BALANCING EDUCATIONAL IMBALANCES IN NIGERIA.

transcript

Prof. L-R.I. Akudolu & Eyiuche Ifeoma Olibie (2015). Abstract

This paper focused on balancing educational imbalancesin the education sector in Nigeria. The paper examinededucational imbalances existing in the education sectorand equally outlined some factors responsible for theeducational imbalances in the education sector inNigeria. It also highlighted the dangers of educationalimbalance in the education sector and further discussedthe various perspectives towards balancing theeducational imbalances in the education sector inNigeria. Based on thes bench marks, some recommendationswere proffered as way forward towards balancing theeducation sector in Nigeria. Among such recommendationsincludes: adequate resourcing, financing and increasedbudgetary allocations at all levels of education sector;implementation of effective policies and curriculum thatwill improve all education sector and properharmonization of activities at all levels of educationsector.

Keywords: Educational Disparities, Curriculum, Access, Quality

Policy, Gender.

Published in Ivowi, UMO. (Eds). Curriculum and teaching in Nigeria: A Book ofreadings in honour of Prof (Mrs) Akon Esu ). University of Calabar, Calabar ) pp 277-302).Lagos: Foremost Educational Services LTD.

Introduction

Education is an instrument for national development and an asset

to any nation. It is a vehicle for developing skills and1

competencies, imparting knowledge and learning. Without education

various socio-economic activities in the societies will remain

stagnant and the human society will continue to wallow in

ignorance. It is in the light of the importance of education that

one appreciates the several contribution of Fafunwa (1923-2012)

to practically all phases of Nigerian education. Fafunwa (2003)

saw education as a human right. This is in line with a lot of

international declarations on education as a fundamental human

right such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948),

the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights (1966) and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’

Rights (1981).

Despite these declarations, several societies in the modern world

are still far from providing adequate education to a greater

proportion of their people. This results in several imbalances in

the education sector. In Nigeria, there are

inequalities/imbalances in the education sector which cannot be

meaningfully covered in this paper. However, the thrust of this

paper is the need to take substantive measures in addressing

imbalances in the education sector in Nigeria. Issues relating to

the topic have been discussed under four subheadings as follows:

An insight into Fafunwa’s contributions to Education in Nigeria

Educational imbalances in Nigeria.

Various perspectives towards balancing educational imbalances in

the education sector.

Imbalances Existing In the Education Sector in Nigeria

In Nigeria, concerns have been expressed on the glaring

imbalances in the education sector which has created a lot of

gaps and marginalization among groups in the education sectors

(Obanya, 2009; Tahir, 2008; Yoloye, 2004). Educational imbalance

as used in this paper refers to disparities that hinder the

attainment of educational goals. Such imbalances include:

♦ Imbalances in the Curriculum

The purpose of curriculum at any level is to bring about

desirable changes in skills, knowledge, abilities, concept

formation, problem-solving and attitudes of learners (Esu, 2010;

Ivowi, 2010). To enhance this purpose, schools must have an

enriched, coherent and sequential curriculum. Yet in some schools

in Nigeria, this is not the case because:

Unavailability of centrally developed national curricula and

benchmarks in schools and tertiary institutions, leading to

disparities in how schools and institutions develop of school-

level curriculum or course outlines to align with the national

frameworks. Many curricular reforms are left as uncoordinated

local initiatives which vary greatly in number, content and

method (Obanya, 2002; Olarinloye, 2004; Obioma, 2008). For

instance, while the public institutions implement the Nigerian

curriculum, most private institutions evolve and implement

their own curriculum under the names of American Curriculum,

British Curriculum, and Global Curriculum among others, thus

creating an imbalance in uniform learning.

The curricula at all levels are often criticized as being

overloaded, too difficult and fail to incorporate innovative

teaching strategies and media.

There is an imbalance as to how to adequately incorporate

emerging issues such as: entrepreneurship, education for human

rights, civic education, creativity, sexuality education, life-

coping skills, education for peace, ICT and climate change

among others without overloading the curriculum (Ivowi, 1995).

Hence these areas are not adequately addressed in curricula

content and practices (Olibie & Akudolu, 2009; Enukoha, 2010).

There have been inadequate efforts to update the content of

Nigerian texts in line with emergent societal issues. Hence,

there is an imbalance between the knowledge and skills imparted

through the curriculum of educational institutions and the ones

learners require to function effectively the society.

Excellence in character and learning remains one of the

missions of Nigerian education systems. Yet, there is an

imbalance in academics and character development in schools.

Due to the recent preoccupation of the nation with reshaping

academics and raising academic performance, character

development which makes young people to become good members of

their communities as good citizens, has been neglected in

Nigeria.

There is concern about the relevance of teacher training

programs for the school curriculum and the lack of flexibility

to accommodate the changes needed in the school environment

(Moja, 2000). Many teachers do not have an increased

understanding of curriculum theory and practice to ensure

quality teaching. The quality of much of the training provided

for teachers at the Colleges of Education, are poor. The

training methods and approaches are outdated and do not take

into consideration the changing the teaching and global

environments where teachers work. For example, the business

studies curriculum and the vocational and technical studies

curriculum require teaching that integrates a number of

subjects. Nonetheless teachers continued to be trained in

single discipline subjects. This creates an imbalance the

subject matter knowledge of the teachers and what they are

expected to teach.

There is almost a total absence of participatory curriculum

planning as many groups such as teachers’ unions, parents, and

industrial organizations, used to voice their concern about

curriculum matters, but do not participate in the process of

developing the curriculum (Anwukah, 2005).

Given these imbalances, it is obvious that as important as the

curriculum is to success of education, existing curricula

practices and content are highly limited in achieving the

nations’ educational objectives. Such imbalances if left

unaddressed would continue to curtail Nigeria’s competitiveness

and diminish her educational standing in the world.

Imbalances in Information and Communications Technology

Imbalances in ICT are yet another issue. Jegede and Owolabi

(2008)’s comparisons of existing schools’ situations revealed

that wide gaps existed in ICT integration in the education

system. In many schools and institutions, there is inadequate

computer hardware and software and most learners and staff do not

have access to laptops and internet connectivity. Staff training

has been highly inadequate. Many teachers possess basic computer

literacy but lack the competencies for teaching with ICT. Even

where there are a few facilities available, most teachers cannot

use them for teaching and other school purposes. There are more

ICT facilities in private than public institutions, especially at

the primary and secondary education levels. Teachers in elitist

private schools also use ICT to facilitate learning more than

those in public and non-elitist schools. Learners from high and

middle socio-economic background have more access to ICT

facilities and could use them for learning more than those from

low socio-economic background.

In the tertiary institutions, students make more use of ICT than

the lecturers. Most lecturers’ use of technology had largely

consisted of converting their teaching notes into PowerPoint

slides. Students' use of technology has been relegated to

searching the Internet, social media, or word-processing. Other

applications such as e-learning, virtual worlds, clouds, learning

platforms (LP) Web 2.0 applications, and several others are

rarely used.

Most tertiary institutions have devoted significant financial

resources to building the technical infrastructure, purchase and

maintenance of ICT, but devoted much less attention to ensuring

that these investments are used to the maximum in facilitating

administration and learning. The students in this situation

specifically, face hurdles that will inhibit their success in

school and in the working world upon graduation. This will apply

in the rural areas, but it will apply even more in the urban

areas. This is because although urban students have more

available ICT options compared to those in rural areas,

employment in the urban areas are becoming more ICT-based whereas

only a few urban students have required ICT skills. Not only do

imbalances in ICT empowerment affect the ability of individuals

to compete in the labour market, it also affects their learning-

to-learn skills, types of jobs they obtain, the international

interactions they obtain, the status they attain and the wages

they receive. Many staff and students that are not well educated

or informed of ICT applications could be seen as living on the

margins of contemporary society. They are vulnerable and easily

cheated out of any assets they may have by internet and ICT

fraudsters. These imbalances create a digital divide in ICT

access, know-how and benefits between those who are able to use

and benefit from ICT and those who do not.

Geographical Imbalances in Education

Imbalances exist in among the various geographical zones, states

and between urban and rural schools in Nigeria. Geographical

imbalances between South and North which is owing to the problems

of past educational developments, colonial administration and

history in Nigeria has brought in with it existence of

educational gaps between these two regions. Anyanwu (2010)

equally highlighted that the educational disparity between the

North and the South is so wide that, ―roughly speaking, for every

child in a primary school in the northern states there are four

in the southern states; for every boy or girl in a secondary

school in the North there are five in the South; and for every

student in a post-secondary institution in the North there are

six in the South. Likewise, the statistics of students enrolled

in the universities revealed not only a low supply of university

places but imbalance in enrolment that favored southerners.

Another dimension to the educational imbalance is the clear

absence of uniform or equal facilities among states in Nigeria.

Adenle and Uwameiye (2012) observed that in some parts of the

country, only 30% of those qualified, able and willing to have

secondary education have the opportunity to do so. Adenle (2005)

for instance, declared that in the 1999 school year, Lagos State

had space for only 250,000 out of 300,000 applicants for entry

into secondary schools; in same year Oyo State had space for

127,000 out of 190,000; Anambra State for 130,000 out of 260,000.

In some other places, the facilities are available but the

candidates do not exists. In Kano State, less than 5% of primary

school age children are in school. In Lagos, Oyo, Osun, Lagos,

Ogun, Imo, Anambra, Edo, Ebonyi states, over 85% of such children

are in school. The educational disparity between the North and

the South has also introduced educational imbalances and

educational marginalization in most regions.

Inequalities found within the education systems are cross-cutting

and persistent in urban and rural areas. Ikoya and Ikoya (2005)

noted that in spite of the rhetoric of universalisation of

educational developments, national policies and attitudes towards

implementation of decentralized management reforms programmes are

still low particularly in rural and suburban communities.

Because of teeming population in urban areas, many schools are

established there. Rural areas witness lack of establishment of

schools. Where schools are available, teachers either resist or

refuse transfers to those rural areas for lack of social

amenities.

Even though schools in urban areas are inadequately equipped,

the situation is worse in rural areas. Most sub-urban and rural

schools are faced with unqualified staffs, and inadequate

facilities, poor roads, inadequate water supply, poor lightening,

non-availability of good shops and library, lack of recreational

facilities, etc. Some schools in rural areas are remotely located

and water, classrooms, furniture health and sanitation facilities

are usually lacking. This results in inability to retain

qualified and experienced teachers in the schools (Ezewu & Tahir,

1997).

There is also a lack of official records and statistics about

educational development in the rural areas, particularly as

school supervisors appointed by the government agencies to

monitor schools are highly infrequent in the rural places

(Aluede, 2006). In more remote areas, the monitoring officials

are non-existent. Hence the staffs resort to private business

poor teaching, absenteeism, and use of the schools for “miracle

centre” examination malpractices.

This situation is worsened by poor private sector involvement in

rural education. Findings from many studies (Aremo, 2002; Bock

2004; Ikoya & Ikoya, 2005; Peretomode, 1998; Yoloye 1996) reveal

urban-rural variability in the provision and management of

education in Nigeria. Some of these reports indicated that the

level of private sector participation in the provision and

management of primary education was higher in urban than rural

communities. Hence there are more rural than urban communities in

Nigeria where young people has no or limited opportunities for

resource-based quality to education due to rural/urban

imbalances.

Imbalances in Availability of Educational Resources:

Several imbalances exist in human and material resources for the

education sector. Human resource imbalance manifests in

mismatches between policy provisions and the actual status of

available teaching and non-teaching force. Although the National

Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) stipulated the teacher: pupil

ratio to be 1:40, many schools operate with teacher-pupil ratios

of 1:76. High pupil-teacher ratios exist both between states and

between local governments within states. The pupil-teacher ratios

could be as high as 1:100 in urban slums. Many schools face

serious shortages of qualified teachers and have resorted to

recruiting contract teachers, most of who are less qualified and

receive lower compensation than regular teachers. There are also

high proportions of non-teaching staff with inadequate teaching

staff.

Another imbalance is in the decline in men’s

participation in the teaching workforce especially at the primary

and secondary education levels. There is little enthusiasm for

teaching as a career amongst the next generation of future

recruits regardless of sex, with more women than men choosing

teaching partly because they recognize that it is a reasonably

family-friendly job. This negatively affects the numbers of male

teachers and their importance as role models. Other imbalances

summarized by Moja (2000:39) are:

Teacher quality and quality throughout Nigeria is unequal.

This is made worse by the low numbers of graduates going into

the teaching profession.

Inequities in the availability of qualified teachers in the

different States. Most current primary school teachers have

yet to attain the minimum qualification (NCE) as required by

the National Policy on Education.

Most Colleges of Education offer courses which are not

appropriate or relevant to the needs of most primary

teachers. Teachers largely receive training that is more

suited to junior secondary level. The courses are largely of

an academic nature as opposed to the development of

processes, skills, and career development required in primary

schools.

There is an oversupply of NCE and graduate teachers in some

disciplines and subject combinations while there is a general

shortage of teachers in Physics, Mathematics, Home Economics,

Business Education, Technical Education, Primary Education

Studies, Nursery Education and Computer Science. This leads

to a shortage of teachers in subject areas of great demand

and use of non-professional in subject areas as teachers in

school.

Material resource imbalance manifest through inadequacies of text

and reference books, building, consumables, teaching aids,

improvised materials, libraries and audio-visual rooms. In every

state in Nigeria, the infrastructure and facilities in

educational institutions remain inadequate for coping with a

system that is growing at a rapid pace (Okyi, 2004; Ozorji,11

2009). Most schools have overcrowded classroom, lack adequate

classroom space, furniture and equipment, to the extent that

classes are held under shades of trees, some pupils carry-home

their benches and desks and bring them to school every morning.

The instructional materials needed to aid teaching-learning

activities are not available. Due to shortages of classroom

space, classes are offered in the open air and are subjected to

all problems associated with outdoor teaching such as weather

fluctuations leading to class cancellations and lack of quality

instruction (Olaniyan & Obadara, 2008). The school environment is

therefore generally imbalanced for effective learning.

♦ Imbalances in Access to Quality Education:

Achieving access has been marred by several disparities. There

are wide variations in access to schooling for children in

different states and, within states, often across income groups.

The disparity in education access increases with education

levels, i.e. it is more severe with junior secondary than

primary, and most severe with senior secondary (Kaduna State

Ministry of Education, 2008). Imbalances also exist in adult/non-

formal education, special needs education and distance learning.

These imbalances are in enrolment and completion rates across

regions, gender, location and household incomes. access to

secondary education is increasing much faster than access to

primary education Access to University education was limited due

to inadequate capacity of the existing University. Government’s

involvement in the provision of special needs education had been

minimum compared to that of the other players.

In particular, within the North West and North East zones there

is a group of states where the enrollment rates remain very low.

Most states have either very high primary gross enrollment ratios

or very low ones resulting in differences in medium term

objectives.

Imbalances in access is also evident in the unequal distribution

of schools; increasing number of primary school-aged children

seen hawking in the streets during school hours; those enrolling

but not completing primary education and other out-of-school

children involved in various forms of child labour. A great

number of school aged children who might be working, out-of-

school, in rural areas or handicapped are being marginalised and

denied certain educational opportunities as revealed in the

following reports:

The 2006 National School Census (NSC) revealed a net

enrollment ratio (NER) of 80.6% suggesting that a

substantial proportion (19%) of primary school age

population (6-11 years) is not enrolled in primary schools

nationwide. This represents about 5 million Nigerian

children aged 6-11 years old that do not access primary

education.

The United Nations Development Programme (2011) reported

that between 2005 and 2010, the average rate of primary

school completion in Nigeria rose from 62 to 68 percent, far

short of what is needed to ensure universal completion of

primary school by 2015. The average transition rate to

secondary school was 50.3% to secondary school with a

completion rate of 55%.

Although primary school enrolment in Nigeria has not

increased substantially in the past five years, the number

of over-aged and disabled children not enrolling for nor

completing primary schooling has increased from 38 percent

in 2008 to 42 percent in 2011 (The Nigerian Household

Survey, 2011).

Quality of learning outcomes is poor as nearly one in five

pupils completing primary schooling is illiterate (World

Bank, 2012).

Also, the large difference between the transition rates from

primary to secondary schooling suggests that a high percentage of

pupils do not enroll and complete secondary education. Those

that dropped out often lack the literacy and numeracy skills to

engage in meaningful jobs. They might eventually resort to

violence, killing, kidnapping, certificate forgery,

prostitutions, impersonation, ritual killing, raping, robbery and

destruction of lives and property.

Data Imbalances

The non-uniformity, scarcity and the very limited amount of

existing data on key aspects of the educational system, and of

its impact on socioeconomic development in Nigeria, exacerbates

educational imbalances. Often times, real data are unavailable

and estimates are used for educational planning. Comparative

reports of education produced by bodies like UNICEF, UNESCO,

Worldbank etc, often show missing time-series data for Nigeria.

Without data, it is not possible to understand the national

effort being made, the distribution of expenditures across levels

of education, or the relative inputs of the three tiers of

government. This limits the ability of those who make,

interpret, and implement policy in the federal and state

governments to undertake their own analyses of the dynamics of

the educational system, design new interventions, and redirect

their effects towards correcting any imbalance. In turn, the

development of holistic sector development strategies and plans

is hindered.

For instance, Fafunwa (2004) observed that due to imbalances in

projected data, the Universal Basic Education programme which

took off with much promise, might not achieve its goals of

eradicating illiteracy largely due to inadequate planning, which

is a consequence of lack of adequate data. In 2000 when the

schools were opened to register the pupils, instead of the 2.3

million children expected, 3 million children arrived to be

registered (Fafunwa, 2004). This resulted in under-estimation in

the provision of classrooms and other resources. There was dearth

of qualified teachers with the majority of the teachers recruited

being trainees who underwent a one year crash programme in the

pivotal teachers’ colleges set up by the government of the time.

Data on the education system have not been collected in a timely

manner or processed in a way that is adequate for planning. Moja

(2000) stated that the system has thus suffered from lack of

relevant and adequate planning for the implementation of the

policies that are vital to improved quality and expansion. There

is lack of data on repetition and reentry rates make it difficult

to understand student flows. There was uncontrolled growth in the

system, especially at the basic levels, and later in the higher

education sub-sector.

Imbalances in Educational Policies and Policy Implementation

Nigeria has good visions and policies on education. At the

national level, many important policies, are recognized and

accepted. However, there are imbalances between policy

pronouncements and policy implementations in Nigeria. At state

government and LGEA levels, the basic policy issues are

recognized, but many have not yet been elevated to stated

objectives nor have they been systematically prioritized. Broad

courses of action, or strategies, have also been charted, but

often without analyzing the costs and their feasibility. Also,

there are differences among the states both in the educational

objectives they wish to achieve and in their ability to achieve

it. Their different educational policies are not well understood

and documented.

An examination of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)

will also reveal some imbalances. For instance, the national

policy on primary, secondary and technical education shows some

concern for self-employment and local crafts and trades. To

achieve this, one had expected a situation where schools would be

inviting the local instructors to teach the students and

teachers. The school in return would impart modern technology to

the local artisans to improve their skills. But this was not to

be. What was witnessed was that sophisticated modern technologies

were imported into the nation from foreign countries. These

countries also indicated their willingness to supply technical

teacher-trainers on a technical assistance basis and some

Nigerian students were also sent abroad for training in technical

and vocational fields. Obanya (2004) noted that these actions,

our institutionalised technical and vocational courses have

failed to take advantage of conventional wisdom from the local

environment. A more beneficial approach would have been to

commission local manufacturers to design and fabricate the simple

tools and equipment needed. This would have afforded some

students the opportunity to gain immensely by undergoing

industrial attachment under such manufacturers. There had been

occasions when young Nigerians have displayed their potential

innovative skills but they were never encouraged further to

improve on whatever they had built or to empower them. If they

are empowered, it will encourage others to put to use latent

skills.

The objectives of secondary education (Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 2004) are ‘preparation for useful living in the society

and for higher education’. These objectives are not being

achieved. Many of the pupils do not go on to the senior secondary

due to a lack of resources to pay the fees and other charges

(Imam, 2012). There is high a clamour for higher education but

the high failure rates in the SSSCE deny many access to higher

education. Those who are unable to proceed beyond the senior

secondary school level lack in self-reliant skills in any

vocation.

Further, Section 5 of the policy on Higher Education (i.e.

Universities, Polytechnics, and Colleges of Education) was

conspicuous by its absolute silence on the self-employment issue

or option. The Higher Educational Policy concerned itself mainly

with the development of ‘high level manpower’ which was to be in

the context of the ‘needs of the economy’ perceived mainly then

in the field of science and technology. Thus the policy had

serious orientation for science and technology and absolutely

none for self-employment. It was also clear from the policy that

the acquisition of knowledge and skill in the University was to

be aimed to satisfy the perceived end of the line employers, that

is government and industry. As Aladekomo (2004) noted, the whole

policy document put a lot of emphasis on acquisition of technical

skill by students for the purpose of gaining employment. Even in

the professional fields, the educational policy stipulates that

course content should reflect the needs of the employer and in

this regard consultation between the Universities, the employers

and the government was to be encouraged so that courses will be

made to satisfy the needs of industry and other employers

(Section 6).

Various imbalances also exist in the Nomadic education for the

education of the migrant ethnic groups such as the nomadic cattle

rearing Fulani and Ijaw fishermen introduced (Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 1998; Umar & Tahir, 2000). The National Policy on

Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004) has also proposed

an integrated Qur’anic school policy to take care of the

education of itinerant people in their own cultural setting. This

led to an imbalance between the provision of basic and secular

education on one hand and providing opportunities for religious

instruction according to the faith of pupils’ parents, on the

other hand. As Imam (2012) noted, the curriculum in these schools

is narrow and prepares them only for adaptation into their own

communities alone, read the Qur’an and to be able to observe

Muslim religious rites. This limits their exposure to a balanced

educational programme. Many of the pupils complete their

education yet they lack the skills and knowledge for self

reliance or gainful employment. Imam (2012) painted a picture of

such people as a people driven by limited outlook, hunger and

poverty, thus having the potential for social instability and

sectarian crises.

♦ Gender Imbalances:

There are also gender imbalances in the education sector. In some

States, there is male dominance in access to educational

opportunities. UNICEF (2007) reported that In Nigeria, girls’

access to basic education, especially in northern states, has

remained low. As few as 20 per cent of women in the North West

and North East of the country are literate and have attended

school. In the Northern part of the country, the number of

children out of school is particularly high and the proportion of

girls to boys in school ranges from 1 girl to 2 boys and even 1

to 3 in two states. There exist wide variations across the States

and zones, with the North Central and North West presenting worst

scenarios.

In Anambra State at the South-Eastern part of Nigeria, the

imbalance manifests in declining male enrolment and drop out from

secondary school. Although there is high percent of both male and

female enrollment and completion rate of primary education in the

State, only a few males progress to, and complete secondary or

higher education. Often those that drop out enter trades and

crafts, where many do not succeed because of limited skills.

There are also persisting gender and social inequities and

serious shortfalls in the quality of provisions and outcomes the

school Mathematics, science and technology learning environment

favoured boys over girls, for such reasons as a lack of female

teachers, teachers’ favourable treatment of girls in class,

sexual harassment by male teachers or students, and curricula and

textbooks presenting favourable adult role models only for boys,

and that these were seen as factors across all regions.

In the Nigerian Education Sector Analysis, Moja (2000) reported

that the gender disparity patterns differ regionally, with the

Northern Zones teaching staff being about 72% male but only 37%

male in the Southern Zones. National averages are 54.1% male

teachers and 45.9% female teachers. In secondary schools,

percentage of female principals is less than that of males. But

in primary schools, there are more female than male head

teachers. The numbers decrease even further at higher education

levels, with women making up about 7–8 per cent of college and

university administrators and about 4 per cent of professors. In

many Colleges, Polytechnics and Universities only a few of

registrars, directors and deans are women.

There is a higher percentage of male's enrolment at the different

levels of education in Nigeria (Omoregie & Ihensekhien, 2009).

Statistics from Universal Basic Education Commission Abuja in

2006 revealed that there were more male enrolment at the basic

level of education with a total of 107,973,895 (56.26%) while

that of the female was 83,917,306 (43.73%). The Census in Nigeria

covering the periods 1991 and 2006 likewise revealed that there

were more males in school than females. In 1991, the ratio was

males 50.04% and females 49.96%. In 2006, the ratio was males

51.21% and females 48.79%. These data revealed that there is a

gender inequality in education right from the primary level. The

primary school completion rates are generally very low. Kolo

(2009) stated that the recorded average completion rates are 62%

for girls and 59% for boys. Gender imbalances has contributed to

imbalances in making career choices, where some courses are

highly dominated by male than female and such has great

implications not only on the education sector but the nation as a

whole.

♦ Imbalances in Financing/Funding Education and Budgetary

Allocations:

The amount of funds provided to all levels of the education

system has remained below UNESCO’s recommendation 26% of that

annual budget to be allocated to education to salvage this sector

from numerous imbalances. Yusuf (2003) highlighted that the

observed pattern of budgetary allocation to education revealed

that Nigerian governments (both state and Federal) did not

consider education expenditure as a matter of policy priority.

The budgetary allocations has made it impossible for

government to effectively meet the requirement of a

bludgeoning student population and the fast-paced

technological change (Akpa, 2007). There is inadequate fundingat all levels, with some states receiving more funds than others.

The pattern of government support for education in Nigeria may

not sustain the target of making education as prime source of

sustainable development in the country. Nwagwu (2011) reported a

crisis of educational funding brought about by the oil glut in

the world market in the early 1980s which led to a sudden decline

in Nigeria’s revenue from petroleum products that had accounted21

for approximately 80% of its income from exports. The result was

unpaid teacher salaries, degradation of education facilities at

all levels and strikes in universities and schools resulting in

declining literacy rates in the country.

The implication of these imbalances is that the Nigerian

education system as it is cannot significantly to meet emergent

realities and needs of the society. While it has to be

acknowledged that several reforms have been put in place to

reposition the Nigerian educational system, it is also known fact

that the educational system has not enhanced the ability of the

Nation to compete favorably in the global context.

Fafunwa’s Perspectives on Balancing Educational Imbalances inNigeria From 1967 till he died in 2010, Prof. Babs Fafunwa showedpractical interest in balancing educational balances at all tiersof the educational system. Through his wide-ranging publicationsin the form of books, monographs, conference proceedings, journalarticles, technical reports and newspaper columns on educationalissues and strategies, Fafunwa contributed many educationalmissions and practices towards meeting societal expectationsrequired of learners. These contributions include recommendationsfor:1. a detailed curriculum for nursery school education that

followed a child’s natural inclination and providedopportunities for self-expression and creative imagination.

2. teaching the child in the mother-tongue or language of theimmediate environment with lessons in African music, dancing,story-telling, role-playing and painting; and engaging thechild in motor and manipulative skills.

3. improvisation of science corners, wooden educational toys suchas motor cars, diggers, trucks, airplanes, counting beads,

rattles, balances and other educational objects in nursery andprimary schools.

4. a six-dimensional structure in the areas of: reading andwriting in the child’s mother-tongue, English or French;arithmetical and mathematical processes; basic science; civicsand social studies; vocational education; and physicaleducation.

5. the use of innovative and student-centered teaching methods tocater for all the vital components of a child’s developmentwith focus on self-reliance, creativity, imagination andresourcefulness in the personality of the child.

6. secondary education to cover knowledge and skill acquisitionof Nigerian youth in the areas of science and technology;critical thinking and vocational skills; responsiblecitizenship; efficient consumerism and entrepreneurship;healthy lifestyle and communicative competence in the mother-tongue or language of the immediate environment.

7. helping the secondary and tertiary students to recognize thedignity of labour; develop ethical character; appreciate theuse of leisure; understand the world outside one’senvironment; develop a scientific attitude towards problems;and live and act as a well integrated individual.

8. recommendations for the provision of tertiary education thatwould encourage socio-economic and techno-scientificdevelopment with due cognizance of the social, political,economic and cultural backgrounds and needs of Africa withoutneglecting the common heritage of all tertiary institutionsthe world over.

Two of the educational landmarks for which Fafunwa will ever beremembered are the Mother-tongue education and National Policy onEducation. The Ife Six-Year Primary Project which he pioneeredled to the policy that early primary education that would use themother tongue as the medium of instruction and that at the upperprimary and secondary school levels, learners should learn atleast one major Nigerian language other than his own. Most of hisideas for curricular reforms eventually found their way into theNational Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981,1998; 2004) on which the education system is based. Although thepolicy document addresses the issues of imbalance in theprovision of education in different parts of the country withregard to access, quality of resources and girls’ education.These efforts notwithstanding, several imbalances still exist in

the education sector. There is therefore a need to continuouslydevelop educational programmes to meet the demands of an ever-changing local and global society, the needs of the children, andthe criteria for what students need to learn and do to attainsuccessful outcomes. These would involve a range of strategiesaimed at balancing the imbalances in the education sector. Reforms at Balancing the Imbalances in the Education Sector InNigeria

If one compares the propositions of Fafunwa with the

overwhelming nature of educational imbalances in Nigeria, it is

obvious that the problems with the Nigerian Education system is

not lack of ideas. One is proud to observe that Nigeria has lots

of policies and initiatives that would propel her to take a pride

of place in the global scene. What appears to be the problem is

lack of political and collective will to actualize the nation’s

ideals, and an enabling environment to balance the imbalances.

The truth is that the Nation has done much. Several

conferences, seminars, symposia, stakeholder’s meetings, and

workshops have been held. The outcome of all these is an

increasing emphasis on preparing learners that would have the

knowledge, skills, values and dispositions that enable them

participate effectively in global affairs. In Nigeria, the

emphasis has even received greater attention in several

educational policy documents and reforms such as National

Education Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDs, 2012), Vision

20-20-20 (2010), Education sector Improvement strategies (2012),

and Education Roadmap (2012) among others.

The country has also introduced several reforms aimed at

changes with positive results and bringing a new lease of life to

the education system thereby reducing the imbalances. The reforms

cover policies, strategies, plans, and mechanisms for effecting24

positive change in the education system. They include the

Universal Basic Education programme; revision of the National

Policy on Education; development of new curriculum, new

techniques of teaching, instructional technologies; establishment

of educational management structures, and restructuring of

education funding arrangements. The aim of these innovations at

the primary, pre-primary and tertiary education levels is to

positively enhance teaching and learning, for the benefits of

learners, and the society.

The reforms at the primary education level include:1) changes in nomenclature (from standard to elementary in

1963; from elementary to primary in 1976; UPE in 1976 to UBEin 2000, and from primary to basic education in 2000.

2) management (government takeover of schools, establishmentof National primary Education Commission (NPEC) and StatePrimary Education Boards (SPEB), and the present institutionof the Universal Basic Education Commission with branchesin the States known as the State Universal Basic EducationBoards). Another reform is the renewed emphasis oncommunity/private sector involvement in primary educationmanagement.

3) duration of the programmes (from 8 years till 1962 to sixyears in 1963; from six years to 9 years of basic educationin 2000). The need for increase in enrolment and decrease indrop-out rates were highlighted.

4) curriculum contents (introduction of subjects like healthand physical education, Arts and Local Crafts; PrimaryScience, Mathematics, Christian Religious Knowledge, IslamicReligious Knowledge, and the use of mother tongue as mediumof instruction in early primary school. Attention areaddressed to improving academic achievement across subjects.

At the secondary school level in Nigeria, there is growingemphasis on educational standards, equity, continuousimprovement, and accountability aimed at ensuring thatsecondary schools must become high-performing organizations ifthey are to prepare all students to succeed in the twenty-first century. Some of these reforms at this levels were

necessitated by NEEDs in education as cited by Ezekwesili(2007) include: provision of an enabling environment andstimulation of active participation of the private sector,civil society organizations, communities, and developmentpartners in educational development through Public-PrivatePartnership (PPP) initiative, Adopt-a-School, and CommunityAccountability and Transparency Initiative (CATI). Inaddition, the Nigerian Educational Research and DevelopmentCouncil (2007) in Nwagwu (2007:11) highlighted that theNigerian government specified the achievement of the followingas top priorities in Nigerian secondary education:1. Ensuring access to education for all2. Promoting gender equality at all levels of education3. Improving the quality of education at all levels4. Use education for skill acquisition and job creation and

consequently empower people to improve quality of life5. Periodic review of secondary school curriculum that to meet

NEEDS expectations and specifications6. Promotion of information and communications technology

through ICT skills acquisition at all levels7. Mobilize development partners, donor agencies,\private

enterprises, and communities to fund and support educationat all levels.

Further, the UBE is a nine-year programme that covers six

years of primary education and three years of junior secondary

schools. According to Obioma (2007:7), the key issues in the 9-

year Basic Education Curriculum (BEC): are:

1. Identification of minimum competencies and aligning these to the methodology of classroom transactions (including pedagogical skills needed), instructional materials and suggested evaluation activities

2. Linking learning to the world of work of learners in the cultural context

3. Emphasis on functional literacy, numeracy and strategiccommunication skills.

4. Infusion of relevant and functional entrepreneurial skills using the relevant subject contents as drivers

5. Consolidation of some contents and subjects in the basic education context thus reducing subject/content overload

6. The inclusion of strategic life-long skills as well aspositive national values,

7. civic, moral and ethical education as a course of study Infusion of elements of critical thinking.

In addition, a major reform emphasis is on Science, Technologyand Mathematics Education (STME). The reform calls for increasedstudents’ enrolment in the sciences in secondary schools, reneweduse of practical and hands-on activities in science classes andthe encouragement of classroom interactions that foster effectivescience learning. At the classroom level, Bajah (2006:181) statedthat:

Emphasis has been placed on the application ofa student-centered approach which requiresinnovations in developing schemes of work,using new teaching and learning strategies,employing assessment methods for classroomactivities that develop critical skepticism,open-mindedness, thoroughness in rationalinquiry, and desire to learn science.

At the tertiary level, the following reforms are noted:

1. Increase of funding for higher education, separation of costsof academic activities from the regular overhead cost (forgoods and services); scaling-up of the staff welfare system;and private-public sector partnerships in education funding(Akpa, 2007).

2. Asserting a higher education structure of governance andemphasis on institutional accountability, and growingrequirement to pursue, ensure and improve quality in allstrategic higher education activities (didactic, research,curricula innovation, staff and budgeting (Akpan, 2007);

3. Emphasis in the need to connect more systematically highereducation's outflow supply to the economy and labour market aswell as to new forms of demand for higher education (permanentand recurring education, managerial formation). In addition,there is a trend from the students' side to be more interested

in degrees market value than to the strictly cultural one,following the entrepreneurship ideologies in higher education(Nwadiani, 2003).

4. Emphasis on generic, creativity and productivity skills as wellas the Post University Matriculation Examinations (Post UME) inthe Universities (Kolo, 2007).

5. The Credit system which plays a pivotal role not only as ameasure of students' commitment to each subject and studycourse, and but also as an academic passport to certificationand jobs (Obanya, 2002). It is a basic instrument by which tomeet and satisfy new educational demands, such as recurrent,permanent and management education; needs of working and part-time students; curricular flexibility as well as students'personal cultural and educational interests; student mobilityfrom one course of study to another and from one university toanother; and is a necessary link between university andvocational track of tertiary education under construction; and

6. Accreditation systems: Evaluation groups made up of externalacademic staff and administrators routinely assess highereducation institutions. The groups visit individualinstitutions to assess university organization and activitiesperformance (research, teaching, administration) and proposeimprovements of academic performance (Mbagwu, 2007).

7. The establishment of Minimum Achievement Standards (MAS) foreach of the policy dimensions for the higher institutions(Alao, 2005), and

8. The University autonomy, which was intended to address twointertwined problems. First, to reduce the bureaucracy withwhich public universities must contend. Second, to injectmarket These inventions need to be improved on, sustained andmanaged to propel further inventions. Societies have dependedon education as a tool for propelling and managing inventions.Hence, in Nigeria for instance, there have been many calls inrecent years for Nigerian education to reform itself bybecoming more efficient in inventions and innovations (Omoifo,2007; Babalola & Ayeni, 2008) mechanisms into the publicuniversity system.

The National Computer Policy (1988) stated two objectives for ICTin Nigerian education system as follows:

1. To ensure that the general populace appreciates theimpact of information and computer technology on today's

society, the importance of its effective use, and thetechnologies that process, manage, and communicate theinformation.

2. To ensure that the people of Nigeria will know howto use and program computers, develop software packages,understand the structure and operation of computers andtheir history, and to appreciate the economic, socialand psychological impact of the computer.

In line with these objectives, The National Policy onEducation (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004:17) stated that“in recognition of the prominent role of ICT in advancingknowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning inthe modern world, there is urgent need to integrate ICT intoeducation in Nigeria”. In addition, the Federal Government ofNigeria (2008) realized that the country should not lag behindin the race to become a digital society, and saw the potentialof Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to empowerpeople for the 21st century. Therefore, it declared ICT anational educational priority and made ICT compulsory ineducational institutions. The strategies for achieving the objectives include the provisionof hardware and software; training teachers and associatedpersonnel, curriculum development and evaluation, and maintenanceof hardware and peripherals.

Although, as Kolo (2007) noted, much of these reform policiescame under criticisms by academics and educationists who are veryknowledgeable of the Nigerian education system, one can still seethat the reforms highlight very fundamental issues that areneeded for a functional education in Nigeria. What is importantis critical looks at the possible ways through which these policythrusts can be better pursued, and improve on areas ofweaknesses.

Towards Balancing the Imbalances in Nigerian Education SectorBalancing educational imbalances in the education sector inNigeria must derive from both national and internationalperspectives in the areas of curriculum enrichment and

diversification, access and equal educational privileges,quality, research, popular participation, and improved funding. Curriculum Enrichment and Diversification: Curriculum enrichmentis not just about adding new subjects to an overloaded curriculum(Obanya, 2002). Changing the curriculum – the topics being taught– is not enough to bring about meaningful change in education; wealso need to rethink the way the curriculum is delivered. Itbecomes imperative therefore, that the curriculum at all levelsshould not only be reviewed to be more functional and relevant tothe learners and society, but also to be responsive to thechanging needs of the society so as to equip the learner with thecurrent and necessary training, knowledge, values and basicskills needed in the current age of significant changes.Diversified curricula refers to the ability of the school toprovide activities inside and outside the classroom toaccommodate and cater for individual learning needs, potential,styles and cognition. This will involve curriculum developmentand practices that give students opportunities for acceleratedprogress and access to new, more challenging concepts or contentrelative to their individual learning needs etc. indeed, manyactivities in school will involve the two in combination. This isin line with the EFA Global Monitoring Report (2008) whichidentifies three sets of provisions that are essential toimproving the imbalances in the curriculum and quality oflearning in schools. These are: reforming curriculum andtextbooks; enhancing the number and quality of teachers, andmaking the teaching-learning process itself, including the schoolenvironment, more learner-friendly. All have to be particularlynuanced for impacts on girls’ and boys’ education. there is needto make further changes in the curriculum and the teachingstrategy and changes in the attitude and the mindset of everymember of the community: the learners, the educated, parents andsociety at large. It is therefore imperative that efforts will bemade by curriculum planners, educational agencies, teachers andlecturers to ensure the following:

Existing curricula at all levels need to be revised andrevamped to prepare learners for 21st century changes. Asthe Partnership for 21st Century skills noted, thinkingschools and learning nations will be the paradigm of thetwenty-first century based on lifelong learning for lifelongemployability. Curriculum provisions will no longer be only

a matter of providing education for all, but also ofenhancing the quality of education, teaching students tolearn and think, to be creative, and preparing them forlifelong learning.

Opportunities for enrichment and diversification should becreated throughout the curriculum, as well as beyond lessontime – and both in school and outside it. An importantfeature of enrichment is that it must enhance the curriculumand the student’s general learning experience. This appliesboth to work done in the classroom and to activities outsideschool. As Freeman (1998) expressed it, enrichment is ‘not asupplementary diet which depends on whether there is enoughmoney for ‘extra’ material and tuition’. It should always beintegrated with whole school provision.

Enhance the quality of classroom interactions through goodteaching and learning practices characterized by a largevariety of interesting activities where each learner isafforded learning opportunities. Acknowledge curriculum andassessment flexibility and adequately respond to differentlearning needs and learning styles.

reviewing the examination system Ensure that curriculum andtextbooks are academically and pedagogically of goodquality. More emphasis should be placed on a broadening ofthe learning experience, promoting a higher level ofthinking and equipping learners with life-long skills.Skills mean such capabilities as critical and flexiblethinking, problem-posing and problem-solving, data analysis,the ability to make judgments, as well as crucialcommunication skills such as expressing ideas and persuadingothers.

The convergence of academic disciplines in the form of broadfield and problem-orientation to knowledge incorporating avariety of theoretical perspectives requires innovativeprocedures for the development of curriculum. For thispurpose, it is imperative that teachers are made aware ofmodern trends in the development of curriculum. School-levelcurriculum practice should avoid heavy reliance on a lectureapproach to curriculum development that is dominated bytextbook contents.

Reviewing and revamping the curriculum for a balancedinclusion of additional subject areas and/or activities, and

the use of supplementary materials beyond the normal rangeof resources. It will involve staying with a theme, subjector skill and developing it in depth; integrating emergentsocietal issues in the basic curriculum subjects with awider context; relating learning to new areas; and/orproviding pupils with experiences outside the ‘regular’curriculum (breadth).

Since curriculum development is extremely complex, itrequires many kinds of competencies in differentcombinations at different points of work. These competenciesneed to be organized into effective working teams so thatall resources are made available. To develop an adequate useof the manifold talents and resources, it is necessary topractice the principle of levels of involvement. Not everytype of competency is relevant at every point of curriculumdevelopment. Not everyone needs to participate ineverything. At any point in curriculum development, it isimportant to consider who should be involved and at whatpoints? What should be the roles of administrators,curriculum specialists, content specialists, specialists ingroup dynamics and research, laymen and students?

Train and support teachers in using a diversity of teachingmethods, especially (inter)active methods.

Curriculum documents should be made available in schools.Curricula proposals generated by the school should really bethe work of both administrators and the implementers of thecurriculum in line with national curriculum and benchmarks.Unless this is done, the curriculum proposals may beimplemented unsatisfactorily or not at all. Clients of anyeducation system are a big ingredient to the success of theoperations of the system. This means that independentschools should consult and involve their relevantstakeholders, parents and the wider community much more thanthey do now.

The curriculum should include themes that would preparelearners for meaningful existence in life, for economicproductivity and for the world of work. It should empowerlearners with knowledge, skills and values relevant to thedemands of modern society including training learners for

entrepreneurship, citizenship, positions of leadership andpower in various sectors of the society and the economy. Andso, quality education would prepare learners to becomeresponsible and productive citizens who can easily interactwith and join social groups outside the school systemincluding the elite and the powerful (World Bank, 1987;Singh, 2000; and Woodhouse, 2000). It will also equip thelearners to adapt to other physical and economic settings(Hallack, 1991).

As recommended by stemnet organization (2013), curriculumenhancement will focus on raising awareness of the impact ofvocational, science and technology within the community,industry and personally; raising awareness of sciencecareers and opportunities in industry and business; bemotivating and have engaging contexts to capture pupils’enthusiasm; have direct links with industry and business;allow pupils to engage with professionals from a range ofcareers that use the skills developed through education intheir jobs; add value to the school curriculum whether thatis improvement in attitude, motivation, creativity,enterprise, purpose, relevance etc; challenge perceptionsof gender in education; raise aspirations and confidence ofboth staff and pupils in public education.

Adapted from the ’What’s in it for me’ www.stemnet.org.uk.

Improved and Efficient FundingIn the area of financing/funding the education sector, budgetaryallocations to all education sector must be increased and put toefficient use. Education in modern world is a capital intensiveindustry. There could be no education without funding. To addressthe obvious imbalances and lapses in educational sector over theyears, adequate fund must be made available and must be expendedappropriately. To sustain education in the country, allstakeholders must be involved, the parents and guardians, thesociety in general, the private sector and non-governmentalagencies. There has equally been call for a new set of rules forthe allocation of federation account funds in line with theconstitution and the issue of whether universal primary educationis really to be a national target which needs to be addressed. If

it is to be a meaningful national target then serious analysis ofthe expenditures involved will need to be made,incentives/requirements placed on the states to allocatesufficient funding.

Facilitating Conditions for ICT-based educationBalanced ICT development would require an equal empowerment ofurban and rural areas and regions with educational funding andresources for ICT. The introduction of new technologies canreduce imbalances between urban and rural areas. This requires anew attitude among local government officials and the ability toforge partnerships with local urban and rural communities to setpriorities, and design and implement policies and programmes forreducing the disturbing imbalance in ICT-driven education. At abroad management level, there is need for decisions andinvestments in ICT infrastructure, capacity building, integrationand funding rather than mere rhetoric. Technological, pedagogicaland cultural issues must be addressed. These include providingsolutions to support a large group of ICT users with amultiplicity of different ICT tools at their disposable;balancing student choice and learner centrism with institutionalstandards for assessment, quality assurance and instructorexpertise; and enabling the use of common ICT tools forcommunication, collaboration and the shared construction ofknowledge.Reducing ICT imbalances would also require teacher training andICT integration in course delivery. Preparing teachers forteaching in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)involves equipping them with the attitudes, knowledge, skills andcompetencies to use ICT in schools. This would enhance thequality of education by helping teachers to do their job and byhelping students to learn more effectively. Teacher preparationcalls for the provision of facilitating conditions and focus onICT themes needed by the teachers. Facilitating conditions areimportant for the integration of ICTs in the classroom,curriculum, school management, library, and any educationalsetting. Facilitating conditions include planning, access,availability of resources, training, guides, and stipulations forhard ware and software standards for ICT implementation inschools. Since few teachers have had extensive opportunities touse ICT in their own pre-service education, the teachers may needto be trained in these areas depending on their existing levels

of ICT knowledge and competence. Being connected within theschool and to resources outside the school has become criticalissue in teacher professional development. Easy access toproductivity tools and associated learning resources is alsoimportant. Without access to the Internet and without sufficientquantity and quality of equipment, those teachers are not likelyto be highly motivated to participate in professional developmentactivities related to ICT. Teachers need to be trained todemonstrate and promote the use of ICT across and within alldisciplines in the curriculum, for other tools to be used in theclassroom with the learner, and for resources designed to promoteenhanced professional development. Promoting teacher developmentthrough the sharing and exchange of resource materials andstrategies by schools and teachers is a positive step.

Implementing Gender-Friendly Policies and PracticesGirl-child education should be improved and encouraged. Theextension of educational opportunity to the girl-child has been acornerstone of every development plan. This is in view of therole of women to the development of their community (World Bank,1997; Amali, 2006). Education for the girl-child must necessarilybe a priority in efforts to expand the educational level of theNigerian Northern region. The traditional, cultural and religiousbarriers impeding girl-child education should be addressed andpolicies on women and girl-child education strengthened as well.All cultural and traditional practices, which tend to enhancegender inequality in education, should be discouraged at alllevels of education. Omoregie and Ihensekhien (2009) expressedthat both federal, state and local governments should givefinancial assistance through scholarships or bursaries to femalestudents and educate the parents and the general public so as tobring about a change in attitude toward women education. The non-governmental bodies (NGO) should be assigned to do this by thegovernment. The governments should promulgate laws against earlymarriage, unfavourable cultural practices against women/girl-child and using the females as hawkers on the streets whichexpose them to dangers that affect their education. Let there bea rule on quota system of 50:50 in admission of males and femalesto all institutions of learning from primary to tertiary level.That means ratio of admission should be 50 females to 50 males inall levels (Omoregie and Ihensekhien, 2009). Scholarship

programme should also be strengthened and properly instituted tocater for the educational need of theunderprivileged/disadvantaged groups, marginalized groups andspecial groups. This would in no small measure help to reduce thegap of educational opportunities between the privileged and theless privileged people. It would also stem the tide of turnoverrate in schools and colleges as well as tertiary institutions inthe country. In view of the recent of the advancement and modernization in thesociety, the use of ICT Information and CommunicationTechnologies should be emphasized in the schools. With ICT, itis now possible for teachers and learners to interact withoutface to face or physical contact. This opportunity of ICT in theeducational system should be exploited by governments so as tobring about the desired rapid educational development in Nigeria.This also implies that it may no longer be necessary to bephysically present in classrooms to disseminate and receiveknowledge. Satellite communication and internet facilities haveopened a new form of modern education devoid of the hugeinvestment in construction of classrooms and other physicalstructures especially at the higher levels.

Efforts should be made in the area of science and technologicaleducation in order to boost the area. In view of the importanceof this form of education to overall development, deliberateefforts must be made to develop science and technologicaleducation, especially in the disadvantaged areas. If Nigeria mustcontinue to be relevant in the global community at large and becounted among the twenty top (20-G countries) advanced nations inthe world it must place emphasis on appropriate administrationand management of science and technological education which wouldlead to technological development of all the regions in general.

There should also be proper harmonization of activities at thevarious levels of education in terms of raising their activitiesto quality and higher standards. The standards of all tertiaryinstitutions should be raised to the same level and staffdevelopment and training intensified. In line with the above,adequate educational resources (human and material resources)should be provided and existing once maintained. In summary, thefollowing recommendations have been proffered:

Adequate resourcing, financing and increased budgetaryallocations which will be needed to build new schools, trainmore teachers and provide sufficient equipments in theschools at all levels of the education sector

Implementation of effective policies and curriculum thatwill improve all education sector

Improving and dealing with the quality issues including sizeof classes, number of teachers and provision of materials

Massive investment in infrastructures in all levels ofeducation

Respect and protection of the rights of children in schoolincluding protection from violence in schools especially ofthe girl child and strengthening scholarship and bursariesgrants at all levels of education sector

Review of school curricula to promote critical and relevantlearning

Promoting good governance in schools and strengtheningleadership at all levels of education

Instituting effective means/strategies of keeping properaccountability of resources and accountability onutilization of resources budgeted for education

Improvement of teacher quality through employment ofprofessional and qualified teachers, in service trainingand retraining and implementation of the teacher salarystructure

Proper harmonization of activities at all levels ofeducation sector which includes salaries, entryrequirements, staff development, etc.

Improving access to quality education at all levels ofeducation sector including in special education, inclusiveeducation and education for special target and marginalizedgroups

To successfully implement the Universal Basic EducationScheme, there is need to

develop sound implementation plans. This would have to bepreceded by a survey of the

existing resources and capacity of the national and localplanning structures to implement

the plan and monitor progress made in order to detectproblem areas and address them at an

early stage. Strategic planning and implementation areessential to the success of the nineyear programme and for

capacity building in the system as well as for itsimplementation.

Failures in the past cannot be blamed entirely on low levelsof funding but also on lack of

capacity for planning and implementation at both nationaland local levels. National

structures such as the Planning Division of the FederalMinistry of Education would need to be strengthened toensure that there is capacity in those structures to monitorthe implementation plan as well as to provide assistance tothe local structures.

Teachers need to examine their own biases. CONCLUSION The goal of achieving quality, excellence and improving theNigerian education sector lies on balancing all the educationalimbalances existing in the education sector. For this purpose,the paper has so far discussed extensively the issue of balancingthe educational imbalances in the education sector in Nigeria.Things may not be getting dramatically worse, they areinexcusably and damagingly not impressive, and could and shouldbe remedied. Having pointed out these educational imbalancesexisting in the Nigerian education sector, including theirdangers and identified ways of balancing them, the paperconcluded by proffering recommendations.

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BALANCING EDUCATIONAL IMBALANCES IN NIGERIA.

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