 1
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter a background, key focus of the study a motivation,
empirical and theoretical objectives and potential value add of the study were
discussed. In this chapter the literature will be explored regarding the
theoretical construct LoC, the theoretical relationship between biographical
data and LoC and the theoretical relationship between LoC and achievement
of short-term career goals. Added to that, the theoretical relationship between
a CWP intervention and achieving of short-term career goals, and the
theoretical relationship between LoC and achievement of short-term career
goals will also be discussed.
2.2.1 Locus of Control as a Construct
Rotter (1954) was the first to conceptualise LoC in his social-learning theory of
personality. LoC is one of the most widely studied concepts in psychology
(Judge, & Bono, 2001). His studies investigated how reinforcement, regard
and gratification affect the individuals outcomes in their lives. According to
Rotters theory it is through these possibilities of reward and punishment that
people come to hold beliefs around reasons for their behavior and the
outcomes in their lives. Rotters theory avers that reinforcement, regard and
gratification results in the degree to which people perceive themselves
dependent on their own control of outcomes or whether they are at the mercy
of external forces. Lefcourt (1976) refers to an individuals LoC as their basic
motivational force. LoC therefore describes the extent to which peoples
positive and negative conditioning and behaviour are strengthened through
their orientation towards either internal or external control. OBrien (1986, p.
52) defines LoC as a generalised expectancy about the extent to which
reinforcements are under internal or external control.
The LoC continuum has an external focus at the one extreme and an internal
focus on the other extreme. People who are orientated towards external control
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believe that their behavior is guided by forces such as chance, luck, social
structures and powerful others and they therefore perceive they have little
control of the outcomes in their lives. For example, someone with external LoC
who results in poor scores on an assessment may blame the low scores on
the questionnaire and believe the assessment was too difficult. Or they may
believe they didnt have enough time to prepare. Externals are not able to see
how their choices result in outcomes in their lives and blame factors outside of
themselves (Rotter, 1954; Lefcourt 1976).
People who are orientated towards an internal focus believe they are
themselves responsible for how life works out for them through their individual
actions, choices and initiative (Bothma, & Schepers, 1997; Heady, 2008). An
internal with low scores may believe they didnt do enough to prepare, looking
primarily to their own abilities and efforts when allocating blame. Internals
believe they can influence an outcome and that their choices have outcomes
that they have the potential to influence. Those with internal LoC look within
themselves for solutions and believe that their own efforts result in improved
prospects, they see obstacles as opportunities (Strauser, Ketz, & Keim, 2002;
Jansen, & Carton, 1999). Internals are usually high achievers and dont rely
on chance.
Having a sense of control is about recognising that events that impact on us
can be controlled and we decide whether or not those outside influences
determine our choices and behaviour. LoC therefore relates to the expected
results of actions (Rotter, 1966; Lefcourt, 1976) rather than the specific actions.
The construct is multi-dimensional and has become an effective tool in the
study of an individuals personality to indicate the individuals perception of
internal or external forces representing the cause and effect of behaviour
(Erwee, 1986; Judge, & Bono, 2001).
To perceive that one has some control over ones destiny and that one is able
to influence ones outcomes is seen as more desirable psychologically as this
is empowering to the individual through his self-agency, personal control and
10
self- determination. However, although research indicates that people with a
greater internal LoC are more successful in terms of achievement there are
many complexities that ought to be considered as extreme internal locus of
control could lead to arrogance, instability or depression in the individual
unless he has greater self-efficacy (Strauser, Ketz, & Keim, 2002).
Rotters later studies (1966) resulted in LoC being attributed to either ones
ability (resulting from internal causes), or ones good fortune (resulting from
external causes). Individuals with internal LoC look to themselves to make
things happen and those with external LoC are under the opinion that events
that come up in their lives are not within their control.
Autonomy was included in this study because of the positive correlation
between Autonomy and internal LoC (Schepers & Hassett, 2006). Studies
show that those with higher autonomy have more meaningful job involvement
and less problems at work. They are able to shape their work experience and
enjoy greater job fulfilment (Chen, Cheung, Macau, Chio, & Chan, 2013).
The first theoretical objective has been achieved namely to explore the
construct LoC. Next, the theoretical relationship between biographical data
and LoC will be explored.
2.3 Biographical Data and LoC
Biographical data relate to the facts surrounding the lives of the participants
used in the study; facts such as gender (male or female), age, home language,
are they skilled or unskilled and what qualifications they have. Biographics are
determinate factors in LoC. For example, research done by Shearer and Moore
(1978) revealed that beliefs around control by powerful others were more
prevalent amongst certain race groups. Wenzel (1992) predicts that external
LoC is more prevalent among the homeless, female, non-white groups.
Studies by Shearer and Moore (1978) revealed that beliefs around control by
powerful others were more prevalent amongst certain race groups.
11
Patterns of either external or internal LoC orientation have been found to exist
particularly where there are social problems. For instance, amongst
disadvantaged groups LoC has been found to be external (Lefcourt, & Ladwig,
1965) as well as in the homeless and victims of violence (Wright, 1989).
Wenzel (1992) concludes that external LoC is more prevalent among the
homeless, female, non-white groups. This study had participants from all
language groups. There were many participants who were non-South Africans
and could be regarded as disadvantaged in terms of their employment status
because they are non-nationals who dont understand or speak English very
well.
Based on the above the following hypothesis was formulated:
Hypothesis H1: There are differences between participants biographical
data (independent variables) and LoC (dependent variable).
Next the theoretical relationship between biographical data namely, gender;
age; skills; educational levels; and autonomy (independent variables) and LoC
(dependent variable) will be explored and hypotheses will be formulated.
2.3.1 Gender and LoC.
Diverse findings have come up in studies to determine the perception of men
and women in terms of powerful others exerting control over them. In one study
women appear to have more external LoC (Mahler, 1974), and in another, it
appears that men have more external LoC than women (Levenson, 1972). In
a study done by Ward (2011) results showed no evidence of moderation in
terms of gender in relation to sense of control. However some research
revealed that there is an association between higher earnings and internally
oriented females (Groves, 2005; Semykina, & Linz, 2007).
In another more recent study there appears to be no relationship between LoC
and job search activities in women, yet in the same study it was found that men
who increased job search hours had slightly increased internal LoC scores
(Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2015).
12
Hypothesis H1.1: There is a relationship between gender (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Next the theoretical relationship between age (independent variable) and LoC
(dependent variable) will be explored.
2.3.2 Age and LoC.
A comparable relationship exists between sense of control and performance
expectations across the age groups of 18 to 81 year olds (Soederberg Miller,
2010). The same studies also revealed that increased beliefs around sense of
control in older adults appears to be connected to increased performance
expectations (Soederberg Miller, 2010). Other studies show that there is
susceptibility in older adults to be affected by their sense of control in terms of
goal achievement (West, & Yassuda, 2004).
In one study it was found that job searchers who were both younger and older
had greater success in finding work after completing a job search intervention
(Liu, Huang, & Wang, 2014).
Hypothesis H1.2: There is a relationship between age (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Next the theoretical relationship between skills (independent variable) and LoC
(dependent variable) will be explored.
2.3.3 Skills and LoC.
Individuals with an external LoC are less likely to believe that skills they may
attain will assist them in achieving goals. They assume that it does matter what
skill experience one may have, this will not get one any closer to achieving
ones desired outcomes in life. Those people who would perceive a link
between attaining skills and experience and achieving their career goals are
usually internals. Internals assume that if they practise their skills and gain
experience, this will push them closer to achieving (Fitzgerald, & Clark, 2013;
McGee, 2015; Breeding, 2008).
13
Hypothesis H1.3: There is a relationship between skills (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
2.3.4 Educational levels and LoC.
Previous studies have indicated that internal LoC escalates the likelihood of
individuals advancing from high school and pursuing further education (Baron,
& Cobb-Clark 2010; Coleman, & DeLeire 2003). Research showed that those
who achieved 16 years and more of schooling when starting out on their
careers, scored higher on internal LoC, whereas externals had lesser years of
education (Ahn, 2015). From this it can be theorised that there is a relationship
between LoC and education levels achieved.
Scheiman and Plickerts (2008) research shows a direct correlation between
education and personal control. They go as far as saying that through receiving
an education one begins to develop an internal LoC because education leads
to one being able to control situations and circumstances.
Hypothesis H1.4: There is a relationship between educational level
(independent variable) and LoC (dependant variable)
The second theoretical study objective has been achieved namely to explore
the relationships between biographical data and LoC.
The next section in the literature review has been included in hindsight. During
the statistical analysis, the variable autonomy revealed significant relationships
with biographical factors and LoC. This prompted the researcher to explore
and include a literature section on autonomy and its relationship with
biographical factors and LoC.
2.4 Autonomy and LoC
Wolmans definition of autonomy is the tendency to attempt to master or be
effective in the environment, to impose ones wishes and designs on it
(Wolman, 1973, p. 37). Individuals who are autonomous find solutions to
14
problems, prefer to manage change, take advantage of opportunities to lead,
favour working alone and organising their work (Schepers, 2005).
Information taken from a recent study reveals that those internals who
demonstrate autonomous behaviour by submitting many job applications think
that they will have greater success at getting job offers (Caliendo, Cobb-Clark,
& Uhlendorff, 2015). An earlier study by Caliendo, Cobb-Clark and Uhlendorff
(2010) it was found that women and older workers more often believed that
problems that come up in their lives are outside of their ability to manage.
Research by Liu, Huang and Wang (2014) found that younger job seekers are
unclear about career goals and are less likely to solve problems around job
searching, whereas older job seekers faced, amongst other things, the
frustration of stereotyping which can be overcome through autonomous
behaviour.
Hypothesis H1.5: There is a relationship between autonomy (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Next the theoretical relationship between LoC (independent variable) and
achievement of short-term career goals (dependent variable) will be
discussed.
2.5 LoC and Achievement of Short-term Career Goals
A sense of control is an essential attribute in the context of achieving
employment goals, argues Warr (1999) and much research has been done to
explore the connection between job search outcomes and factors that
influence realization of career goals.
The confidence and behaviours that are required when making decisions
about and selecting employment goals are influenced by LoC (Breeding,
2008). Individuals who perceive they have low influence over their working
environments are apt to fare lower in terms of achieving employment goals
(Breeding, 2008; McGee 2015).
15
Internal LoC has also been proven to influence what job one would go into, as
well as schooling decisions, work experiences and employment (Heckman,
Stixrud, & Urzua, 2006). Similarly, LoC has been proven to influence the belief
of being able to enter employment as well as economic decisions related to
training interventions (Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2010). Internal LoC
has been found to affect investments in educational interventions and
individuals with internal LoC anticipated higher returns when investing in their
education (Coleman, & Deleire, 2003). Internal LoC is an antecedent of
successful job search behaviour (Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001).
Generally, predictions related to long and short term economic success can be
associated with LoC (Judge, & Hurst, 2007). An early study by Andrisani
(1981) found that those with internal LoC had higher wages after two years.
Groves (2005) produced evidence that higher internal LoC resulted in higher
wages for women. Duncan and Morgan (1981) replicated the study of
Andrisani (1977) and were not able to come up with firm evidence of this strong
link between internal LoC and wages, however Duncan and Duniform (1998)
were able to show how internal LoC is positively related to earnings after 20 to
25 years. High external LoC was found by Anger and Heineck (2009) to result
in forfeited earnings.
Breeding (2008) suggests consideration be given to helping individuals
develop a sense of control as it relates to their work. Where internally oriented
people are unable to exercise control over their immediate environment, it is
suggested that they may be more inclined towards an external LoC as a means
of coping (Taylor, Schepers, & Crous. 2006). By implication, the high stress
associated with being unemployed could result in an unemployed individual
having a more external LoC. It can thus be stated that a sense of control
impacts the life dimensions of work.
The third theoretical objective set has been completed namely to explore the
relationship between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-
16
term career goals (dependent variable). Based on the above the following
hypothesis was formulated:
Hypothesis H2: There is a relationship between LoC (independent
variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependant variable).
Next the fourth theoretical objective will be explored namely to explore the
theoretical relationship between LoC, CWP interventions and achieving of
short term career goals.
2.6 LoC and Training Interventions
Techniques ranging from summer camp curriculum to individual
psychotherapy are used to shift LoC, and job search interventions have been
used successfully with job seekers (Gardner, & Beatty, 1980). Adjustments to
LoC can be done through learned reinforcement (Rotter, 1966; Skinner, 2003).
Psychologists have developed counselling techniques which have helped
persons become more internal, state Gardner and Gardner (1974, p. 42).
It has been established through research that people scoring higher on internal
LoC put more effort into searching for jobs than externals (Caliendo, Cobb-
Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2015; McGee, 2015). The premise is that the more effort
job seekers put into finding a job the greater the opportunities for employment;
and they end up being employed earning higher wages.
Bartowski, Call, Heaton and Forste (2007) conducted a study on some aspects
of the CWP intervention taught by ERS and concluded that there were definite
economic benefits for those who received, specifically, the job interview
training in the CWP intervention. Results of their study also indicated that job
and perceived financial status of CWP participants improved (Bartowski, Call,
Heaton and Forste (2007). In a meta-analysis study, it was found that job
search intervention programs had a positive effect in influencing being hired;
and obstacles to being hired included lack of motivation to look for work (Liu,
Huang, & Wang, 2014).
17
The fourth theoretical objective set has been achieved namely to explore the
theoretical relationship between a CWP intervention and achieving of short-
term career goals. Based on the above the following hypothesis was set:
Hypothesis H3: There is a positive relationship between a CWP
intervention (independent variable) and achieving of short-term career goals
(dependent variable).
2.7 LoC, Achievement of Short Term Goals and CWP as Mediator
People who work from an internal LoC believe that they are in control of a
wide spectrum of influences in their lives, and internal LoC is indicated as
playing a role in job search activities (Ahn, 2015; Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, &
Uhlendorff, 2015; Judge, & Bono, 2001).
Looking for a job is becoming an increasingly common experience (Fugate,
Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004) and job seekers oriented towards internal LoC
perceive themselves positively as being self-efficacious. This facilitates self-
determination (Breeding, 2008) which makes for an apparent link between
successful job search outcomes and proactive behaviour (De Vos, De
Clippeleer, & Dewilde, 2009). A recent study by Caliendo, Cobb-Clark and
Uhlendorff (2015) avers that job seekers have subjective views about the
number of job offers they receive in relation to the effort they put into their job
search.
Fugate, Kinicki, and Scheck (2002) aver that people who are highly
employable have a perceived high sense of control and believe that they have
many career options open to them, and they pursue those options readily.
Asserting themselves in this way reduces their uncertainty which adds to their
sense of control. Ashford and Black (1996) suggest that those who have a high
sense of control easily explore wider career options. Carter and Cook (1995)
and Stolz-Loike (1996) state that individuals with high internal LoC plan more
and are proactive regarding transitioning between jobs. They are also more
18
adaptable and engaged in improving their standing in life (De Vos, De
Clippeleer, & Dewilde, 2009; Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2015).
Participants in this study come from different countries, speak different
languages, are of varying ages and gender, and have different levels of
education and skills. Fugate, Kinicki, and Scheck (2002) hypothesise that
highly employable people have many career options available to them
because they assert themselves and pursue all avenues of employment
that are open to them. This reduces uncertainty and thereby increases
their sense of control. Wenzel (1992) predicted that external LoC is more
prevalent among the homeless, female, non-white groups. Many job
seekers in South Africa may be at a disadvantage in terms of their
employment status because of language limitations if they are non-
nationals or if they havent learned English well enough to speak or
understand.
Individuals with an external LoC are less likely to believe that skills they
may attain will assist them in achieving their goals, and people with an
internal LoC believe that they are in control of a wide spectrum of
influences in their lives (Bothma, & Schepers, 1997; Heady, 2008; Strauser,
Ketz, & Keim, 2002; Jansen, & Carton, 1999).
The fifth theoretical objective namely, to explore the theoretical relationship
between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-term goals
(dependent variable) with CWP intervention as a (mediator variable) has been
explored. Based on the above the following hypothesis was formulated:
Hypothesis H4: There is a relationship between LoC (independent
variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependent variable)
with CWP intervention as a positive mediating factor.
19
2.8 Synthesis
Chapter two presented a literature review which explored the relationships
between biographical factors and LoC. The role of CWP interventions was
explored as well as the achievement of short term career goals. According to
Rotter (1966), it is through the possibility of rewards and punishment that
people develop and maintain beliefs around explanations for their behaviour
and the outcomes in their lives.
The theoretical objectives as set out in this chapter have been used to
develop the hypotheses for this study, and will be discussed further in the
chapters to follow. In the next chapter, the research design and
methodology of this research will be explored and discussed.
20
Chapter 3: Research Method
3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the literature objectives were explored and research
hypotheses were set.
This chapter deals with the research design and research method which is
used in an attempt to answer the research questions as set in Chapter 1. More
specifically the following areas will be outlined: research design, research
approach, research method (which refers to the population, location of the
data, measuring instruments, research procedure and statistical analysis).
The key focus of the study was to determine what the relationship is between
LoC and peoples achievement of their short-term career goals, a job-search
intervention and the achievement of short term career goals.
3.2 Research Hypothesis
The following research hypotheses were set in Chapter 2:
Hypothesis H1A: There are differences between participants biographical
data (independent variables) and LoC (dependent variable).
Hypothesis H1.1A: There is a relationship between gender (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Hypothesis H1.2A: There is a relationship between age (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Hypothesis H1.3A: There is a relationship between skills (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Hypothesis H1.4A: There is a relationship between educational level
(independent variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
21
Hypothesis H1.5A: There is a relationship between autonomy (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Hypothesis H2A: There is a relationship between LoC (independent
variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependant variable).
Hypothesis H3A: There is a relationship between a CWP intervention
(independent variable) and achieving of short-term career goals (dependent
variable).
Hypothesis H4A: There is a relationship between LoC (independent
variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependent variable)
with CWP intervention as a positive mediating factor.
3.3 Research Approach
The research approach is the way the research will be structured and executed
and depends on the focus of the study (Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell (2007). A
quantitative approach was adopted. The quantitative researcher analyses
data by looking at the particular elements, first in isolation, and then in various
combinations with other elements (Mouton, 1996, p. 169). When using a
quantitative approach, the focus is on comparisons and relationships between
variables and constructs under observation (Cresswell, 2003). Quantitative
studies work with numerical data; aggregating, comparing and summarising;
making it possible to obtain averages and analyse complex formulas and
mathematical models (Babbie, 2010). Using a quantitative approach allowed
the researcher to test for underlying theories composed of variables
(measured in numbers) and then analysing it using statistical methods to test
if the predictive nature of the underlying theories holds to be true. For this study
a quantitative approach was further used to allow the researcher to conduct
statistical analysis.
22
3.4 Research Design
The research design is determined once the researcher knows what is being
explored and is the plan that will result in obtaining the necessary answers
most efficiently and effectively (Babbie, 2010). It specifies the methods and
procedures for collecting and analysing information needed to solve the
research problem and is to do with the development of a strategy when
implementing scientific investigation. Zikmund (2003) writes that the research
design is a structural framework of activities for the research project. In the
next section the research approach will be discussed.
3.4.1 Cross-sectional field survey.
The cross sectional component of this research approach consisted of using a
criterion-group design where the participants were investigated at the same
time in terms of the variables (Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2007). This
approach was also useful to investigate the relationships between the
variables (Zikmund, 2003) biographical data, LoC and the CWP intervention.
3.4.2 Ex post facto research.
Ex post facto research is a study where exploration done after-the-fact, and
where the researcher has not interfered with or manipulated information in the
research process. Ex post facto research tests cause and effect associations.
(Salkind, 2010). The researcher conducted ex post facto research by analysing
the results after the fact and report on it as such. Therefore the results holds
true for that specific period of time.
3.5 Research Method
The research method refers to the range of techniques that are available to
us to collect evidence about the social world (Henn, Weinstein, & Foard, 2009,
p. 10) and will be discussed under the following headings: the population,
sampling and participants.
23
3.5.1 Population.
The target population refers to the specific group of population elements to be
studied who are relevant to the research project (Zikmund, 2003). The
population consists of all unemployed considered as youth between the ages
of 15 to 34 years of age in South Africa, N = 1.3 m
3.5.1.1 Sample and participants.
The number of participants in a sample group allow for the findings to be
generalised to the greater population (Denscombe, 2010). The sample were
people who were referred or approached the ERS offices wanting to do the
CWP intervention and who were seeking assistance with achieving their career
goals. Seven groups of 20 per group once a month over a period of seven
months were approached to partake in the study. A convenient sample
(Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2007) size of n = 149 participants were obtained.
The researcher obtained permission from the CWP organisers and the CWP
participants to test the set hypothesis.
3.5.2 Biographical data of the sample N = 149.
The definition of biographical data provided by Lautenschlager (1994, p. 392)
is factual kinds of questions about life and work experiences as well as to
items involving opinions, values, beliefs, and attitudes that reflect a historical
perspective. Lautenschlager (1994) postulated that biographical data is useful
in research to anticipate how people are likely to behave and perform in the
future based on assumptions regarding their past behaviour. Table 1 below
presents the profile of the participants.
24
Table 1: Sample Profile of Participants - Age, N=149
Age Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent
Valid
25
Figure 2: Sample Profile of Participants - Skills Level
Skill level as shown in Figure 2 above was noted to determine whether or not
it influenced achieving of career goals as well as to reveal the relationship
between LoC and skill level. The percentages in Figure 2 above represent
each participants subjective interpretation of how they rate their own skill level.
Table 3: Sample Profile of Respondents - Previous CWP, N=149
Previous CWP Percent
Valid 0 71
1 to 2 20
3 to 4 8
5 or more 1
Total 100.0
Respondents who previously went through a CWP intervention were noted for
the value of determining whether or not this made a difference to them
achieving their career goal. They were grouped into categories as stated in
Table 3 above.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Unskilled Semi Skilled Skilled "No Answer Stated"
Skills Levels
26
The number of respondents who indicated they have never done a CWP
intervention was N = 105. One respondent indicated he had attended the CWP
intervention more than five times.
Figure 3: Sample Profile of Participants Level of Education, N=149
Figure 3 above addressed the education levels of the participants. Of the
participants 74.5% have either grade 10 a certificate or a diploma.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
27
In Figure 4 below one can get a sense of the many languages in South Africa.
Figure 4: Sample Profile of Participants Home Language, N=149
Figure 4 above reveals that the N =149 participants reported a total of N =21
home languages spoken between them. The highest number of participants
(22%) speak isiZulu in their homes, and the next highest, 18.8%, speak
English.
Next, years of work experience is discussed.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Afr
ika
an
s
Be
mb
a
Ch
ew
a
Da
ma
ra
En
gli
sh
Fre
nch
IGB
O
Ka
can
ga
Lug
an
da
Nd
eb
ele
N S
oth
o
Po
rtu
gu
ese
Se
pe
di
Se
soth
o
Sh
on
a
S S
oth
o
Ve
nd
a
Tsw
an
a
Xh
osa
Yo
rub
a
Zu
lu
"No
A
nsw
er
Sta
ted
"
Home Language
28
Figure 5: Sample Profile of Participants Years of Work Experience
Years of work experience was recorded and categorised as shown in Figure 5
above. Of importance is that the highest number of job seekers (81%) had less
than three years work experience.
This section concludes the descriptive statistics of the sample respondents.
3.6 Measuring Instrument Self-Administered Structured
Questionnaire
A fourth edition LoC Instrument (LCI) designed by Professor Johann M.
Schepers and distributed by Jopie Van Rooyen and Partners SA (Pty) Ltd was
used in this study. The LoC Instrument scored autonomy, internal LoC and
external LoC. In further research by Schepers, Gropp and Geldenhuys (2006)
the validity of the LCI was carried out with improvements made on previous
editions. As a result of the further research the previous LCI underwent
comprehensive revision and was expanded to include 88 items associated with
emotional intelligence, sense of coherence and self-actualisation. The three-
factor structure of the LCI were confirmed as being autonomy, external control
and internal control, and thus the construct validity of the scale was confirmed
(Schepers, Gropp, & Geldenhuys, 2006).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 10 >10 5.00 "No Answer
Stated"
Years of Work Experience
29
It was administered to participants before and after the CWP two day
intervention. It is well acknowledged that such an instrument cannot be
administered in such a short period (two days) before and after the
intervention. However the researcher, as will be explained, used the data
obtained after the intervention, for statistical analysis and merely reports on
the outcome obtained before the intervention
Participants were required to respond to questions without thinking too long
about the answers, but rather giving their spontaneous reactions. Responses
were not right or wrong, they were about how the participants felt about the
answers to the questions. Due to license agreement the researcher may not
publish the instrument nor draw any inferences from it. The results obtained
were merely used for statistical analysis purposes.
3.6.1 Background and rationale for inclusion.
The rationale for inclusion was merely to determine if an intervention like the
CWP, even if it is a two day intervention can create awareness and motivation
in participants to take responsibility for achieving their short term career goals.
3.6.2 Composition of the instrument.
The LCI has 88 items that are rated by participants on a seven point Likert
scale. These 88 items pertain to an individuals expectation of reinforcement
of his/her behaviour arising from the social environment (Schepers, 2005, p.
1).
Following are some examples of items asked:
How readily would you tackle a problem if there is a chance that you
might fail?
To what extent should a person decide on his own work routine?
To what extent do failures spur you on to work harder and improve
your performance?
To what extent does Lady Luck play a role in your life?
30
How much does success depend on hard work?
How strongly do you believe that only those people who are at the
right place at the right time get promoted?
How often do you doubt the correctness of the decisions that you
have taken?
3.6.3 Validity and reliability of the instrument.
The development and validation of the LCI has been tested in five studies, the
last one of which has a sample of N = 3033 participants and has consistently
produced promising results. Schepers and Hassett (2006) reported highly
acceptable reliabilities that ranged from Cronbach alphas between .721 to
.861 as well as acceptable face and content validities (Schepers, Gropp, &
Geldenhuys, 2006; Schepers, & Hassett, 2006).
3.7 Research Procedure
The researcher first obtained permission to conduct the study to test her
hypothesis. ERS scheduled CWP interventions and advertised them on the
public bulletin boards in the Parktown, Johannesburg Employment Resource
Centre. Invitations were not restricted to those who are unemployed and
included anyone who believed they could benefit from the job search skills
training intervention. Participants signed up for the training, indicating which
dates best suited them.
They arrived on the pre-arranged dates and registered for the CWP
intervention. Before each CWP intervention started each respondent was
briefed on the study being conducted and invited to participate in the study.
Confidentiality was stressed and it was explained to participants that the
results of their assessment would be made available to them on request.
However the researcher made it very clear that should the participant which to
obtain the results it may only be done via a registered industrial psychologist.
31
After the explanation of the study was given, each respondent was given a
Consent form (refer to Annexure A for an example) that they signed agreeing
that their information could be used for the study. On the Consent form are
sections to be completed regarding their biographical data. Once the Consent
forms, including biographical data were completed, the LCI assessment was
explained to them by a registered psychometric and they were given time to
complete the LCI assessment.
After the allotted time was taken for participants to complete the LCI, the forms
were gathered and participants started with the CWP intervention training. The
CWP was held over two days. At the end of the second day each participant
went through the same LCI assessment again, for the second time, also
administered under the supervision of a registered psychometric.
Next, after a three month waiting period a telephonic follow up was done with
each participant every month for eight months after completion of the CWP
intervention. This phone call was to determine how the respondent was doing
in terms of achieving their short-term goals. The information was solicited
through them each being asked the following question:
If you have got and started a job, started an education program or
started your own business, what was the date you started?
The answer to this question was used to determine how long it took for each
respondent to achieve his/her short-term career goal. Answers were taken
down and if the respondent had not achieved their short-term career goal they
were called again a month later. These calls were made every month for eight
months unless short-term career goals were achieved. Of the total sample of
N = 149 the researcher was unable to contact N = 40 via telephone.
3.8 Capturing and Editing the Data
The biographical data taken from the consent forms of each of the N =149
participants were gathered and captured onto an excel spreadsheet. The pre
32
and post LCI assessments were gathered and the scores of the LCI were
captured onto a spreadsheet provided by Jopie Van Rooyen and Partners SA
(Pty) Ltd who analysed and reported the scores. The LoC pre and post scores
were added to the excel spreadsheet containing biographical data which are
available on request (Annexure B electronically).
The results of the monthly telephone calls to each respondent regarding their
achieving of their short-term employment goals were also recorded and
transcribed and responses were added to the excel spreadsheet.
This datasheet was given to the University of Johannesburg (UJ) STATKON
Department for processing. Missing data were accounted for and only
complete sets of information were used. Where applicable the mean average
was used to compensate for missing data. All information was logically
grouped and used for further statistical analysis.
STATKON assigned a registered Industrial Psychologist Dr Jurgen to analyse
and interpret the results. This resulted in Dr Jurgen suggesting that autonomy
as a variable of interest to be subjected to further statistical analysis. Although,
it was not the intent of the study to focus on autonomy it added depth to the
statistical analysis and led to the formulation of additional hypothesis and
revealed interesting results. The findings will be discussed in Chapter 4.
Next the statistical techniques used will briefly be discussed. The findings will
be presented in Chapter 4.
3.9 Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis consisted of descriptive statistics which enabled the
researcher to draw inferences about the sample. Analysis in quantitative
research applies a combination of statistical and mathematical techniques
which focus individually on certain variables (Mouton, 1996). To interpret the
data is to associate findings with existing theories or to create a new
hypothesis; to bring it all together (Mouton, 1996, p. 161).
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3.9.1 Parametric and non-parametric techniques.
When comparing differences amongst groups various techniques can be used
(Pallant, 2007); these techniques are grouped into parametric and non-
parametric techniques. If the assumption is that normality exist in the scores
of the groups one intends to compare then parametric test will be used. Non-
parametric test do not use these assumptions and are therefore more suitable
to use for small groups. The disadvantage is that these tests may not be
sensitive to differences amongst the groups. Table 4 below illustrates the types
of techniques that results under both.
Where the sample did not meet parametric assumptions the researcher used
the corresponding non-parametric test alternative. It is recognised (Pallant,
2010) that the Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney U, and Chi-Square are not as
sensitive as their parametric alternative.
Table 4: Parametric and Non-Parametric Techniques (Adapted from: Pallant,
2007)
Parametric Techniques Non-Parametric Techniques
Independent sample t-test Mann-Whitney U test
Paired Sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
One-way between groups ANOVA Kruskal-Walis Test
None Chi-square for level of fit
Two-way analysis of variance (Between groups) None
Mixed between-within groups (ANAVO None
Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) None
Analysis of Co-variance None
It is generally accepted (Zikmund, Babin, Carr, & Griffin, 2013) that the
accuracy of research is directly related to the size of the sample. Although the
sample size seemed small N = 149 it was decided to go ahead and use test
from both parametric and non-parametric. It was also noted that the sample
was small and might thus affected the generalisation of results.
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T-testing is used when the average deviation between two mean scores is not
known (Zikmund, 2003). The paired sample t-tests compared the pre-
intervention mean locus of control scores of the sample with the post-
intervention mean locus of control scores of the same sample to determine
standard deviation. Any differences were attributed to the CWP intervention.
In a study such as this one where there was an assumption of dependence
between the dependent (criterion) and independent (predictor) variables, a
multiple regression analysis technique of analysing data was used (Cooper, &
Schindler, 2011). Multiple regression is a dependency technique for data
analysis where values are predicted for dependent variables from values for
independent variables, and it also tests and explains causal theories (Babbie,
2010). Biographical data gathered in this study was included in the
interpretation to determine relationships between the variables. A multivariate
analysis examined the effect of independent variables on a dependent
variable, including which variables had a greater or lesser effect (Cooper, &
Schindler, 2011).
Biographical data on each respondent, as well as the data obtained from the
telephone calls to determine whether or not they achieved their short-term
career goals, facilitated investigation of how male and female participants in
different age groups, with differing home languages differed in terms of sense
of control. Other inferences were also drawn regarding the correlational
relationships between variables.
In this study multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate which of the
variables influenced or predicted the achieving of short-term career goals the
best. Multiple regression analysis also determined the association of the
effects of the independent variables (gender, age, home language, education
level, skill level, employment status and whether they have done the CWP
intervention before) with the achieving of short-term career goals (the
dependent variable) (Zikmund, 2003).
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3.10 Ethics
When conducting any form of research study, particularly one that involves
participants, it is important to ensure that one maintains a high level of ethics.
This includes; disclosing all aspects of the research to the respondent,
maintaining anonymity should they ask, not plagiarising, and ensuring that one
does not commit academic fraud.
Ethical considerations fall within the four rights of participants who participated
in this study. Those rights are:
The right not to be harmed
The right of full disclosure
The right of self-determination (to participate or withdraw at any time)
The right of privacy, anonymity and confidentiality (Cooper, & Schindler
2011).
Participants were informed of their rights when they were invited to participate
in the study and the invitation was presented in a manner that was free from
coercion. All participants signed a consent form and they were assured that all
information will be kept confidential. No direct reference was made to those
who participated in the research. The LCI assessments were administered
under the supervision of a registered psychometric and each participants was
informed that they would be given the results of their LCI assessment if they
requested it.
3.11 Synthesis
This chapter included a discussion and explanation of the research design and
approach using convenient samples of participants. The cross-sectional
component of this research approach consisted of using a criterion-group
design where groups were investigated at the same time in terms of one or
more variable. The research method was explained including a discussion on
the sampling and the items of biographical data that were gathered.
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The telephonic interviews that were done on each respondent was explained
along with an outline of the process of gathering and compiling all the
biographical information. The spreadsheet containing the information was
explained and identified, and the procedure for preparing the data for analysis
was given. As the statistical techniques employed to determine relationships
between variables. T-testing as well as ANOVA testing was explained.
Tables and figures illustrating the samples profiles, such as age, gender, skill
level, previous CWP, years of experience, level of education and home
language were presented. It was explained that the measuring instrument for
this study was a self-administered structured questionnaire, the LCI, designed
by Professor Johann M. Schepers. It was administered by registered
psychometrists from the firm Jopie Van Rooyen and Partners SA (Pty) Ltd.
The total number of participants was N = 149. Finally the ethical considerations
of the study were considered including rights of participants. Next, in Chapter
4 the findings of the statistical analyses will be reported on.
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Chapter 4: Results of the Study
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the research design followed in this study was outlined.
The sample was discussed. The measuring instrument was motivated and
explained, the research process and the statistical techniques used were
outlined. This chapter reports on the findings obtained.
The primary research objective was to investigate if there is a relationship
between biographical data, LoC, a CWP as an intervention and the
achievement of short-term career goals. It is further suggested that LoC has a
mediating effect between biographical data and the achievement of short-term
career goals. The relationship between LoC and the achievement of short-term
career goals is further positively mediated by a CWP as intervention. The
hypotheses formulated in Chapter 2 are provided.
4.2 Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis H1A: There are differences between participants biographical
data (independent variables) and LoC (dependent variable).
Hypothesis H1.1A: There is a relationship between gender (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable)
Hypothesis H1.2A: There is a relationship between age (independent
variable) and LoC (dependant variable).
Hypothesis H1.3A: There is a relationship between skills (independent
variable) and LoC (dep