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CHAPTER 8

The Information-Processing Approach

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Learning Goals

1. Describe the information-processing approach.

2. Characterize attention and summarize how it changes during development.

3. Discuss memory in terms of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

4. Draw some lessons about learning from the way experts think.

5. Explain the concept of metacognition and identify some ways to improve children’s metacognition.

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The Information-Processing Approach

The Nature of theInformation-Processing

Approach

Mechanisms of Change

Information, Memory, and

ThinkingCognitive

Resources: Capacity and Speed

of Processing Information

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Information-processing approach…

Emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

Is analogous to computers.

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Cognitive Resources

Developmental Changes - Increases in capacity and speed of information processing

Contributions of biology and experience Brain Structure Neural: synaptic pruning and myelination

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Change Mechanisms

Encoding: getting information into memory Automaticity: processing information with

little effort Strategy construction: discovering new

processing procedures Self-modification: represented by

metacognition, “knowing about knowing”

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The Information-Processing Approach

Attention

Developmental Changes

What Is Attention?

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What Is Attention?

AttentionAttention is the focusing of mental processes

Selective attention Divided attention Sustained attention

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Developmental Changes in Attention

Increase in selective attention Increase in attention span Increase in cognitive control of

attention; less impulsivity Increase in attention to relevant stimuli

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Getting Students to Pay Attention

Make learning

interesting

Encourage attention and

minimize distraction

Use cues and gestures

for important material

Focus on active learning and be aware of

individual differences

Use media and technology to make learning enjoyable

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The Information-Processing Approach

Memory

What IsMemory?

Storage

Retrieval andForgetting

Encoding

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Enter the DebateShould teachers require students to engage in rote memorization?

YES NO

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Memory

…is the retention of information over time.

Gettinginformationinto memory

ENCODING

Retaininginformationover time

STORAGE

Takinginformation

out of storage

RETRIEVAL

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Encoding Strategies

CONSTRUCTING IMAGES

DEEP PROCESSINGDeeper processing,

better memory

REHEARSAL Consistent repetition ofinformation over time

ELABORATIONAdds to distinctiveness

ORGANIZATIONAided by chunking

ATTENTIONConcentrate and focus

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Memory’s Time Frames

Sensory Memory – Retains information for an instant

Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retains for 30 seconds without rehearsal

Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long period of time

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Developmental Changes in Memory

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Baddeley’s Model of Memory

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Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory

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Memory

Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

ProceduralMemory

ProceduralMemory

DeclarativeMemory

DeclarativeMemory

Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory

Semantic Memory

Semantic Memory

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Representing Information in Memory

Nodes stand for labels and concepts

Network is irregular and distorted

Long-term searches are not exact

Retrieved information is fit into an existing formation (schema) Schemas: Concepts,

knowledge, or information about events that already exist in the mind and influence the way we encode information.

Schema TheoriesNetwork Theories

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Retrieval

Identify learned information, as in multiple choice

Recognition

Previously learned information, as in fill-in-the-blank

Recall

Associations form cuesEncodingSpecificity

Recall better at the beginning and end of list

Serial Position

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Forgetting

Cue-Dependent Forgetting

Caused by a lack of retrieval cues

Interference Theory

Other information (new or old) gets in the way of what we are trying to remember

Decay Theory Passage of time allows “memory trace” to disintegrate

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Improving Memory

Promote understanding Assist organization of knowledge Teach mnemonics

Method of loci Rhymes Acronyms Keyword

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Ms. Blackwood has assigned her students 20 spelling words to learn for the week. She notices that most of her students have no problems remembering how to spell the first few and the last few words, but many struggle with those in the middle of the list.

Information Processing Theory Theory into Practice

Q: Why might students have an easier time remembering how to spell the first and last few words, but struggle with those in the middle of the list? Explain.

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The Information-Processing Approach

Expertise

AcquiringExpertise

Expertise andLearning

Expertise andTeaching

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Experts Detect features and meaningful patterns of

information Accumulate more content knowledge;

organize around important ideas and concepts

Retrieve important aspects of knowledge with little effort

Adapt an approach to new situations Use effective learning strategies

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The Information-Processing Approach

Metacognition

The Good Information-Processing

Model

DevelopmentalChanges

Strategies andMetacognitive

Regulation

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Metacognition

“Knowing about knowing”

Metacognitive KnowledgeMonitoring and reflecting on one’s current or

recent thoughts

Metacognitive ActivityStudents consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and

purposeful thinking

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Improving Metacognitive Skills

Improvement of metacognitive skills results from:

Developmental changes as student matures cognitively in metamemory and theories of mind.

The Good Information-Processing model that includes specific learning strategies, knowing the similarities and differences in multiple strategies, and the benefits of using them.

Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and modifying when necessary.

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Crack the CaseThe Test

1. What are the issues in this case?

2. With what type of learning is George having difficulty?

3. What type of learning is easier for George?

4. Design a study skills program for George drawing on principles of the cognitive information-processing approach.

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Reflection & Observation

Reflection: What strategies have teachers used to

help you understand difficult concepts? Why were these strategies helpful?