Ayurveda and mind-body healing: Legitimizing strategies in

transcript

Ayurvedaandmind-bodyhealing:Legitimizingstrategiesin

theautobiographicalwritingofDeepakChopra

MayaWarrier

Abstract:Thispaperexplorestheearlyautobiographicalworkofthepopularhealthand

well-beingguru,DeepakChopra.Theautobiography(entitledReturnoftheRishi)is

Chopra’saccountofhisearlyforaysintomeditationandayurveda,theIndianhealth

tradition.Itisthestoryofhis‘spiritualtransformation’,andhisdevelopmentintoa

proficientayurvedichealer.Followingtheleadofhisone-timeguruandmentor,Maharishi

MaheshYogi,Choprarepresentsayurvedaas‘consciousness-based’medicine.Thispaper

demonstrateshow,bymeansofaseriesofnarrativestrategiesdeployingthemotifofthe

semi-divinerishiorsage,andforegroundingpersonalexperienceastheultimatesourceof

spirituallegitimacyandauthority,Chopra(abiomedicaldoctorwithlittleornoformal

traininginayurveda)seekstosecurelegitimacyasanauthorityonayurvedaandanadept

withextraordinaryhealingpowers.

Thepopularhealthandwellbeingguru,DeepakChopra,isaleadingfigureinthe

contemporaryWesterntransnationalholistichealthmilieu,andoneofthemostprolific

anglophonewritersonhealthandspiritualitytoday.Heisaqualifiedbiomedicaldoctor

whocombineshisbiomedicalexpertisewithyogaandayurvedaaswellasarangeof

‘holistic’therapies,topracticewhathedescribesas‘integrativemedicine’intheUS.This

paperexploreshisautobiographicalwritingwithaviewtoexaminingbothhis

representationofayurveda(theclassicalSouthAsianhealthtradition)andhisself-

representationasamind-bodyhealer.

Choprawasintroducedtoayurvedainthe1980sbyMaharishiMaheshYogi,thefounder

oftheTranscendentalMeditation(TM)movement.Foratimeheplayedakeyrolein

promotingMaharishiAyurveda,theMaharishi’sversionofthistradition,beforeparting

wayswiththeTMmovementandsettinguphisownindependentpractice.The

autobiographicalworktobeexploredhere,entitledReturnoftheRishi:ADoctor’sStory

ofSpiritualTransformationandAyurvedicHealing(firstpublishedin1988)waswritten

soonafterChopra’sencounterwithMaheshYogi,andatatimewhenhewasanactive

participantintheTMmovement,playingakeyroleinbringingMaharishiAyurvedato

theattentionofAmericanaudiences.

This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.

Aravamudan(2006:28)describesReturnoftheRishias‘aspiritualautobiographyof

sortsthatmakesthebridgebetweenChopra’smedicalcareerandhisadoptionofthe

Maharishi’sphilosophy’.Infact,asthispaperwillargue,itismuchmorethanthis.By

meansofthisnarrative,Chopra,followingtheMaharishi’slead,interpretsayurvedaas

thebasisofmind-bodyhealing,attributingtoitmeaningsfarremovedfromthose

associatedwithitinitshomecontextinSouthAsia.Hedrawsdirectlyfromthe

discoursecentraltotheTMmovement,presentingayurvedaasa‘holistic’systemof

healingwithmeditationasitsbedrock.Mostimportantly,theautobiographicalnarrative

legitimizesChopraasanaccomplishedayurvedichealer.Itchartshistransformation

intoanadeptwhocanperformextraordinaryactsofhealing.

IntraditionalSouthAsiancontexts,securinglegitimacyasavaidyaorayurvedic

practitionerusuallyrequiredanumberofyearsoftutelageandapprenticeshipunderan

experiencedphysician.InmodernIndiaandSriLanka,universitiesandcolleges

followingastandardizedcurriculumprovidemassinstructioninayurveda.Thosewho

completethetrainingprogrammeandsecureaBAMS(BachelorofAyurveda,Medicine

andSurgery)degreearedeemedqualifiedtosetuppractice.InChopra’scase,hehas

followedneitherroute.Insteadhereliesonpersonalexperienceofwhatheclaimsare

ayurveda’s‘truths’.Asthenarrativeinhisautobiographymakesevident,andasIwill

illustrateinthesectionstofollow,Chopra’spresumedexpertiseinayurveda,likethatof

theMaharishibeforehim,isbasedonmysticalgnosticinsight;heclaimstoaccessthe

‘truth’ofayurvedathoughdirectexperiencesofstatesofalteredconsciousness.

Thisemphasisonpersonalexperienceandinsightisacentralfeatureofthemilieuof

unchurchedspiritualityandoftheholistichealthsectorinEuro-Americancontexts.A

centraltenethereisthatauthoritylieswithintheself;the‘epistemological

individualism’(Wallis1984)centraltothismilieurequiresthatvoicesofauthority

(thoseofexperts,charismaticleaders,figuresoftraditionalauthority)mustbemediated

throughinnerexperience(Heelas1996;Heelas,Woodheadetal2004).Chopra,whois

well-versedwiththeattitudesandorientationsofthismilieu,mediatestheteachingsof

theMaharishithroughhisinnerexperiences.Thenarrativealsoportrayshimas

developing,onthestrengthoftheseinnerexperiences,asenseofhisownextraordinary

healingpowers.

Sinceitisinhispublishedworksthathemakestheseclaims,Chopra’sreputationasan

authorityonayurveda,healthandwellbeingrestsinlargepartonhiswritingandits

positivereceptionbythetargetedreadership.Theproductionofavoluminousrangeof

publicationsonthesesubjectshasbeencentraltohispopularityandlegitimacyasa

healer.AsAlter(2004,xviii-xix)notesinrelationtomodernyoga,throughsuchwriting,

authorsarticulatetheirversionof‘truth’.Readerswhoacceptthistruth,andperceiveit

tobelegitimateandmeaningful,ineffectacknowledgetheauthor’sauthenticityand

authority.Chopra’sautobiographicalwork(alongwithhisotherearlywritingson

ayurvedaandhealing1)isfoundationaltohisauthorityandlegitimacyasanayurvedic

healer.CentraltoChopra’snarrativestrategy,asthefollowingdiscussionwill

demonstrate,isthesettingupofcontrasts–betweenIndiantraditionandWestern

modernity,betweenayurvedaandbiomedicine,betweenthenewspirituallyawakened

Chopra,andhisoldself.Thenarrativeisframedintermsofhisrediscovery,while

servinginabusyhospitalintheUS,ofIndia’sspiritualwealth,oftheMaharishiand

TranscendentalMeditation,andofhisownpotentialasahealer.InwhatfollowsIwill

firstprovideabriefintroductiontoDeepakChopraandhisversionofayurveda,before

goingontheexplorecentralthemesandlegitimizingstrategiesinhisautobiographical

narrative.

DeepakChopra:healerandculturalentrepreneur

Chopraisaself-consciouslymodernfigure,presentinghimselfbeforehistransnational

anglophoneaudiencesnotasatraditionalguru,butasanurbansecularhealer(Baer

2003).Hewasamongthoseinitiallyhand-pickedbytheMaharishitospearhead

MaharishiAyurveda(aversionofayurvedathatcombinedTMwithayurvedichealing).2

ChoprafoundedtheMaharishiAyurvedaProductsInternationalwhichmarketedand

distributedAyurvedicmedicinessupposedly‘rediscovered’bythisguru(Zysk2001).He

wasalsotaskedwithdirectingtheTMorganization’smainayurvediccentrein

Lancaster,Massachussetts.Chopra’sassociationwiththeMaharishiwas,however,

short-lived.In1991,anarticleonMaharishiAyurvedaintheJournaloftheAmerican

MedicalAssociation,co-authoredbyChopraandothersaffiliatedtotheTM

1ParticularlyrelevanthereareChopra1989,1990.2ForaninsideraccountofMaharishiAyurveda,seeSharma1996.Academic‘outsider’

accountsareprovidedbyReddy2000,andbyJeannotat,HumesandNewcombein

WujastykandSmith(eds.)2008.(Alsoseetheeditors’‘Introduction’tothisvolume.)

establishment,becamethesubjectofamajorcontroversy(ibid.).Theauthorswere

accusedofusingthejournaltopromoteMaharishiAyurveda;theyfacedchargesof

misinforminganddeceivingtheirreaders,andofmanipulatingscientificdatatofurther

theirowninterests.Thiscontroversy,whichgeneratedalotofbadpublicityfortheTM

movement,wouldappeartohavebeenakeyfactorprecipitatingChopra’sdecisionto

partwayswiththeMaharishi.

In1996,heco-foundedTheChopraCenterforWellbeinginSanDiego,California,with

hiscolleague,DavidSimon,aqualifiedmediclikeChopra.Inthepromotionalmaterial

thisCentreisdescribedasproviding‘anintegrativeapproachtototalwell-being

throughself-awareness,andthepracticeofyoga,meditation,andAyurveda’.3The

Centre,accordingtoitswebsite,offersawidevarietyoftreatmentprogrammes,retreats

andteachertrainingcoursesthatintegratethe‘consciousness-basedteachingsofVedic

science,astranslatedbyourfounders’,with‘cutting-edgeresearchandmodernwestern

medicine’.4In2000,hewentontoestablishtheChopraFoundation,dedicatedto

‘improvinghealthandwell-being,cultivatingspiritualknowledge,expanding

consciousness,andpromotingworldpeacetoallmembersofthehumanfamily’.5

Choprapromotesahighlyoptimisticvisionofhealing,attributingtothemindand

consciousnessunlimitedpotentialwhichcanbeharnessednotjusttocuredisease,but

alsotoovercomeanyandallperceivedlimitationsinone’slife.Hehasauthoredmore

than80bookstranslatedintoover40languages,someofthemrankinginTheNewYork

Timesbestsellerlists.HemakesinnumerableappearancesonAmericantelevision.He

offersadviceonmattersrangingfromboostingself-confidence,enjoyingfulfilling

relationships,winningfriendsandinfluencingpeople,toeatingwell,meditating,and

sleepingsoundly.

HisclientshaveincludedcelebritieslikeDemiMoore,andthelateElizabethTaylorand

GeorgeHarrison(Aravamudan2006,257).Hisannualincome,runningintomillionsof

dollars,derivesnotjustfromthesaleofproductsandservicesattheChopraCentre,but

alsofromothersourcessuchasbookroyaltiesandlecturefees.Hisinfluenceextends

wellbeyondhisaffluentclient-base;hiswritings,talks,inspirationalmessages,guided

3http://www.chopra.com/about/the-chopra-center(accessed5/2/17)4ibid.5http://www.choprafoundation.org/about/about-the-chopra-foundation/(accessed

05/09/17)

meditationvideos,andgeneraladviceandcounsel,areallfreelyaccessiblethrough

variousmediaincludinghisbooks;blogsandpodcasts;FacebookandTwitter;hisown

YouTubechannel,TheChopraWell.6Heisacontroversialfigure,buthighlypopular,a

celebrityinhisownrightwhocaterstothehealthneedsofHollywoodcelebrities,and

collaborateswithsuchprominentfiguresintheAmericanculturalandtherapeuticscene

asOprahWinfrey.

Chopraisoneinalonglineofspiritualityenthusiastswho,sincethelate19thcentury,

havesoughttopopularizeIndianspiritualityintheWest.Inkeepingwiththemodeof

guru-discoursethatscholars(followingtheGermanIndologist,PaulHacker)often

describeasNeo-Hinduism,7ChopratooinvokesancientHindutraditionasthesourceof

spiritualwisdom.HeattributestoancientIndiagreatmystery,wisdomandpurity,

romanticizingtheancientworldasprimordial,mysteriousandspirituallyadvanced,and

contrastingthiswiththemodern,secularWestdeemedtobelackingintheseaspects.

TheancientIndianspiritualityheconstructsisworld-affirming,world-transformingand

deeplypractical.Inhisportrayal,aswillbediscussedinthesectionstofollow,ancient

spiritualitysurvivesinpresent-dayIndiainpersons,placesandpracticesasyet

untouchedbymodernity.

Choprashowsaremarkablefamiliarityandeasewiththevaluesandprioritiesofthe

mind-body-spiritmilieuintheWest.8Chopra’snarrativeonayurvedaandspiritualityis

refractedthroughtheprismofthemodernspiritualmilieuofunchurchedseekership,

andreflectsseekers’keypreoccupationwithgainingself-knowledgeandempowering

theselfthroughpersonalstriving.Inparticular,hesharestheirdeeply-heldbelief,

influencedinnosmallmeasurebypopularpsychologyandtheHumanPotential

Movement,9thathumanbeingspossessinfinitepotential.Theonlythingthatgetsinthe

wayofrealizingthispotential,accordingtothegeneralconsensus,isalackofbeliefin

6https://www.youtube.com/user/TheChopraWell(accessed28/02/18)7SeeHalbfass(1995)foradiscussionofHacker’skeyideas,andAltglas(2014)andWilliamson(2010)foranoutlineofNeo-Hinduism,itskeyfeatures,andthecontinuing

circulationofNeo-Hinduideasinthemoderntransnationalmilieuofunchurched

spirituality.8Seeeg,Fuller2001,Hanegraaff1997,Heelas1996.9OnpopularpsychologyandtheattendanttherapycultureintheUS,seeegRose1989;Furedi2004;Illouz2008;Rieff1987.

theself,andthepersistenceofrestrictiveandnegativethoughtpatterns.Reflectingthe

influenceofNewThoughtandtheMindCuremovement,10thismilieugreatlyvalorizes

positivethinkingandthepowerofthemindtobreakthroughalllimitations.Positive

thinking,andbeliefininfinitehumanpotential,arebothcrucialidealsthatChopra

deploysinhisstrategiestolegitimizeayurvedaasmind-bodymedicine,asweshallsee.

Indeedhisownjourneyof‘spiritualtransformation’asoutlinedinhisautobiographyisa

journeytowardstheunlockingofhisinfinitepotentialasahealer.

Chopra’snarrativestrategiesaredeeplypractical–theyleadto‘apersonalexpressionof

powerandauthority’and‘makemanifestavisionofattainablechangeinthisworld’

(CoatsandEmerich2017,5).Hisgreatestassetasawriterofbestsellersonspirituality

ishishighlyreadable,personalized,dynamicandexpressivestyleofwriting.Equally

important(thoughlessobvioustotheuncriticalreader)ishisabilitytoskillfully

combinetheculturalchauvinismandnationalisticpridecentraltoNeo-Hindunotionsof

spirituality,withtheuniversalistic,individual-centred,experimental,experiential

aspectsofmodernWesternspiritualseeking.Theresultisaspiritualcocktailthatis

uniquelyhisown.Heisacomplexfigure,AmericanandIndian;biomedicaldoctorand

holistichealer;moderninself-representationandmediatorofsupposedlyancientand

traditionalwisdom.Thiscomplexityserveshimwell,providinghimwiththenecessary

culturalcapitalforhisself-representationasamodernsourceoftraditionalwisdom.

Chopra’ssuccessislargelyattributabletohispersonalcharisma,hisremarkablyfluent

andengagingdiscursivestyleinwrittenandspokenEnglish,astutemediamanagement,

andskillfulcorporateorganizationandmarketing,allofwhichhaveservedtowinhim

audiencesfromacrosstheglobeandsecureforhimanicheinthehighlylucrative

transnationalholistichealthmarket.Foracharismatichealerwithaverysignificant

publicpresenceintheholistichealthsectorinNorthAmericaandbeyond,andavastly

10Albanese2007andHanegraaff1997,amongothers,discussthewidespreadinfluence

inNorthAmericaandWesternEuropeoftheNewThoughtandMindCuremovements

inthe19thandearly20thcenturies.MindCureisbasedonthehealingpoweroffaithand

positivethinking,andNewThoughtisassociatedwiththebeliefthatdivinitylieswithin

the‘true’selfandthatitisaninexhaustiblesourceofhappiness.Bothareprecursorsto

modern‘therapyculture’whichseesallbehavioursandconditionsfallingshortof

idealizedstatesofhappinessandwellbeingasrequiringtreatmentthatcanleadtoself-

realizationorself-actualization.

successfulbusinessenterprise,Choprahasnotreceivedthescholarlyattentionhe

deserves.HefindsbriefmentioninstudiesofMaharishiAyurveda,11andinasmall

numberofstudiesonNewAgehealers.12SrinivasAravamudan(2006)devotesafew

pagestoadiscussionofChoprainhisanalysisofthediscoursesofmodernanglophone

gurus.Beyondthis,thereislittlescholarlymaterialavailableonChopra.Heisa

particularlyinterestingfiguretostudynotjustbecauseofhisvastpopularityand

influenceintransnationalmind-body-spiritcircles,butalsobecauseofthehighly

innovativewaysinwhichherepackagesthingsdeemedancient/Vedic/ayurvedic/

Indian/Easternforamodernanglophoneaudience.

Spiritualizedayurveda,consciousness-basedmedicine,andstrategiesof

legitimization

Ayurveda,aselaboratedinitsclassicaltextsdatingbackroughly2,000years,isasystem

basedonhumoraldiagnostics.Diseaseisunderstoodtoresultfromtheaggravationof

oneormoreofthreehumours,wind,bileandphlegm,leadingtoblockagesinthesystem

(Wujastyk2003,xviii).Ayurveda’stherapeuticarmamentariumincludesdieteticsand

herbalremedies,minorsurgery,aswellasarangeofproceduresofcatharsisand

eliminationwhichincludeoleation,enema,purgation,emesis,douching,andsudation

(ibid.).InitshomecontextinSouthAsia,ayurvedahasbeenprofoundlytransformedby

itsencounterwithmodernityandparticularlywithbiomedicine.13Themodernized,

standardized,professionalizedversionsof‘official’ayurvedathatnowobtaininIndia

andSriLankaborrowdeeplyfromthebiomedicalmodelnotjustintermsoftheir

institutionalandorganizationalset-up,butalsointermsoftheirknowledgebaseand

methodsofpractice.

Itwasinthe1970sand1980sthatayurvedafirstcametotheattentionofaudiencesin

NorthAmericaandWesternEurope(SmithandWujastyk2008:9).MaharishiMahesh

Yogiwasoneoftheearlypioneerstopromote(hisversionof)ayurvedaoutsideIndia.In

thedecadestofollow,ayurvedahasdevelopedanincreasinglyvisiblepresencein

Westernmind-body-spiritor‘holistichealth’networks.Itisnoteworthythatayurveda’s

developmentintheUShasreliedprimarilyonitsappealbeyondSouthAsianimmigrant

populations,andthatthishasmeantitsmarketingasanexoticculturalcommodity

11See,forinstance,Jeannotat2008,Humes2008,Newcombe2008,Zysk200112Eg.,Baer2003;Albanese1992;Albanese2007,447-448;Heelas1999,67.13SeeBanerjee2009;Bode2008;Leslie1973,1976;Langford2002.

(Reddy2002,99).Scholarshavenotedtheinfluenceof‘NewAge’or‘unchurched’or

‘religiouslyunaffiliated’spirituality(Reddy2002,SmithandWujastyk2008,Zysk2001)

onayurveda(aswellasothermedicaltransplants)inAmerica,resultinginashiftin

emphasis‘fromphysictometaphysic’(Fuller1989).Inotherwordstraditionslike

ayurvedahaveundergoneaprocessof‘spiritualization’(Reddy2002,104),witha

markedincreaseintheirmetaphysicalcontent,andanincreasedrelianceonspirituality-

centredconcepts(‘energy’,‘vibrations’),goals(balance,harmony,self-healing),and

philosophies(self-control,responsibility).

MaharishiAyurvedaisonesuchversionof‘spiritualized’ayurveda.Itmarksadeparture

frommainstreamayurvedaintheIndiansubcontinentinimportantways.Maharishi

AyurvedadrawscentrallyupontheprinciplesunderpinningTranscendentalMeditation.

TheMaharishidefinedTM’sgoalintermsofleadingthemind‘toevermoresubtlelevels

ofcreation’,resultingultimatelyintheconsciousnessof‘thesourceofcreationbeyond

relativity–theblissfulfieldoftheAbsolute’(Jeannotat2008:287).Hecalledthisthe

‘UnifiedFieldofpureconsciousness’andclaimedthatitwasnootherthanthe

‘innermostcoreofone’sbeing’.Hemaintainedthatmindcontrolthroughmeditation

was‘easy’andthatthiscontrolcouldbringpeaceandenabletheeverydayexperienceof

anandamorbliss(Humes2008,313).Heclaimedthatthistransformationcouldbe

broughtaboutnotjustattheleveloftheindividualbutalsoofsociety,andindeedthe

world,asawhole.Hismovementaimedtobringaboutthe‘totaldevelopmentofthe

humanrace’(Jeannotat2008,299).

MaharishiAyurveda,basedsquarelyonTM’scentralideas,positedthedevelopmentof

consciousnessasindispensabletoattainingandmaintainingoptimalhealth,and

emphasizedmeditationtechniquestodeveloptheintegratedandholisticfunctioningof

bodyandmind.AccordingtoearlypromotersofMaharishiAyurveda,ayurvedic

knowledgehadcomefragmented,andsomeofitforgotten,asaresultofIndia’shistory

ofpoliticalturbulence(Jeannotat2008,289).MaharishiMaheshYogi’sobjectivewasto

returnthisknowledgetoastateofcompletenessbyrestoringtoitmentaltechniques

suchasTMthat,heclaimed,werepreviouslypartofayurveda’sknowledgecorpus,but

thathadsincebeensidelinedorforgotten.Theaimwasto‘unfoldthefullpotentialof

thephysiologyofconsciousness’(Wallace,ascitedinJeannotat2008,289).

HariSharma(1996,244),aMaharishiAyurvedaadvocate,describesthissystemas

‘consciousness-based’medicine.Inhiswords:

Theultimatebasisofpreventionandcureisrestoringone’sconsciousconnectionto

(ormemoryof)[the]innermostcoreofone’sbeingandexperience.This

reconnectionisthebasisofanintegratedapproachtohealthcare;integrationofthe

differentlayersoflifebeginswithreconnectingone’slifetothesubstrateuponwhich

allitslayersarebased.Theinnermostcoreofone’sexperienceisconsidered

identicaltothehomeofallthelawsofnaturethatoperatethroughouttheuniverse.

Thebodycontains,atitsbasis,thetotalpotentialofnaturallaw,andallofMaharishi

Ayurveda’smodalitiesaimtoenablethefullexpressionofthebody’sinner

intelligence(Sharma1996,246).

Ayurveda,accordingtoitsclassicaltexts,haslittletodowiththetransformationof

consciousness,andfocusesinstead,inlargepart,onthephysiologicalchangesresulting

fromaggravatedorweakenedhumours,inthediagnosisandtreatmentofdisease.

MaharishiAyurveda,bycontrast,placesconsciousnessattheverycentreofitshealth

practice.‘Remembering’theunifiedfield,accordingtoSharma(ibid.,247),‘enlivensthe

orderlypatternsthatprevailinahealthybody’.Itisthelossof‘connection’withthe

unifiedfieldthatresultsindisease.Themethodsforachievinghealth,intheMaharishi’s

reformulation,arefarmorediverseandwide-rangingthanthosetypicallyassociated

withayurveda.TranscendentalMeditationisthemainmethod,understoodasthekey

Vedictechniquefordevelopingconsciousness,forrestoringthelinkbetweentheunified

fieldandone’sinnermostcore,andtherebyrestoringhealth.Meditationtypicallyplays

nopartinclassicalformsofayurveda,andtheMaharishi’sreinterpretationinthis

respectisunconventionalandinnovative.MaharishiAyurvedacomprisesmorethanjust

TM,however;italsoselectivelyincorporatesideasandpracticesderivedfromthemore

conventionalformsofayurvedaintheIndiansubcontinent,butwithimportantshiftsin

themeaningsassociatedwiththese.

TheMaharishireliedonarangeofstrategiestolegitimizehisversionofayurveda.First,

hereliedonhisownauthorityasasageandguru,claimingtheabilityto‘divine’the

truthoftheVedasthroughmysticalinsight.Second,hereliedonscience,seekingto

securescientificcredentialsforhistechniquesandpracticesbymeansofnumerous

experimentsconductedinthelaboratoriesoftheTMenterprisemeasuring,forinstance,

thephysicalandmentalchangesthataccompaniedtheattainmentof‘transcendental

consciousness’(Jeannotat2008,298).Third,healsoreliedonprominentIndian

AyurvedicphysicianstosupportandlegitimizehisMaharishiAyurvedaproject.

ParticularlynoteworthywereBrihaspatiDevTriguna,V.M.Dwivedi,andBalrajMaharaj,

physiciansorvaidyasofsomerenowninIndia,allofwhomparticipatedinthemany

conferencesorganizedbytheTMenterprise,andallowedtheirimagestobeprintedon

thelabelsofMaharishiAyurvedaproducts,thusauthenticatingitastruetotradition

(ibid.,302).

TheMaharishistipulatedapreconditionintheearlydaysthatonlythoseholdinga

medicaldegreecouldtrainaspractitionersofMaharishiAyurveda.Theearly

practitionerswereallthusbiomedicaldoctorswhoreceivedspecialtrainingfrom

vaidyasfromIndiaworkingfortheMaharishi(Humes2008,320).DeepakChoprawas

onesuchtrainee–hewasencouragedbytheMaharishitostudyunderthetutelageof

Triguna.JudgingfromChopra’sautobiographicalnarrative,hisengagementwith

Trigunawasfleeting;thereisnomentionofasustainedperiodofapprenticeshipwith

thisphysician.

AsanearlyspokespersonforMaharishiAyurveda,Chopratooplacesmeditationand

transformedconsciousnessatthecentreofayurvedichealing.Asameditatorhimself,

heclaimstohaveattainedaleveloftranscendenceinhismeditativeexperiencethat

enableshimtohealhimselfandothers.Thisisthesourceofhislegitimacy.Inorderto

makethisclaim,heintroducesthefigureoftherishi(ancientsageorseer)asacentral

motifinhisnarrative,asthetitlesuggests.InVedicliterature,therishiisapeculiar

categoryofsemi-divinebeingdistinctfromgodsandordinarymenandwomen,the

inspiredpoetoftheVedichymns,anecstaticvisionary.Inpost-Vedicliterature,therishi,

asall-seeingandall-knowingsage,isthepossessorofsupernaturalabilitiesanddeep

wisdomgleanedthroughyearsofyogicmeditationandausterities(tapas).The

knowledgeofayurveda,accordingtoitsoriginmyths,wasfirstobtainedbyrishis;they

arebelievedtohavepossessedthespecialpsychicpowersnecessarytoperceiveand

receivethisdivineknowledgefromthegods.InChopra’swork,therishibringstogether,

inonepotentsymbol,manyofthekeythemesassociatedwithmodernunderstandings

of(Hindu)India’ssuperiorstrengths–secretgnosis,higherlevelsofconsciousness,

spiritualtranscendence.

InChopra’suseofthetermrishi,threedifferentlevelsofmeaningarediscernible.He

usesthetermtorefertothemythicrishiassociatedwithVedicandpost-Vedicliterature.

Healsousesthetermtorefertohisearlymentor,MaheshYogi,aself-proclaimedgreat

(maha)sage(rishi),towhomheattributesimmeasurablewisdomandinsight.Inathird

andratherinnovativemove,Choprausestheterm‘rishivalue’torefertoaqualityof

insightandperfectionwhich,heclaims,liesdormantinallpersons,andcanberekindled

through‘simple’practiceslikemeditation.Hisunderstandingofayurvedaisbuiltonthe

ideathatawakeningone’srishivalueistheroutetocuringallone’sphysicalandmental

problems,andthereforethekeyto‘perfecthealth’.

InReturnoftheRishi(henceforthROTR),Chopradescribessilenceascentraltothe

experienceandattainmentofone’s‘rishivalue’.AteacherliketheMaharishi,heclaims,

‘embodiesthetruthhetalksabout’(ROTR1991,144),andthis‘truth’liesinthedeep

silencethatthesageorrishiemanates.

Inarealsense,silenceisthewisestvaluearishipossesses,becauseitneedsno

argumentstopersuade.Inthepresenceofarishi,thelistenerbecomeslikearishi

himself.Thisisnotadelusion.Everyonepossessestherishivalue–thecapacityfor

wisdom–atthequietestlevelofhisconsciousness.Whenitsensesitslikeness,it

simplyresponds(ibid.,145).

Explainingthatitistothis‘rishivalue’thatthebooktitlerefers,hewrites:

Therishiwhohasreturnedisinsideyouandme,for“rishi”alsomeanstheknower

insideeveryhumanmind.Whenthisknowerisasleep,peopleforgetthemselves.

Theylosethememoryofman’scentralplaceintheschemeofnatureandtherefore

fallpreytodisaster–war,sickness,turmoil,andunhappiness.Thegoaloflifeisto

wakeupfromthisfalseconditionandregainthepowerofarishi,whoseslightest

desireistakenasacommandbytheforcesthatshapereality(ibid.,vi).

ThisparticularandinnovativeuseofthetermrishiiscentraltoChopra’srepresentation

ofayurvedaasmind-bodymedicine;inthisunderstanding,atransformedstateof

consciousness,andtheachievementofultimatesilencerootedinself-belief,isessential

forhealingtotakeplace.Theawakeningofone’s‘rishivalue’canaswellbedescribedin

termsof‘self-realization’or‘self-actualization’ortheattainmentofoptimum‘human

potential’–ideascentraltohumanistpsychologyandtheworksofprominentfiguresin

theAmericanpsycho-therapeuticscenelikeAbrahamMaslowandCarlRogers(Illouz

2008,159-161)whoseworkwasknowntoChopra,14andwhoseinfluencehaslefta

14Hereferstotheirworks,andtofigureslikeWilliamJones,insomeofhisotherpublications,egChopra1989.

lastinglegacyfornetworksofunchurchedspiritualityandholistichealthintheUSand

beyond.Mostimportantly,theconceptof‘rishivalue’iscentraltoChopra’sassertionof

hisownspiritualmastery,asthediscussioninfollowingsectionswilldemonstrate.The

autobiography,aspreviouslynoted,reliesonaseriesofcontraststhatarecentraltothe

narrativestrategy:ayurveda(supposedlylimitlessinitspotential)iscontrastedwith

biomedicine(limitedandconstrained);India(mysteriousandspiritual)iscontrasted

withthemodernWest(materialisticandrational);Chopra’snewspirituallyawakened

selfiscontrastedwithhisoldunseeingself,blindtotherishiwithin.Bymeansofthese

contrasts,theautobiographicalnarrativeaffirmsChopra’sauthorityandlegitimacyas

anayurvedichealercapableofworkingnear-miraculousfeatsofmind-bodyhealing.

Indiantradition,Westernmodernity

Chopra’sautobiographicalworkchartsthefirstfourdecadesofhislife.HereChopra

describeshisinitialjourneyintothebiomedicalprofession(firstasastudentinIndia

andthenasadoctorintheUS),hissubsequentforaysintoayurveda,hisencounterwith

MaheshYogi,hisgrowinginterestinspirituality,andhismovetowardsacareerin

integrativemedicine.Chopra’smainpurposeinthisbook,asheexplainsrightatthe

outset,istonarratethestoryofhisdiscoveryofayurveda,‘thetraditionalsystemof

Indianmedicinethathasdescendedtousdirectlyfromtheancientrishis’(ROTR1991,

vi).Ayurveda,accordingtoChopra,‘containsthespiritualelementthatWestern

scientificmedicinejettisonedthreehundredyearsago’(ibid.,vii).Thegoalofayurveda,

heclaims,‘istotransformthepatient’spersonalreality,whichmeanstakinghis

subjectiveviewpointasseriouslyas[…]hisphysicalcondition’(ibid.,ix).Ayurveda,

Choprawrites,‘signifiesmorethanasystemofmedicine.ItisIndia’sguidetolife’(ibid.,

22).HeseesitaspartofIndia’sbequesttohumanity:atitsheartliesa‘stupendousview

ofhumanpotential’(ibid.,21).

ChopraexoticizesancientIndiaandIndiantraditionsas‘primordialandmystical

kernelsofspirituality’(Altglas2014:12).Earlyinthenarrative,Chopradescribesa

dreamhehadasachild.Heusesthisasaframingdevice,infusingitwithsymbolic

meaning.Centraltothedreamisablackcobra,whichliesdeadinapoolofbloodinthe

middleofavastfield.Nearbyasmallmongooseleapsaroundinamacabredance–the

snakeisitsvictim(ROTR1991,20).Thecobra,Chopraexplains,standsforIndia’s

‘deepestwisdomandpower,’itsspiritualityandancienttradition.Chopraequatesthe

deathofthecobrawithwhathedescribesasIndia’s‘saddecline’(ibid)fromitsancient

glory.Themongoose,Chopraexplains,representsscience,rationality,biomedicine,

modernizationandtechnicalprogress–allofwhichhave,heclaims,havecontributedto

thecobra’sdeath.

Itbecomesclearinthecourseofhisnarrative,however,thatthedreamisnotquitethe

sameasreality;thecobra,thoughindecline,isnotinfactdead.VestigesofIndia’s

traditionsliveon,itturnsout,inordinaryIndianpeople,ineverydaylife,insacred

places,pilgrimagecentres,intheretellingofIndia’smythicstories,anditsritualsand

festivals.ByprovidingthereaderwithaseriesoffleetingglimpsesofIndia’ssurviving

traditionsandindeeditsmysteries,Chopracarefullypaintsapictureofanexotic,

mysterious,andspiritually-richIndia,thatliesjustbeyondthefaçadeofmodernization

andWesternization.

ChopradevelopsthisthemeofIndia’slatentspiritualitybysettingupaseriesof

oppositionsbetweenpersonsandtraditionsthatsymbolizethecobra,andthose

symbolizingthemongoose.Hedrawsthereader’sattentiontoonesuchopposition

whichhasabearingonhisearlylife--thatbetweenhisowngrandmotherandhisfather.

Thegrandmother,Chopraexplains,wassteepedintraditionalIndianvaluesand

customs;sheembodiedthewisdomandfaithoftraditionalIndia.Shewaswell-versedin

thestoriesfromtheHinduepicsandPuranas,steadfastinherworshipofthemanygods

andgoddesses,afirmbelieverinthetraditionalidealsofspiritualseekingand

enlightenment.ThestoriesofRamaandKrishnaandothermythiccharactersthatshe

narratedtohergrandchildrenhad‘greatmagic,mysteryandadventureinthem’(ROTR

1991,31).

[…]Grandmotherimpliedthatthemostawesomeofpowersdidnotbelongtojust

godsandsidhas,theperfectedbeings.Theywereinustoo,onlywewerenotyet

perfected.Couldaboyreallyflythroughtheairorreadpeople’smindsorcure

mortalsofhorriblediseasessimplybytouchingthem?Mygrandmotherstoodfirm.

ThesidhasintheVedascoulddoallthisandmore.Onedaywewouldbecomelike

them(ibid.).

The‘cobra’,itwouldseem,remainedaliveinthegrandmother,andinthisrespectshe

presentsastrikingcontrasttohisfather,adoctorandaprominentfigureinthemedical

establishmentinindependentIndia.Hisfatherisportrayedasarationalman,

committedtothemethodsofmodernscientificenquiry,andoftendismissiveof

traditionalformsoffaith.Thegrandmotherhadfaithintraditionalayurveda--a‘heresy’

fromhisfather’spointofview.Chopradescribesherasbeingproficientinsimple

traditionalhealingpractices,anddescribesthesepracticesashavingprovedefficacious

onmorethanoneoccasion,muchtohisfather’schagrin.

MyfatherproudlypracticedWesternmedicineandlookedathisaccomplishmentsas

apersonaltriumph.HehadeveryreasontothinkthatmodernIndiawouldbewelloff

withouttheignorantoldways.Ayurveda,being“unscientific”toWesterneyes,could

jointheothercastoffs.Itneveroccurredto[…]myfatherthatAyurvedamightbe

somethinggreat(ibid.,23).

Italsoneveroccurredtohisfather,Choprawrites,thatamarriagebetweenayurveda

andmodernscientificmedicinemightbepossible.Asthesonofsuchascientifically-

mindedfather,Choprawasanunlikelycandidatetorediscoverayurveda(ibid.,24).And

yet,asaresultoftheMaharishi’sinterventioninhislife,heclaimsthat‘theappealof

ayurvedicwisdombecameself-evident’beforelong,atatimeinhislifewhen‘theideaof

amedicinethatkeepsmanwholewastremendouslywelcome’(ibid.,25).

Inparallelwiththeoppositionbetweenthefatherandthegrandmother,Chopra

presentsfurtheroppositionsandcontrastsinthenarrative,toreinforcethethemeof

India’sprimordialspirituality.Onesuchcontrastisthatbetweenhisscientifically-

mindedphysiologylectureratmedicalschool,acertainProfessorNanda,andanIndian

asceticorsadhuwhoselifewasdedicatedtospiritualseeking.ProfessorNanda,

accordingtothenarrative,decidedtoperformanexperimentontheasceticinorderto

ascertaintheeffectsofmeditationonhisbodilyfunctions.15Theexperimentinvolved

buryingthesadhualiveforacertainduration,duringwhichtimethesadhu(whom

Chopradescribesasa‘saint’)wouldrelyonmeditativetechniquestostayalive.

15ThiskindofexperimentationhasamuchlongerhistoryinIndia.Thepioneerofmodernyoga,SwamiKuvalayananda,wasoneofthefirsttoattemptto‘conduct

researchonthe“uncannypsychophysicaleffects”ofvarioushigherstatesofyogic

consciousness’(Alter2004,82).Thereareclearconnectionsbetweentheexperiments

ofKuvalayananda,thoseofProfessorNanda,andtheexperimentsconductedintheTM

laboratories.Inallthreecases,thescientist,motivatedby‘aprofoundphilosophical

spirituality’isconcernedtofind‘theobjective,rationalmeansbywhichtomeasureand

testthepowerofextrasensoryperceptionandtranscendentalconsciousness’(ibid.).

Thissaint,Chopraexplains,wasdressedinthefadedsaffronrobesofawandering

monk;hehadmattedhair,alongunkemptbeard,andholyashessmearedonhisbody

(ibid.,44).

Asacuriosity,thissaintwasveryobliging.ProfessorNandaplacedhiminawooden

boxjustlargeenoughforhimtositinsideinlotusposture.Asthetopwasnailedon,

wecaughtalastglimpseofhim,halfliddedandimmobileashebegantomeditate.

Thentheboxwasloweredintoapitdugespeciallyforthepurposeinonecourtyard

oftheschool.Dirtwasthrownoverthetopwhilethephysiologystudentslookedon.

(ibid.,45)

Sixdayslater,Chopratellsthereader,theboxwasliftedbackout.Whenthetopwas

prisedoff,thesadhuslowlystoodup.Hewasescortedtothephysiologylabandoffered

aglassofmilk.Hewasthenhookeduptovariousmonitorsandhispulserate,heart

function,andoxygenlevelsweremeasured.Noneofthebodilymechanismsaboutwhich

hehadbeentaught,Chopracomments,couldaccountforthestrangeandunusual

readingsobtained.‘Thesimplefactwasthatthesainthadlivedpeacefullyforsixdays

underconditionsthatwouldhavedestroyedanormalbodyandmindinlessthantwelve

hours’(ibid.,58).Allpresent,Chopranotes,wereamazedbywhattheydiscoveredbut,

afterawhile,theepisodewassimplyforgotten.Thesadhuwalkedawayfromtheschool,

andthatwastheendofthematter.

Chopranotesthatasayoungsterhewasdismissiveofsuchexperiences,andoffigures

likethesadhu,seeingtheseasrelicsbelongingtoanother,a‘primitive’,India.He

believedthatwiththepassageoftime,‘sciencewouldsweepawaythesaints’(ibid.,44).

Ididnot[then]realizewhatdeepfootprintsoursaintwasleavingbehind.Itwould

taketenyearsbeforeIhadasignificantencounterwithmeditation.[…]Iwouldgivea

greatdealnowtoknowmoreaboutthecontentofthatsaint’smindanditswisdom.

Abouthissoul,themostimportantthingtohim,adeepersilenceprevails.Inour

arrogance,wethoughtthatasaintcouldbecapturedongraphpaper.Buthisquiet

heartkeptitssecrets(ibid.,58).

Chopranotonlyattributesgreatmysteryandmagictotheancienttraditionsand

techniquesthattheasceticrepresents,butalsopointstothefutilityofthescientific

methodthat,hesuggests,canneverquitecapturethetruthsofancientIndiaembodied

inthisfigure.ProfessorNanda’sapproachandmethods,itwouldseem,couldtakehim

onlysofar–the‘saint’possessedspiritualskillsandstrengths,emblematicofthe

mysteriousandwisecobra,thatProfessorNanda’sscientificequipmentcouldnot

record,andwhichhisscientifictheoriescouldnotexplain.

Thisseriesofoppositions,inChopra’saccount,buildsuptowhatisinessencethe

centraloppositioninthenarrative–thatbetweenChopra’sold,pre-spiritual,

scientifically-mindedself,andhisnew,spiritually-awakenedself.TheoldChopra

representsaselfhoodshapedbyWesternmodernity,scientificenquiryandrational

thinking.HeismuchlikehisfatherandProfessorNandaintheserespects,andthe

cobra(within)isallbutdead.ThenewChopra,deeplytouchedbyexperiencesthat

sciencecannotexplain,becomesopentofaith,mysteryandmiracle–heisnowonthe

pathtodiscoveringIndianspirituality;thecobrawithinhimbeginstobestiritselfand

willsoonberevived.Thepassagefromtheoldselftothenewisenabledbymeansofan

encounterfirstwithTranscendentalMeditation,andthenwithitspioneer,Maharishi

MaheshYogi.Akeycatalysttothistransformation,accordingtothenarrative,is

Chopra’sdisillusionment,asapractisingbiomedicaldoctor,withbiomedicine’s

approachandmethods,anditsmodesofpracticeinmodernhospitals.

Ayurvedaversusbiomedicine

Chopraclaimsinhisautobiographytohavedecided,attheageofsixteen,tofollowinhis

father’sfootstepsandbecomeabiomedicaldoctor.Whatpromptedthisdecisionwas

SinclairLewis’snovel,Arrowsmith,whichChoprareadwitheagerenthusiasmasa

youngster.Thenovel,Chopraexplains,tellsthestoryofthescientifically-mindedMartin

Arrowsmith,whomakesajourneyfromhissmallnativetownintheAmericanMidwest

tothehighesttiersofAmerica’sscientificcommunity.Chopraclaimstohavebeen

particularlymovedbythenovel’sdescriptionsofArrowsmith’scareforhispatients,his

selflessstrivingfortheirwellbeing,andhisunwaveringpursuitofmedicalresearchfor

thebenefitofhumankind.Oversixyearsofintensivestudy,Choprapreparedforhis

medicalcareer.JustmonthsaftergraduatingfrommedicalschoolinIndia,hewas

invitedtotakeupapostatahospitalinNewJersey.

ItbecomesclearfromChopra’snarrativethatthemedicalprofessionheencounteredin

theUSborelittlesemblancetotheversionidealizedinSinclairLewis’snovel.He

describestheethosinUShospitalsascoldandheartless.Thedoctors,heargues,‘wear

blinders,seeingpatientsaswalkingsyndromesandnotaspeopletobelovedandcared

for’(ROTR1991,x).WhileworkinginAmericanhospitals,Chopraperceivedhispatients

notasindividualsbutsimplyas‘theabortion,theoverdose,thelaceration,theheart

attack’(ibid.,7).Heseldomspentanytimewiththem,andrarelygottoknowthemor

understandtheirhopesandfears.Eventhoughdoctorsmaybemovedbytheirpatient’s

feelingsandemotions,heasserts,theyaretrainedtotreatonlythephysicaldistress.

Thepatient’sfeelingsarea‘side-issue’.‘ThemedicineIwastaught,’hewrites,‘hadbeen

strippedofidealsaltogetherinfavorofapracticalzealforrepairingthebodiesofsick

people’(ibid.,9).‘Medicine’,Choprainsists,‘shouldbeabouthealingpeopleandmaking

themhappy’(ibid.,8).

Doctorsweremotivatedtoworkhardnotbecausetheydesiredtoseepatientswelland

happy,butbecausetheirpersonalcareerambitionscouldonlybefurtheredbymeeting

thenear-impossibletargetssetbythehospitalmanagement.Doctors,heclaims,

contributetokeepingtheirpatientssickby‘fosteringadiseasedsystemandbeyondthat

adiseasedworld’(ibid.,80).‘Thereissomuchmomentuminthesystem’,hewrites,

‘thatdoctorsgowithit,tellingthemselvesthat,afterall,progressisalwaysbeingmade’

(ibid.,81).Whendoctorscannotsolveproblems,theyrelyonthecomfortingbut

‘perilous’beliefthatmedicaltechnologywillfindsolutions(ibid.).Chopraishighly

skepticaloftheclaimthatmedicalprogresswillbeachievedthroughtechnologicaland

scientificbreakthrough.Henoteshowtherehasnotbeenanyletuptodateinthe

numberofillpeoplepassingthroughthehospitalsystem,somenevertoreturn.Heis

alsocriticalofinvasivetechnology-reliantmedicalprocedures,oftheiatrogeniceffects

ofmedicalintervention,andtheimpactonthepatient’smorale.Thesystemasawholeis

onethatChopradeemsunnecessarilycomplexandunnatural–‘anewtrendhadto

begin’,hewrites,‘movingtowardsimplicityandhumancontact’(ibid.,87).

ItisstrategicallyimportanttoChopra’snarrativethathisdiscoveryofTranscendental

Meditationtookplaceatatimewhenhewashimselfinneedofhealing--hisstress-

levelsasabiomedicaldoctorhadpeaked.ThiscontextissignificantforChopra’s

legitimizationof(theMaharishi’sversionof)ayurveda,sinceitreinforcessomeofthe

contraststhathedrawsbetweenayurvedicandbiomedicalpractice.Choprawasatthe

timeemployedatahospitalinNewJersey.Hishospitalshifts,henotes,weregetting

moreandmorerushed,hisdayswereblurringintonights,hewasconsumingexcessive

quantitiesofblackcoffee,drinkingwhiskeymostevenings,andsmokingatleastapack

ofcigarettesaday.Hisschedule,hewrites,kepthisstomachchurningallthetimeand

hehadaconstanttasteofgastricjuiceinhismouth(ibid.,125).Onedayhechanced

uponaTMbookinasecondhandbookshopinBoston.Hewasstruckbythesimplicityof

thepracticeitrecommended.Itdidnotrequire‘workingstrenuouslyfor

enlightenment’;instead,correctmeditationwas‘aneffortlessprocessthatledtodeeper

relaxation’(ibid.,124).Thetechniquewasquickandeasy,witheachsessionlastingonly

aboutfifteenminutes.Theexperiencewas‘quietandsereneandwithoutstrain’(ibid.,

127).Mostimportantly,heclaims,itworked–withindayshenoticedhisstresslevels

drop.Hestoppeddrinkingandsmoking,andbegantofeelanextraordinarysenseof

wellbeing.

ItwasanotherfiveyearsbeforeChoprafirstmetwithMaharishiMaheshYogi.The

meetingwiththeTMgurutookplacein1985atavenueinWashington.Thenarrative

suggeststhatChoprawasdeeplyaffectedbytheMaharishi’ssimplicityanddeepsilence.

Itisnoteworthythatsilenceisarecurringmotifinhiswritingandwouldseemtobea

coreelementinChopra’sunderstandingofspirituality.

Hismannerwasquitesimple,butatthesametime,ashechattedwithus,onecould

notimaginepayingattentiontoanyoneelse.Atapointearlyinourmeeting,Inoticed

thatmyownattention,exposedtohis,hadbecomeveryconcentrated.Andwithout

anyeffort,mymindhadfallensilent.Nothoughtsmovedthroughit,andtherewasn’t

theusualricochetofstrayimpressions–justsilence.Thisseemedanextraordinarily

pleasantstatetobein,becauseIfeltcompletelyunselfconscious(ibid.,140-41).

ReturnoftheRishiwasauthoredjustthreeyearsafterChopra’sfirstmeetingwiththe

Maharishi.Chopra’senthusiasmforMaheshYogiisevidenthere.Hewritesthathewas

innodoubtthattheMaharishiwaseverythingthathistitleimplied–‘agreatsage,a

knowerandteacherofreality’(ibid.,144-45).InspiredbytheMaharishi’steachings,he

acceptedtheMaharishi’sinvitationto‘comeandlookatAyurvedawithus’(ibid.,143).

Hisassociationwiththisgurudevelopedoverthenextfewyears,evenashe

spearheadedthe‘MaharishiAyurveda’initiative.

MaharishiMaheshYogiserves,inChopra’snarrative,asthegatewaytowhathe

describesinterchangeablyas‘Easternspirituality’,‘Vedicwisdom’,andthe‘knowledge

oftheancients’.HedescribesboththeMaharishi,andthetraditionalIndiaheis

understoodtorepresent,inthemostgloriousterms:

VisitingtheMaharishiinhishomelandislikereturningtoBharata,theIndiaof

antiquityandlight.EnlightenmentcameintoexistenceinBharataandfathereda

culture.Oneseesitstracesintheoldestimagesofartthathavesurvived.Somanyof

themdepictthesameunfadingscene,ofcommonpeopleseatedontheground

surroundingagreatsage,arishi.Thesageappearstobedelightinghisraptlisteners

withhiswords.Heistalkingaboutenlightenment,tellingthemthatonedaytheywill

beperfect.Hedescribesapatholderthantheirmemoryandmorepermanentthat

thelow,redhillstheycanseeonthehorizon(ibid.,196).

TobearoundtheMaharishi,Choprawrites,islikelivingintheancestralimages,tobe

backinthe‘originalIndia’.Time(antiquity)andspace(thelandofBharata)are

exoticizedandspiritualizedhere,strategicallydifferentiatedfrommoderneverydaylife.

Reconnectingwithhisnativerootsis,forChopra,aboutreconnectingwiththeIndiaof

thepast,throughthemediationoftheMaharishi.

Mostimportantly,MaheshYogiservesasChopra’sgatewaytoayurveda.‘Atthesoulof

India’,hewrites,‘thereisanexpansivespiritualjoy.Ayurvedaiscompletelyapartof

thisview,andthereforeitsaimistheconstantexpansionofman’shappiness’(ROTR

1991,22).Ayurveda,inChopra’snarrative,providestheperfectcounterpointto

biomedicine.Inhisunderstanding,biomedicaldoctorscurephysicaldisease,whereas

ayurvedicphysicianshealpersons.Biomedicalmethodsseektocontrolnature,whereas

ayurvedais‘natural’.Biomedicineisheavilyreliantontechnology;ayurvedaissimple

andalmostintuitive.Biomedicalmethodsareoftendangerous,risky,placestressonthe

body,andcansometimesresultiniatrogenicdisease;ayurvedaisgentleandsoothing.16

‘Ayurvedatakesthevistaofmantobeinfinite.Theuniverseisthemacrocosm,manis

themicrocosm.ButAyurvedaspeaksdelicately,sodelicatelythatyouseeWestern

medicineasclumsy’(ibid.,113).

16ThisdescriptionofAyurvedaasgentleandsoothingreflectsadomesticationofthis

traditionincontemporaryWesterncontextswhereitsharshermodalities,stillinusein

sometraditionalpracticesinSouthAsia,areignored.Zimmerman(1992)aptly

describesmoderntransnationalAnglophoneformsofthistraditionintermsoftheir

‘flowerpower’.

Chopradescribesatsomelengthhisfirstencounterwithanayurvedicphysician.The

physicianinquestion,BrihaspatiDevTriguna,wasknownforhisuseofpulsereadingto

assessthepatient’scondition.DescribingTriguna’smethod,Choprawrites:

Hedoesnotinterferewithapatient’slife.Hisfingersmerelytouchthepaceofthat

life.Theysenseitsrhythms.Theyextractknowledgeofdisharmony,broken

vibrationsthatmightcauseillhealth.Itisenough.Thereisonlyonehealthypaceto

Dr.Triguna,thepaceofthecosmos.Theessenceofhealthistoattendtothe

pacemaker.Oncethatisdone,diseaseisdone(ibid.,115).

Thephysician’smostimportantadvice,henotes,isthatpatientsareresponsiblefor

theirowncondition.Theycanchoosetheaffirmingattitudesthatpromotehealth(ibid.,

92).Disease,intheayurvedicunderstanding,‘startsouthumblyinthebody,assome

imperceptibleimbalance,andproceedsslowlyfromthere.Theoutcomeofafull-blown

diseasemaybedevastating,butithasbeenbuiltupthroughinsignificanteveryday

actions’–whatweeatanddrink,howwebehave,howouremotionsaffectus(ibid.,92).

Bypayingattentiontothesethings,thepatientcanmakeactivechoicesthatsupport

health.Ayurveda,hewrites‘givesapatientcontroloverhimselflongbeforehebecomes

apatient’(ibid.,93).

Ayurveda,inChopra’sexoticizedversion,iseverythingthatbiomedicineisnot.As

Altglas(2014)notes,exoticizationsuggestsanattempttograsp(andconvey)otherness,

butmoresignificantly,itmakesothernessstrangelyalluringandbeautiful.Narratives

thatexoticizeacultureortraditionidealizeitsotherness(butalso‘domesticate’it)by

eitherignoring,orlamenting,thepresent-dayrealitiesontheground.Itisnoteworthy

thatinChopra’saccountofayurvedahecompletelyignoresthefar-reachingprocesses

ofmodernizationthatmainstreamAyurvedahasundergoneinIndia.Modernayurveda

inIndiaissignificantlybiomedicalized–ithasadoptedbiomedicine’sinstitutional

frameworksaswellasitsknowledgesystems,itsprinciplesandparadigms,inwaysthat,

somescholarsargue(eg.Banerjee2009,Bode2008,Langford2002)haveundermined

thistradition’sintegrity.ThisisanaspectofayurvedathatChopraconveniently

overlooksinhisnarrative.

TheReturnoftheRishi

ThenarrativeinChopra’sworkisthusshotthroughwithtwocentralsentiments--

intensedissatisfactionwiththewaythemedicalprofessionispracticedinmodern

clinicsandhospitals,and,alongsidethis,adeepreverencetowardstraditionalIndian

practices,manyofwhich,Chopranotes,cannotreadilybeexplainedbymeansof

scientificandempirico-rationalprinciplesandmethods.Thepolarizationbetweenthe

modernandthetraditional,betweenscientificrationalityandfaith,arecrucialto

Chopra’sstrategiesforlegitimizingayurveda.Hepresentshiscaseintermsofacentral

contrastbetweenasystem(biomedicine)thatiscriticallylimitedbyitsemphasison

scientificmethodsandanalternative(ayurveda)whosescopeisunlimited,boundless.It

isimportanttonote,however,thatChopradoesnotrejectbiomedicineinitsentirety;

whatheappearstopushforisverymuchanintegratedapproachwherethepractitioner

complementsbiomedicalknowledgeandmethodswithapproachesdrawnfrom(his

versionof)ayurveda.

InChopra’sversionofayurveda,basedcloselyontheMaharishi’sinterpretation,

ayurvedichealingreliescentrallyonthepracticeofmeditationandthetransformation

ofhumanconsciousness.InotedpreviouslyChopra’sexperienceofheightened

wellbeingasaresultofhisinitialpracticeofTM.Thishoweverwasnottheonlychange

thatheclaimstohaveexperienced.Beyondthis,hewrites,‘somethingmorepersonal

wasoccurring,likeacurtainbeingdrawnasideatmidnight’(ROTR1991,127).The

earlypracticeofmeditation,heclams,gavehimhisfirstexperientialtasteofwhatwords

like‘wisdom’and‘perfection’reallymeant.Hisnose,hewrites,hadjustcaughtthesmell

ofseabreezes,andheknewhewouldreachthesea(ibid.)Thisinitialexperiencewith

meditation,in1980,markedthebeginningofaturninChopra’slife.Hewasonapath

leadingtowards‘enlightenment’.ThisisnotenlightenmentinthetraditionalHindu

senseofliberationormoksha,itisnotaboutworld-rejectionorworld-transcendence.

Insteaditisemphaticallythis-worldlyandlife-affirming.Atitsheartistheexperienceof

deepsilence,calmandinnerpoise,leadingtotheattainmentofwisdomandperfection

inthehereandnow,andholdingthepromiseofperfecthealth,happinessand

prosperity.IndeedwiththepracticeofTranscendentalMeditation,Choprawas

beginningtoawakenhisown‘rishivalue’.

Thetransformationofthepatient’sconsciousness(andtoawakenthe‘rishivalue’lying

dormantwithin)iscentraltowhatChopraunderstandsashisownworkasahealer.The

goalofayurveda,heclaims,‘istotransformthepatient’spersonalreality,whichmeans

takinghissubjectiveviewpointasseriouslyas[…]hisphysicalcondition(ROTR1991,

ix).Theall-importantingredientintreatment,heasserts,is‘thepatient’sconfidencein

hisownstrengthtorecover’(ibid.,79).Ayurveda,Chopraclaims,‘placesitshighest

emphasisonallowingconsciousnesstofinditsownwaythroughthedamageinthe

body’(ibid.,153).TheinfluenceofMindCureandNewThoughtinChopra’shealing

approachisreadilyevidenthere.

Chopra’smodelofayurvedawouldappeartocombinetwodifferenthealingframeworks

thatAlbanese(1992)identifieswithrespectto‘NewAgehealing’–theharmonialand

theshamanic.Inthefirst,shewrites,thelawofharmonyprevails.Healingheremeans

‘harmonizingtheenergiesofthebodysothattheyresonatewithlargernaturalforces

andlaws’(ibid.,77).Thehealer’smanipulativeeffortsworksubtlyatthephysical-

energeticlevel.Theaimistoremoveobstructionsthatblockthefulloperationof

harmoniallaw.Inthesecond,‘shamaniclaw’reignssupreme(ibid.).Healingmeans

‘journeyingintotherealmofnon-matterinwhichsubtleforcestransmuteintomaterial

substance’(ibid.).Mindandimagination(and,inthecaseofChopra,Iwouldadd,faith)

assumehegemonyovertheharmoniallifeofmatter.Thehealingshaman,whetherself

orother,travelstotheplaceofprimalenergyfromwhichtheblueprintfororganiclifeis

thoughttocome(ibid.).

ItisclearfromtheaccountinReturnoftheRishithatChopraunderstandshealing,at

leastinpart,intermsoftheremovalofblockagesandtherestorationofharmonyand

balance.Indeedmoreconventionalformsofayurvedicpracticearerootedina

harmonialmodel,andthisbecomesreadilyevidentinChopra’sdescriptionofthe

healingapproachofphysicianslikeTriguna.Chopra’sadditionofashamanicmodelto

theharmonialone(drawinginlargepartfromMaharishiAyurveda)meansthatself-

belief,andtheinfinitepotentialofthehumanmindtoeffectchange,becomecentralto

hisapproach.Thecentralityofthemind,faith,andconsciousnessinthisversionof

ayurvedadifferentiatesitradicallyfrombiomedicineandthescientificpreoccupation

withtheempirical,therationalandthematerial.Healingcannowbeachievedbythe

patient–whatisrequiredisunshakeablebeliefthatonewillbehealed.Thiscanbe

enabled,itwouldseem,bymeansofthesustainedpracticeofmeditation,andthrough

theguidanceandministrationsofashamanichealer.

FromhisaccountofcaseswhereChopraseekstotransformthepatient’sconsciousness,

thereadergetssomeunderstandingofChopra’smethodsof‘ayurvedic’healing.He

recountshisexperienceswithamalepatientwhohadbeendiagnosedwithterminal

lungcancer.Thedoctorshaddecidedthatfurtherbiomedicaltreatmentwasfutile.

Chopra’sapproachwastoinstillinthispersontheself-beliefthathewasgoingtoget

well.Hedescribeshisexchangeswiththepatientthus(ROTR1991,152-53):

“Let’sgetyouwell,”I[Chopra]said.He[thecancerpatient]lookedatme,firstwith

amazement,thenwithtremendousrelief.Hewasbeyondtheartofmedicine,and

thathadbroughthimdespair.Nowsomeonewasintroducingtheartofbelief.I

consideredhishappinessatleastasimportantashissurvival.Idescribedaschedule

ofdiet,rest,meditation,andaspecialregimencalledpanchakarma,whichAyurveda

usestodetoxifythebody.[…]Itsetsthestageforthepatient’sownpowertorecover.

WhenheaskedmeoutrighthowIwouldcurehim,Ievadedthequestion.“You’rethe

player,”Isaid.“MystaffandIareonlythecheerleaders.Butwe’llneverstop

cheering.”

Helistenedtomeeagerly.Iaskedifwecouldmakeapact.Hehadtopromisetoget

well.Heagreed.Icouldseethatthissimpletacticstronglyaffectedhim.Weshook

handsonit:hewasgoingtorecoverfromthecancer,andthatwasthat.Heleftwitha

senseofpurposeIhadnotseeninhimanhourearlier.Hemightbehappyagain,even

thoughhisillnessseemedtoposesuchahugeobstacle.

Inthisinstance,thepatient’swilltorecover,hewrites,wasallthathehadtoworkwith.

Chopra’shopewasforaspontaneousremission,motivated,heexplains,atthedeepest

levelofself.Guidedbythe‘uncompromisingthought’atthisdeeplevelthatthewhole

personmustrecovercompletely,thebody,heclaims,hasnochoicebuttoobey.The

physicianandthepatientmustbeconvincedtothedepthsoftheirheartsthatthe

patientwillgetwell(ibid.,153).Inthisparticularinstance,themethodappearsnotto

haveworked.Thepatient,itwouldseem,didnotbelievefirmlyenoughinthepossibility

ofhisrecovery–hewasaheavysmokerandcontinuedtosmokedespitethedoctor’s

advicetoquit.Eventually,afteracriticalturn,hisdaughtertookhimhome.Evenso,

Chopranotes,whereasthedoctorshadgivenhimthreemonthstolivehehadlivedfor

eightunderChopra’scare.

Choprarealizeshisfullpotentialasrishiinthenarrativewhenheuseshisnewfound

healingpowerstobringapatientbackfromthebrinkofdeath.Thepatient,afemale

strokevictim,andherhusbandwerealreadypractitionersofTMandhadbeenintouch

withChopraaboutasurgeryshewasduetoundergoforaheartcondition.Immediately

aftertheoperationshedevelopedararecomplication,leadingtoamassivestroke.She

nowlayinacoma,andthedoctorsfearedtheworst.Accordingtothenarrative(ROTR

1991,156-161),whenthedistraughthusbandrangChopratotellhimwhathad

happenedandtoaskforadvice,Chopratoldhimshewasgoingtorecover(ibid.,158).

Hiswifewasbeyondboththeartofmedicineandtheartofbelief.Wewouldhaveto

startontheartofBeing.

Sinceheandhiswifewerebothmeditators,Isaidthatwewouldgobacktotheself.

Wewouldsimplyknowthatshewasgoingtorecover,fully.Iwouldhaveherinmy

attentionwhenIwenttobedatnight,justbeforefallingasleep.Iaskedherhusband

todothesame.Butthekeythingwouldbecontactingtheselfthroughmeditation.

Overthecomingdays,Chopraclaims,thehusbandcalledbackanumberoftimesand

eachtimetherewasmoreandmorepositivenewsaboutthewife’sprogress.Inabout

sixweeks’time,shewasfullyrecovered.Chopraattributestherecoverytothepowerof

meditation.Returningtohiscentralmotifofsilence,Chopranotes:

[…]thiswomanandI,whohadneverseenoneanother,didnotmeetonthelevelof

diseaseorevenofpersonality.Somethingdeeperhadbeenstirred.Westillplayed

thesameroles,inthesensethatshewasthepatientaskingmeasphysicianforhelp.

Thistime,however,shehadaskedinsilence,andoutofsilenceIhadanswered.It

wasasifariverofcompassionranbeneathourfeet,andunabletoreachdownfor

herself,shehadaskedmetoreachforher(ibid.,160).

Chopranotesthatthiscasemarkedachangeinhisownpsychology,achangethat

‘progressivelydeepened’overtime(ibid.,159-160).Inhisreckoningthisparticular

patientwasconnectedwithhimbyabondoflove.Whatisremarkableisthatrather

thanexplaintheprocessofhealingintermsofthepatient’s(orherhusband’s)strength

orresolveorabilityfor‘connection’,heasthedoctornowtakesfullcreditforher

recovery.Heattributeshissuccessinthiscasetohistotalwillingnesstoacceptthe

patientashisresponsibility,withnofearofdisease,norejectionofthepatient,andno

clingingtoauthority(ibid.,160).Inthisinstance,itwouldseem,he‘transcended’the

limitationsofbiomedicine.Healsotranscendedthedividebetweenselfandpatient,and

betweenbodyandmind.Andthis,heclaims,wasnotanisolatedincident.

Moreandmore,IbelievethatthetranscendingcanhappenbecauseIhavecometo

feel,whenIamfacetofacewithpatients,thatIamthem.Ilosethesensethatweare

separate.Wearenot.Icanfeeltheirpainastheydescribeit.Icanunderstandthem

withoutblameandwantthemtogetwellbecauseIwillbegettingwellmyself(ibid.,

Thestrategiesoflegitimizationinthenarrativedonotstopatlegitimizingayurveda.By

thispoint,aswillbereadilyevident,thenarrativeseekstosecurelegitimacyforChopra

asahealingadept.Byhisownaccount,heisno‘ordinary’doctor;insteadheisonewith

extraordinaryabilitiestoheal,toeasesuffering,andtorestorewellbeing.Heclaimshe

canhealpeoplebyconnectingwiththeirinnerselvesinextraordinaryways,and

bringingthembackfromthebrinkofdeath.Earlierinthenarrativehedescribes

Susruta,understoodtobethecompilerofoneoftheearliestayurvedictexts,asan

‘angelicdoctor’.Susruta,heclaims,bequeathedtoayurvedaaviewthatmanisinfinitein

scope.Hehadamindthat‘displayedinfinitequalities’.

Morethanaphysician,hewasarishi,aseer.HehadlookedasdeeplyintoNatureas

ourspiritcan[…].Motivatedbyhisownperfection,heapproachedpatients,notas

victimsofmalady,butaspeoplewhocouldpotentiallyperfectthemselves,too.That

aspirationliesatthecoreofAyurveda…(ibid.,70-71)

Thisterm‘angelicdoctor’,itwouldseem,couldaswellnowapplytoChopra.

Thedoctor’sstoryofspiritualtransformationiscomplete.TherishinowisChopra

himself,and‘TheReturnoftheRishi’inthetitleofthebookcouldaswellreferto

Chopra’s‘return’tohis‘true’selfhoodandtoastateofperfection,hisrealizationofhis

ownrishivalueand‘infinitepotential’.

ThemetaphoricalcobrainChopra’sdream,itthusturnsout,livesonnotjustthrough

devoutgrandmothers,wanderingascetics,ayurvedicphysicianslikeTriguna,andgurus

liketheMaharishi,butalsoinspirituallyawakenedindividualslikeChopra.‘Thetruth

maysinkfrompublicsight’,Choprawrites,‘butsomewhereitisflowingthroughasage’

(ibid.,144).This‘truth’flowsthroughhimnow,followinghisencounterwiththe

Maharishi,hisreconnectionwithhisIndianspiritualroots,andhispersonalexperience

ofwhatitistoattainperfectionthrough‘simple’practiceslikemeditation.Asadoctor

andhealerwhocombinesbiomedicalknowledgewithsomethingmoreancientand

enduring--the‘truth’ofayurveda--heisnowhimselfafountofwisdom.Patientswho

cometohimforhealingcandrinkdirectlyfromthisfount,reconnectingwithanancient

spiritualtraditionthatpointstowardshumanperfection.

Concludingremarks

ChopraframeshisautobiographyasthestoryofhisreturntohisIndianroots.Inhis

narrativehegrowsupinIndiasomewhatalienatedfromtheseroots.Inhisadultlifehe

practicesbiomedicinebutgetsincreasinglydisenchantedwithmainstreamformsof

practice.ItiswhenheiswellintohisthirtiesthathediscoversIndicspirituality.

ParadoxicallyitisintheUSthathemakesthisdiscovery–throughhisencounterwith

TM.The‘Indian’legacythatChopraclaimstohavediscoveredisnotmerelythis;healso

borrowsfromcounterculturalandothercurrentsintheUS,whichhereadilyassimilates

intohisdiscourseandpractice.OnceChopramakeshisspiritualdiscovery,hesetsabout

revisioninghisworkasadoctor,integratinghisbiomedicalknowledgewithayurvedic

healing,anddevelopingaformofpracticethatcentrallyaddressestheself,themind,

andtheunleashingofhumanpotential,which,heclaims,liesattheheartofayurveda.

Throughhiswriting,heseekstosharehisdiscoverieswith,andtoeducate,thegeneral

publicaboutthisformofhealing.

Chopra’sautobiographywouldseem,inthefirstinstance,tobesomethingofa

‘conversionnarrative’–thekindofstorywhichportraysone’slifeashavinghadlittle

positivemeaningorvalueuntil,inamomentofrevelationorthroughachancemeeting,

itis‘totallytransformed,re-routedontodifferenttracks,sentoffinanewspiritual

(and/orsocial)direction’(ArnoldandBlackburn2004,14).InChopra’snarrative,his

pastasbiomedicaldoctorisportrayedasrelativelyvalue-less;thisiscontrastedwithhis

meaningfulpresentasapractitionerofmind-bodymedicine.Thetransformationfrom

theonetotheothertakesplacethroughachanceencounterwithTManditsfounder.

Itisnoteworthy,however,thatChopraaffirmshisownlegitimacyasahealernotonthe

strengthofhisproximitytoMaharishiMaheshYogi,andthelatter’sauthorityasa

spiritualfigure,butonthebasisofhisownpersonalexperiences.Aspreviouslynoted,it

isacentraltenetintheWesternmilieuofunchurchedspiritualitythattruthmustbe

validatedthroughpersonalexperience,notmediatedbyfiguresofauthority.Theclaims

ofexperts,scientists,orspiritualmastersaremereclaimsuntilonehastestedand

verifiedtheirtruth-valuebymeansofone’sowndirectexperience.Theautobiography

placesChopra’sdirectpersonalexperienceattheheartofitsnarrative.Chopra’sdirect

experienceoftheMaharishi’squalitiesofserenityandsilenceconfirmsMaheshYogiasa

truerishi.Chopra’spersonalexperienceoftransformationthroughmeditation

legitimizesTMandMaharishiAyurvedaaslegitimatetechniquesofconsciousness-based

healing.Similarly,Chopra’sdirectexperienceofhealingthesickusingthepowerofhis

mind,asrecountedintheautobiography,legitimizesthe‘truth’ofhisextraordinary

healingability.TheautobiographyservesultimatelyasChopra’smeansofself-

validation.Thenarrativeinturnreliesonvalidationfromhisreadersandclients;their

personalexperienceandaffirmationofChopra’sprofessedspiritualwisdomandhealing

powersarecriticaltohissustainedlegitimizationasan‘angelicdoctor’whohasrealized

thefullpotentialofhisinnate‘rishivalue’.

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