Study unit 4:

Cognitive individual differences and work performance

Using examples, explain what the study field of cognitive psychology entails 10

According to Stenberg, cognitive psychology deals with how people perceive, learn, remember and think about information because to know is to be able to understand the world, to be in control of and to predict events. In other words, cognitive psychology is the discipline or area in psychology that studies the influence of cognition on behaviour. DuBrin describes cognitive psychology as the movement that studies how people's perception of events that influence their actions affects their behaviour. For example, if an employee perceives it to be true that hard work will lead to a bonus, he or she will put in extra effort.

Cognitive concepts evolved and expanded in reaction to the simplistic S-R principle of behaviourism, in the idea that cognitive appraisal can moderate, direct and even control the interaction between stimuli and responses or actions from people. An example is the emotion generation process, in which cognitive appraisal of emotion-eliciting events and previous or existing emotional reactions and conclusions, and also personality determine new emotional responses. Another example is stress reactions which are largely determined by cognitive appraisal.

According to Ulrich Neisser's definition, cognitive psychology refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used. Cognitive psychology is therefore the study of the mental operations that support people's acquisition and use of knowledge.

The reference to a sensory input implies that cognition begins through our sensory contact with the external world. Transformation of the sensory input means that our representation of the world is not just a passive registration of our physical surroundings, but an active construction that may involve both reduction and elaboration.

Reduction occurs when information is lost – that is, we can only attend to a small part of the physical stimulation that surrounds us, and we can remember only a small part of what we attend to.

Elaboration occurs when we add to the sensory input. For example, when you start a new job you will recall previous experiences.

The last part of Neisser's definition is probably the most important in that, after information has been perceived, stored and recovered, it should be put to good use.

Kellogg states more specifically that cognitive psychology should be defined as the study of human cognitive or mental processes, and their role in thinking, feeling and behaving. The discipline portrays the human mind as a processor of information. In the theory and research on cognitive psychology the following areas of study are usually covered:

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biological basis of cognitive behaviour memory processes learning perception attention and consciousness ability factors (intelligence and aptitudes) thinking language knowledge representation and information processing problem-solving and creativity decision-making and reasoning cognitive development

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After considering the consultants at Professio (Pty) Ltd (or another scenario), indicate any cognitive processes and behavior that you could detect. 15

Describe various approaches that we mentioned when we explained intelligence. 25

Write five brief scenarios to illustrate five different cognitive styles. 25

Distinguish between four types of learners and explain how each would approach the information gathering and processing. 10

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Explain at least five constructs that indicate cognitive aptitude factors. 15

Briefly, explain the nature of different cognitive processes. 15

How do the different cognitive processes influence cognitive behavior in the workplace? 25

Cognitive behaviour refers to all the processes people use to obtain knowledge or to become conscious of the environment they function in. Individuals differ not only in acquiring information or knowledge, but also in how they process and use the acquired knowledge. You may recognise this in how employees differ when completing the same task – they process the instructions and complete the task differently because they differ in many ways in their cognitive functioning, their innate attributes and potential, and their acquired cognitive skills.

1 Attention

Kellogg explains that attention refers to the process of selecting only certain stimuli in order to concentrate or focus cognitive processes. Reed expands on this idea by mentioning that employees are often bombarded by all kinds of perceptual stimuli and they then have to decide which of the stimuli are of interest and crucial. In many work situations information overload results in ``mental fatigue'' which leads to, concentration problems and errors in task completion. In a similar sense, psychological fatigue or ``burnout'' especially in the service professions, refers to serious stress caused, by overload in helping other people. One of the symptoms is poor employee relations and an inability to fulfil caring tasks.

Two broad classes of theories have developed to explain attention

THE FILTER THEORIES

(Broadbent) postulate that a bottleneck occurs in the flow of information. This bottleneck is called SELECTIVITY and occurs to prevent information overload.

Broadbent's theory postulates that the bottleneck occurs at the perception or pattern recognition stage, and that attention is represented by a filtering process which determines what information should be recognised.

Treisman's theory allows for tasks to be executed without complete attention selectivity. For example, in understanding language, the occasional recognition of words can happen in an unattended channel.

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The filter weakens the unattended message, but does not completely block it out. Important or expected words can be recognised in the unattended channel if their thresholds for recognition are low enough to be exceeded by the attenuated message. Attention is represented by the pattern recognition stage and not the filter. Deutsch and Deutsch propose that the bottleneck occurs after pattern recognition. The problem is not one of perception, but rather one of selection into memory after perception has occurred. The most important stages are pattern recognition and selection.

CAPACITY THEORIES.

Kahneman argued that a capacity theory assumes that there is a general limit on a person's capacity to perform mental work. A person has considerable control over how this limited capacity can be allocated to different activities. Interference occurs when the demands of two or more activities exceed available capacity.

In general, it is a well-documented fact that information overload, and also job and role overload, can overtax employee capacities and cause mental fatigue. All of these are well-researched causal factors in conditions of job fatigue, underachievement and work stress. The effect of attention on the workplace is further emphasised because employees will have different capacities for paying attention for shorter or longer periods. They may differ in their sensory abilities and their thresholds to observe stimuli and to distinguish between stimuli (for example, sound, smell, touch and visual signs). It is important to provide for optimal conditions in the workplace and work design in order to accommodate most or specific employees and their attention capabilities.

2. Memory and forgetting

Memory refers to the storage of information from where it is continuously recalled on demand. Examples are performing daily activities because we automatically have the stored knowledge available or thinking about a specific event that happened ten years ago. Another important advantage of memory and recall of information is that it enables us to plan for the future.

Quinn explains that there are three stages or components in the memory process:

Sensory register Short-term memory Long-term memory

Each of these stages forms part of the memory process and the main difference between them is the duration of each. The sensory register is the first step in the memory process and lasts only a few milliseconds. The next stage is short-term retention or recall, and lasts only a few seconds. Long-term

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retention is the final stage in memory and can last a lifetime.

Memory may also involve forgetting information in short-term memory is lost rapidly unless it is preserved through practice, and hence the need for practice and refresher courses in training.

Sensory store receives information and stores it briefly in its original sensory form. The sensory store extends the amount of time that a person has to recognise a pattern. If a visual pattern is flashed on a screen for five milliseconds, the observer has more than five milliseconds to identify it if the visual information can be maintained briefly in the sensory store. The sensory store for vision lasts only approximately one quarter of a second, but this is much longer than the five milliseconds of exposure. The information in the sensory store is lost at the end of this time unless it can be identified during the pattern recognition stage. Most of the patterns that people encounter are familiar and when they recognise a familiar pattern, they use the information they stored previously in memory. If the pattern does not match the description of a familiar pattern, the observer may want to store the new description in memory if it is important.

The filter limits the amount of information that can be recognised at one time and the selection stage limits the amount of information that can be entered into memory. Memory consists of short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). STM is limited in both the amount of information or capacity that it can hold, and in the length of time or duration for which it can hold the information. LTM does not have this problem in that it has no limitation on the amount of information it can hold, and forgetting occurs very slowly if at all.,

One of the interesting claims about individual variation in memory is that it is attributable to practising memory. Some people are able to remember facts, episodes, dates, times, places and names much better, while others may be able to remember other types of information better. Finally Ericsson argues that most or all, variability in memory can be explained by differences in acquired memory skills. The way in which a person transfers information from the STM to the LTM is explained by the Atkinson-Shiffrin model. This model proposes that information in the STM is transferred to the LTM through certain processes that a person uses to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge:

Rehearsal (the repetition of information – aloud or silently – over and over until it is learnt) Coding, which is the attempt to place the information that should be remembered in the

context of additional, easily retrievable information, such as a mnemonic phrase or sentence (association of facts with visual images)

Imaging, which refers to creating visual images to remember verbal information

The individual differences in people's ability to recall past events or use their LTM are evident throughout life. Some people are simply more able to recall details and events than other people. DuBrin offers a number of concepts and techniques to preserve memory:

Use it or lose it: continuously learn new things and try to remember new information.

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Be well organised: by carefully organising your environment, you can counteract some memory loss.

Regular exercise: this not only stimulates muscle and physical development, but also mental ability.

Memory improvement techniques: making visual associations between new ideas and familiar objects, and rehearsing new material.

Evidence shows that a major determinant of individual differences in memory is how effectively people can group material into familiar chunks.

3. Learning

Learning is indicative of the relatively permanent changes that take place in an individual as a result of specific experiences. It does not include the effect of bodily injuries, fatigue, ageing, adaptability and the normal process of maturing.

Individual differences influence learning. The term ``dynamic learner'' conjures up images of an active, continuously productive person who develops over time in knowledge, skill and motivation with the goal of accomplishing some set of desired learning outcomes.

Adult learners are often more ready and willing to learn, may have higher self-esteem and will be more skilled at integrating information. However, they may also be more critical. Adult learners should be given more say in the planning and assessment of learning.

It is important to set realistic boundaries for the individual learning process and that effective learning environments should be created. There is a continuum in that no learner is completely adaptable to whatever learning situation presents itself, nor can a particular learning situation be optimally suitable to all learners.

There is evidence to support a positive relationship between learner motivation and scores on learning measures.

Individuals with an internal locus of control had higher motivation to learn than those with an external locus of control.

Individuals with high levels of trait anxiety tended to be less motivated to learn than individuals with lower levels of trait anxiety.

An individual's level of conscientiousness was also found to be indirectly related to the motivation to learn through its effect on self-efficacy beliefs with regard to pre-training.

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These meta-analytical findings support the notion that personality traits such as conscientiousness can affect learning outcomes through their influence on motivation to learn.

Differences between introverts and extroverts in learning performance.

Introverts may value rewards less compared to extroverts whose performance will be more enhanced by rewards.

The work performance of introverts will become more easily impaired than that of extroverts. Distraction will influence the learning of introverts more than that of extroverts. Introverts will be less effective than extroverts in situations where learning is tested by

responses from participants. Introverts usually take longer to remember information from long-term memory storage. Introverts will be more critical of how they respond when assessed than extroverts. Introverts have less effective memory or retention in short-term intervals, but do better than

extroverts during long-term retention intervals.

There are different learning styles along two dimensions on a bipolar cognitive growth model which reflect the cognitive and affective processes people use to obtain and analyse information in problem-solving. The two dimensions are active-reflective learning and abstract-concrete learning. Thus, to obtain second dimension information, individuals' learning style may range from dealing with concrete or tangible objects to dealing with abstract or theoretical concepts. According to the first dimension, individuals' processing of information may range from direct participation to detached observation.

Kolb also describes a four-stage cycle in the learning process and each stage requires different abilities. 1. Firstly the learner will obtain concrete experience. 2. He will then, use reflective observation, followed by abstract conceptualisation or theory

building.3. Lastly the acquired concepts will be tested through a process of experimentation. 4. The learning process may also yield its own concrete experiences and the cycle will be

repeated, if necessary.

Using the four dimensions, Kolb distinguishes between four types of learners – which implies that these types of learners will use or combine the gathering and processing of information differently.

Diverges mostly use reflection on different experiences and will use various approaches. Their strengths are that they are imaginative and understand people; however, they are often poor decision makers or have problems selecting between many alternatives.

Assimilators will develop a theoretical framework from their reflection. Their strengths include their ability to create or build theory through inductive reasoning; however, they are poor in applying ideas.

Convergers would like to test theory in practice. They are strong deductive thinkers, which

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explains why they are good at applying ideas. However, they tend to be rather unemotional and may not be good at working with people.

Accommodators will use the results of the testing phase in learning as feedback for new learning. These types of learners will be willing to take risks and will try new things in different situations.

Individual differences in learning can be related to one another by tailoring a set of instructional goals, methods and materials to individuals or to homogeneous groups according to their learning aptitudes.

o Learners with high cognitive ability tend to achieve better in low structure environments o Learners with low cognitive ability tend to perform better in high structure learning

environments. Regarding personality constructs, learners who are low in anxiety tend to perform better with heuristic or well-known instruction than with algorithmic instruction, which is more abstract.

o Regarding the teaching environment, extrovert and moderately anxious learners seem to benefit most in cooperative situations, in contrast to competitive learning situations.

4. Decision-making

Decision-making is the process of identifying a problem, generating and evaluating alternatives and choosing, implementing and following up on an alternative as the solution. People's ability to think or reason and to put their thinking in language are distinguishable hallmarks of the human mind. Both skills precede and accompany decision-making.

Decisions can be difficult because alternatives usually have many attributes. If one of the alternatives is not very attractive, the decision maker has to decide whether to eliminate that alternative or to continue considering it because its other attributes may be very attractive.

The following models are often used in decision-making and people may differ in the approach they follow.

Compensatory models

An additive model basically means that someone, in making a decision about something, follows a strategy that adds up attribute values in order to assign a score to each alternative. In making a decision you can therefore allocate a mark on, for example, a fivepoint scale (1 to 5) to the different attributes of two or more alternatives. In this way the alternatives can be appraised based on their total positive and negative values. Here is an example that you can think about.

The additive-difference model is basically the same as the additive model, but the attributes are considered individually and the differences between them are considered consciously in order to make a decision.

Non-compensatory models

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Elimination by aspects assumes that the elimination is based on, sequential evaluation of the attributes of alternatives.

This model proposes that attributes differ in importance for individuals and that the probability of selecting an attribute for evaluation depends on its importance. An attribute which is very important has a high probability of being selected early in the sequence of comparing the attributes of alternatives.

The conjunctive model (also referred to as the search satisfying model) is a variation of the elimination by aspects model and requires all the attributes of an alternative to satisfy minimum criteria before an alternative can be selected. It differs from the elimination by aspects model in that people finish evaluating one alternative before considering another and the first alternative that satisfies all the minimum criteria is selected.

Research on the selection of decision-making strategies shows that the choice of a strategy depends mainly on the characteristics of the decision-making task at hand. Most people will likely use a non-compensatory strategy (such as elimination by aspects) when there are many alternatives, and a compensatory strategy (such as the additive model) when there are few alternatives.

When considering the role of individual differences in decision-making, the literature on decision-making presents a complicated picture of the processes that happy and unhappy individuals will likely use. Some research indicates that for jobs that require vigilance, caution and careful consideration of all information, happy individuals may be less productive than less happy workers. However, if there is freedom to experiment, the positive affectivity of happy employees may encourage coming up with and trying out new ideas and thinking about novel solutions.

Having two incompatible experiences at the same time is inherently uncomfortable – an experience psychologists call ``cognitive dissonance'' It is natural for people to want to reduce dissonance and replace it with consonance (to have balance and to feel in control).

Well-known techniques to eradicate the uncertainty and anxiety associated with cognitive dissonance include using psychological defence mechanisms such as projection, rationalisation, denial, minimising and intellectualisation. Obviously these techniques are nothing less than the manipulation of our, own thinking, which will not bring balance for long.Another technique, in the face of uncertainty due to lack of knowledge on a topic, is to either just make arbitrary decisions or to misinterpret certain information and then to stick to those decisions. People will tend to seek new information on the troublesome issue or information or they will seek out people who support their own ideas, which may alleviate the cognitive discomfort. Factors that may also influence how people cope with cognitive dissonance are their coping resources and the control they have to facilitate change in the dissonant situation.

Heuristics is a set of practical rules or strategies that are ``logical'' and likely to produce the correct solution to a problem. When we are faced with complicated decision-making, we simplify the task by

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relying on heuristics (decision-making strategies that are available and known to provide the desired outcomes). In many cases these ``short cuts'' yield very close approximations to the optimal answer; however, they may lead to predictable biases and inconsistencies. The following three principles apply to heuristics:

The availability heuristic refers to people's tendency to base their judgement on information or techniques that are readily available, even though they might not be accurate.

The representativeness heuristic refers to people's tendency to perceive other people and information in stereotypical ways if they appear to be representatives of the category to which they belong.

When people make estimates, they often start by guessing a first approximation (an anchor) and then make adjustments to it on the basis of additional information. This strategy is called the anchoring and adjustment heuristic.

5. Problem-solving, thinking and reasoning

Problem-solving, thinking and reasoning are intertwined in that modes of thinking (for example, inductive and deductive reasoning) are used to analyse and integrate data to find a solution to a problem.

5.1 Problem-solving

The typical problem-solving sequence is: you define the problem, plan a strategy for solving it, carry out the strategy and evaluate the effectiveness of your solution.

Solutions to problems can be found by chance, by trial and error, or mechanically. However, problem-solving can also be a reactive thinking process. The stages in creative problem-solving or creative acts are usually as follows:

Preparation or recognition: During this stage you become aware that you have a creative idea as a solution to a problem, and start collecting and processing information to solve the problem. You try to make sense of the problem and may try to solve it a few times.

Incubation: This takes place when you put the idea or problem aside because at first you did not succeed in solving it. You no longer concentrate on the problem, but subconsciously your mind may still be occupied with it.

Illumination: You sometimes get the solution to the problem with a sudden burst of insight called the `` Aha experience''.

Verification: Sometimes these `` Aha experiences'' turn out not to be the correct solution. You therefore have to verify the information to determine whether it is an appropriate solution or you put the solution to the test.

Trial and error strategies are relatively inefficient random or chance searches for solutions. When trial and error searches become systematic rather than random, the strategy is called an algorithm. An algorithm is a method that always produces a solution to a problem, for example following a fixed

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method or specific steps in holding a meeting will produce a solution.

Although algorithms are useful, people tend to use heuristics more when trying to solve problems. Heuristics are selective searches that examine only those options that will most likely produce a solution. Heuristics, unlike algorithms, do not guarantee a solution but they do make a solution very likely. Two types of heuristics are means-end analysis and analogies.

In means-end analysis, the problem-solver divides the problem into a number of smaller problems (or tasks). You first determine what `ends'' you want to achieve and then what `means'' you will use to achieve the ends.

In an analogy, we use a solution to an earlier problem to help solve a new one. Analogy usually produces a correct solution.

There are a variety of personality factors or individual differences that can influence the ability to identify problems, make decisions and solve problems.

An important problem is that people rigidly persist with previous solutions, which will inhibit new ideas.

Perfectionism, too, is another key personality factor that can inhibit the problem-solving process.

The perfectionist may keep on analysing a problem to try and find the perfect solution, whereas he or she is really only procrastinating.

Personal caution, uncertainty or fear of making decisions may also prevent people from progressing effectively in thinking, decision-making and problem-solving.

5.2 Logical thinking and reasoning

Formal reasoning is thinking in certain ways for the purpose of making decisions to solve problems, to evaluate something or to draw conclusions. We can say that in formal reasoning scientific and empirical thinking is used. In other words, all the required information is supplied, the problem that should be solved is specified, the correct solution is verifiable, and the reasoning follows a specific and systematic sequence or method. In contrast to formal reasoning, everyday reasoning involves the kind of thinking we do in our daily lives to plan, make commitments, evaluate and argue. In this type of reasoning, not all premises are objective or clear and others may not be given at all. The problems may have several possible answers which may vary in quality or effectiveness, and they may also relate to other issues and questions of daily life. Everyday reasoning, then, is far more complex and far less definitive than formal reasoning.

Different types of problems demand different problem-solving and decision-making skills.Logical thinking is not a scientific method in itself, but logic should be part of all scientific thinking and reasoning. It allows for alternatives to be logically derived and for the systematic and realistic interpretation of information related to the alternatives for decision-making and problem-solving.

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Deduction and induction are modes of logical thinking and reasoning.

Deduction or syllogistic reasoning involves arriving at a specific conclusion from two general principles or premises, followed by a third statement which is the logical deduction made from the first two statements. For example: fair salaries promote happiness at work, therefore the organisation pays high salaries, therefore employees are satisfied with the workplace (deductive statement). Deductive thinking applies mostly when alternatives are generated.

Induction is a process of deducing general rules from specific principles (the latter being accepted as existing truths). For example: employees are happy because the organisation pays high wages, therefore wages affect happiness at work. Inductive reasoning usually applies when several alternatives are assessed, because we generalise from specific information.

Both deductive and inductive reasoning may still produce unrealistic or unreasonable conclusions, especially if it is biased by hidden agendas, prejudices, opinions and emotions. For deduction and induction to be accurate, the informative statements or data should be correct.

Direct and indirect thinking

o Direct thinking processes are goal-oriented and rational. An individual should find a problem-solving sequence that leads to achievement of the goal in the shortest time and as directly as possible. In contrast to this, undirected thinking refers to unorganized thinking processes without concern for any goal or purpose.

o Indirect thinking may play a role in creative thinking when initially any idea is considered and may be helpful in solving poorly defined problems.

In creative thinking, Furnham distinguishes between lateral and vertical thinking: o Lateral refers to thinking that is innovative, risky and out of the ordinary, o Vertical refers to thinking that is rigid, selective and only prepared to consider what is known.

Another distinction in thinking that is used in assessing creativity is referred to as convergent and divergent thinking.

o Convergent thinking (applying existing knowledge and rules of logic to narrow down the range of potential solutions and focusing on a single correct answer) may be much like deductive reasoning. Although such thinking is productive in many situations, it does not appear to foster true creativity.

o In contrast, divergent thinking moves outward from conventional knowledge into unexplored paths and unconventional solutions.

5.3 Creative thinking

Creativity is the ability to perceive original, new and significant relationships in existing ideas and phenomena in order to transform them into useful and functional methods and techniques for

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problem-solving. It involves finding a solution to an open-ended task in a way that is both unusual and useful. Creative thinking leads not only to new ideas, knowledge and products, but also to new challenges.

Psychologists find it difficult to agree on exactly what creativity is. It is, however, linked with intelligence, personality and emotional factors, and also to background and environmental factors, which may inhibit or promote creativity. Although high levels of intelligence may play a role, creativity may rather be related to the total cognitive style of a person – a combination of how he or she has learned to be intellectually effective in his or her environment and how he or she uses special intellectual abilities. Although creativity is frequently associated with natural science and art, it can be found in any field and in all walks of life.

Five personality attributes the so-called big five dimensions of creativity:

Expertise – a well-developed base of relevant knowledge Imaginative thinking – especially to see things in new ways Venturesomeness – approach readiness to take risks and to tolerate ambiguity Intrinsic motivation – high levels of personal interest, self-propelling, enjoyment and

satisfaction, persistence after failure Creative environment – people and environments which support and create stimulation and

creative efforts

Other frequently observed factors and differences, including personality and cognitive factors, amongst and between people with regard to creativity are the following:

Creativity coincides with high intelligence more often than with low intelligence. Creative people are unconventional in their occupational aspirations (for example, choice of

career), while highly intelligent people without creativity tend to prefer conventional occupations and avoid insecurity and risk.

Creative workers are intensely preoccupied with their field of creative expression or discovery. As a consequence, they often pursue their creative interests consistently without becoming bored or restless.

Creative people are frequently non-conformists who place a high value on their own independence or autonomy and originality; in fact, they are often aware of their own impulses and the irrational in themselves.

Creative people often do not have a strong need to gain approval from the group and may be more introverted than the average person.

They have a well-developed sense of humour, which is often manifested in witty comments, practical jokes and other forms of playfulness.

Creative people tend to have a positive self-image. They are self-sufficient, resourceful and assertive, but are not blindly self-confident.

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Because they are reasonably self-confident, creative people are able to cope with criticism of their ideas.

They have the ability to tolerate isolation. Isolation is useful because it helps a person to be receptive to ideas. Working alone also helps creative people avoid the distraction of talking to others.

Creativity however, is often facilitated by interaction with, others. Creative people often have a T Type personality meaning that their thrill-seeking tendencies often lead to outstanding creativity and finding imaginative solutions to problems.

Creative people are persistent, which is important because finding creative solutions to problems is hard work and requires intense concentration.

They are resistant to frustration in the sense that they have a high tolerance for ambiguity and chaos.

Creative people in both the sciences and the arts are more independent, intellectually more self-sufficient and more radical than the average norm.

In conclusion, thinking and reasoning processes may also have barriers, which are mostly related to personal factors and individual differences. Some of these barriers are the following:

Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to want to have personal preferences or ideas accepted.

Oversight bias includes overlooking possible errors or flaws in information or decisions. The hindsight effect refers to the fact that people often want to rectify decisions when it is too

late. There may be many other factors influencing thinking and problem-solving. For example, the

effectiveness of thinking and reasoning which go into problem-solving processes will only be as good as the information obtained. In this regard you should be aware of many perceptual and observation errors which can contribute to ineffective decision-making outcomes. Some of these are the halo effect, selectivity, stereotypes, personal preferences, bias, projections, prejudices and discrimination.

Some evidence suggests that some creative thinkers and prominent achievers may have a background of inferiority and even symptoms of psychological disorders, which may explain occasional erratic and radical behaviours.

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Differentiate between the concepts of cognitive ability, intelligence, aptitude and cognitive style. 15

1. INTELLIGENCE

According to the more scientific approaches, general intelligence is seen as the capacity to acquire and apply knowledge (including learning and solving problems) and for adapting to one's environment. Intelligence is further regarded as a multiple or complex concept involving not only mental or cognitive processes, but also non-cognitive factors like personality emotions and motivation. According to Wechsler, intelligence is the global or aggregate ability of people to act purposefully to think rationally and to adapt and cope efficiently in their environments.

In the field of intelligence measurement using psychometric tests is mostly done according to the so-called structural or factorial approaches to intelligence. In such measurements the general view of intelligence finds application in scores which reflect a total IQ score, that is a score which reflects various aspects or the g-factor in intelligence that was postulated long ago by Spearman. The measurement of specific aspects of intelligence (or the s-factors) is reflected in the measurement of aptitudes. In some of these instances specific s-factors or abilities are said to combine to form group aptitude factors, for example verbal ability consists of various verbal sub-factors like verbal comprehension, vocabulary spelling and word fluency, Vernon also refers to group ability factors (such as verbal-educational and practical-mechanical abilities) that are similar to interpretation of intelligence test scores along the lines of being more verbally or more practically oriented.

The view of Cattell of crystallised intelligence (as the acquired, learned or accumulated knowledge and vocabulary of an individual) and fluid intelligence (the speed and accuracy of abstract reasoning, especially for novel problems) reflects a type of general or group factors intelligence in people.

Carroll's approach, based on a great deal of factor-analytical research, indicates that human intelligence consists of many broad or general factors, more specific general or group factors and very specific types of abilities, according to which work performance can be compared. For example, the broad abilities in Carroll's classification are fluid intelligence, crystallised intelligence, general memory ability broad visual perception, broad auditory, perception, broad retrieval ability and broad cognitive speediness. From each of these broad factors, more specific abilities can be distinguished.

All these approaches and classifications indicate that intelligence is complex and consists of many components. G-factors, s-factors and group factors make up intelligence, and therefore the requirements in most intellectual tasks.

Howard Gardner developed a theory of multiple-intelligence and argues that individuals possess the following eight, relatively independent, types of intelligence in varying degrees.

Linguistic intelligence enables people to communicate through language. Logical-mathematical intelligence enables individuals to see relationships between objects

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and solve problems (as in calculus and statistics). Musical intelligence gives people the capacity to create and understand meanings made from

sound. Spatial intelligence enables people to perceive and manipulate images in the brain, and to

recreate them from memory as in graphic design., Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence enables people to use their body and perceptual and motor

systems to dance and play sports. Intrapersonal intelligence enables people to distinguish between their own feelings and

acquire accurate self-knowledge. Interpersonal intelligence makes it possible for individuals to recognise and distinguish

between the feelings, motives and intentions of others. Naturalist intelligence enables individuals to differentiate between, classify and use various

features of the physical external environment.

The multiple intelligence theory also seems to provide an explanation of why certain people are better at certain intellectual tasks than other tasks or than other people.

Intelligence is also referred to as being inherited or biological, which explains the wide variety of intelligence between individuals. One such approach is that intellectual behaviours, if stimulated by for example, tasks or stimuli in intelligence tests, are caused by electrical activity or the presence of certain nutrients in the brain.

Hebb differentiates between:o intelligence A as innate potential because of the type of brain and neural metabolism a person

is born with, o type B intelligence as developed intelligence or the average level of performance of the adult

person, ando Intelligence C as represented by an IQ score as measured on an intelligence test.

Proximal development in intelligence is the underlying capacity which can be measured by a process of dynamic intelligence assessment (that is, getting answers to problems or questions from a child or adult by giving graded feedback, but without providing the answers). The person with the most underlying potential (the difference between innate and acquired intelligence) will achieve best in dynamic assessment.

Other theorists explain intelligence on the, basis of intellectual thoughts and actions situated in different cortical areas of the brain, which together are responsible for a person's integrated intellectual functioning. These ideas are verified by research and clinical knowledge that brain damage to specific areas of the brain causes impairment of physical functions, for example speech impairment (aphasia) or changes in psychological behaviour (like emotional expression). Some of these theorists, however, also believe that certain parts of the brain function rather independently and are responsible for certain functions (for example, visual and spatial functions in the right hemisphere, and linguistic functions in the left hemisphere). Some sections of the brain may even rationalise seemingly senseless

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and bizarre behaviour by individuals to ensure that it manifests mostly in an acceptable manner.

If all is well, these types of intelligence provide us with a global capacity to function effectively in various personal, environmental and work demands.

Most development theories, accept the influence of genetic and learning on intelligence. Differences in intelligence between individuals will occur, depending on the type and quality of influences during maturation and personality development and on how each individual has learned to adapt to and in various environments.

Systems’ thinking on intelligence stresses the integrative nature of intelligence. Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence explains intelligence in terms of how all cognitive functions are related to a person's internal world, a person's external world and a person's experiences – the latter mediates between the internal and external worlds. His sub-theories explain these three broad dimensions of intelligence. According to Sternberg, the most intelligent people are those who have succeeded in knowing and using their intellectual strengths, and have compensated for their intellectual weaknesses.

Process theories explain which cognitive processes a person uses when executing intellectual tasks. Examples are speed or reaction time, retention, recognition, planning, analysis, induction, deduction and other cognitive processes in detecting and processing information in tasks that require using one or more of the senses.

2. APTITUDES

An aptitude can be defined as knowledge, skills and possible innate potential developed through education and experience. You may be reminded of well-known aptitude classifications, for example Thurstone's seven primary or group factors which he regards as distinct and special abilities, but which also imply the existence of a general or g-factor because of the interrelationship between these factors. For purposes of psychometric assessment Thurstone's primary mental abilities are used in the construction of many aptitude tests and jobs, and are analysed for the presence of these aptitudes in the requirements for successful job execution.

Spatial visualisation (S) means the ability to identify proportions in shapes, and to form and handle visual-spatial images.

Numerical ability (N) refers to the operation of numerical functions. Perceptual speed (P) refers to the ability to identify and perceive visual detail rapidly and

accurately. Verbal comprehension (V) involves the ability to understand spoken and written language

(words and sentences) in context.

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Word fluency (W) is the ability to use language and words rapidly and flexibly (in speech and writing).

Memory (M) is the ability to store and productively retrieve information, for example words, figures and symbols.

Reasoning (R) refers to the ability to think logically and to solve problems through, planning and the use of principles.

Thurstone established by means of factor analysis that certain test items. Thus vocabulary, word fluency spelling, reading comprehension, etc. may be interrelated to form the factor verbal ability, which Thurstone recognises as a group factor and which may be more or less similar to the idea of the g-factor.

3. COGNITIVE STYLES

Cognitive styles refer to thinking styles influenced by personality, which may impact on intellectual and other behaviour. Cognitive styles are used to describe a more general thinking style for example, to think more globally or in a gestalt manner about information, or to be more detail oriented. Other bipolar distinctions in the cognitive aspects of personality may be found in concepts like field dependence versus field independence, and internal and external locus of control.

A well-known cognitive style classification is the psychological types based on Jung's psycho-analytical theory of personality and as measured by for example, the Myers Briggs type indicator Jung described two ways of perceiving (sensing versus intuition), of judging or appraising (thinking versus feeling), of dealing with self and others (introversion versus extroversion) and of dealing with the external world (judgement versus perception). From these four bipolar dimensions, 16 cognitive style types are determined according to the combination of test scores.

Gregorc, however, suggests only two bipolar types based on Jung's theory:o A concrete versus an abstract, and o a sequential versus a random cognitive style.

Similarly well-known are Holland's classification of six personality and associated job environment types to understand people's choices of jobs. This is also viewed as having a cognitive component because people should analyse data, select alternatives and make choices.

More specific cognitive styles are suggested in concepts like the following:

Authoritarianism, which is characterised by intolerance, rigidity and ambiguity. Dogmatism, which is recognised by authoritarian and intolerant attitudes, and rigid ideas and

ways of doing things. Cognitive differentiation, which includes two aspects (field dependence and field

independence) that explain the degree to which a person can work without or with the structure or clues of the visual field – an aspect deemed important in the selection of aeroplane

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pilots. A reflective-impulsive cognitive style, which characterises a person who is thoughtful and

carefully considers all aspects before acting. The impulsive person shows little impulse control and often acts before having considered the consequences.

Focusing-scanning is a style in which a person applying focusing uses all available information to come to conclusions of forms (a gestalt picture) before acting, while a person applying scanning only uses certain, often incomplete, information to draw conclusions. Sometimes these conclusions are premature and inaccurate, and information and decisions may have to be revised. The focusing type may take too long to act.

Proactive-reactive may be a learnt way to think and act. Proactive people will look ahead and project possible events to plan action or make a decision. Reactive people often wait until events happen before they take action.

Optimism-pessimism is a style in which an optimist has an internal disposition to act in a positive manner, showing positive affective states and seeing challenges through; while the pessimist may have negative affectivity and often seems unresourceful and, not ready to face challenges.

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Write down ten items which you think you can use to assess creative thinking. 15

Other frequently observed factors and differences, including personality and cognitive factors, amongst and between people with regard to creativity are the following:

Creativity coincides with high intelligence more often than with low intelligence. They are unconventional in their occupational aspirations (for example, choice of career), while

highly intelligent people without creativity tend to prefer conventional occupations and avoid insecurity and risk.

Creative workers are intensely preoccupied with (single-minded about) their field of creative expression or discovery As a consequence, they often pursue their creative. interests consistently without becoming bored or restless.

They are frequently non-conformists who place a high value on their own independence or autonomy and originality; in fact, they are often aware of their own impulses and the irrational in themselves.

They often do not have a strong need to gain approval from the group and may be more introverted than the average person.

They have a well-developed sense of humour, which is often manifested in witty comments, practical jokes and other forms of playfulness.

They tend to have a positive self-image. They are self-sufficient, resourceful and assertive, but are not blindly self-confident.

Because they are reasonably self-confident, they are able to cope with criticism of their ideas. They have the ability to tolerate isolation. Isolation is useful because it helps a person to be

receptive to ideas. Working alone also helps creative people avoid the distraction of talking to others. Creativity however, is often facilitated by interaction with, others. They often have a T Type personality meaning that their thrill-seeking tendencies often lead to outstanding creativity and finding imaginative solutions to problems.

They are persistent, which is important because finding creative solutions to problems is hard work and requires intense concentration.

They are resistant to frustration in the sense that they have a high tolerance for ambiguity and chaos.

They are more independent in both the sciences and the arts, intellectually more self-sufficient and more radical than the average norm.

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Citing research findings, evaluate the relationship between cognitive individual difference factors and work performance. 15

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR, OTHER FACTORS AND WORK PERFORMANCE

The predictive efficiency of ability personality measures, such as measures of intelligence and various aptitude measures, to predict effective work performance in a wide range of jobs and training success has long been accepted. In contrast to non-cognitive personality variables which are often more diffuse and inconsistent, cognitive abilities are more stable individual differences which are correlated for their relationship to job performance criteria or other goal-directed activities. Each employee has the ability to cognitively manipulate information or apply job technologies to do, learn, acquire or develop some goal-directed tasks or activities. The differences between employees can then be detected in measures like the success, ease, correctness or accuracy progress and speed, of executing these tasks. Scores on almost any valid and reliable measure that requires mental processes, manipulation and recall of information (for example, on a test) should provide good to strong correlations with other valid and reliable measures involving cognitive processes. The following are some summarising statements about the nature of the research evidence on the predictive value of ability factors for work performance:

A general finding is that measures of differences in general cognitive ability (for example, intelligence) or measures which contain a large g-factor are the best predictors of work performance, learning or training success and skill acquisition. A problem in the work context is that researchers often only consider the work-relatedness of general cognitive ability, without really knowing the role of specific factors.

Although specific ability measures separately (s-factors) also correlate positively with work performance criteria, their incremental contribution to the significant correlations of g-factor measures are less impressive.

Another significant finding about the cognitive ability-performance relationship research is that the conceptualisation and measurement of performance criteria are much less advanced than cognitive ability constructs. A controversy is exactly how the g-factor and s-factors are determined from research data.

The relationship between cognitive ability factors and work performance is also influenced by many other moderator factors, like personality biodata, motivation, and, cultural and situational factors.

Cognitive ability factors can serve as the influencing or moderator variable in the relationship between work performance and other independent variables, such as in motivation where ability levels may influence goal-setting behaviour in employees.

Intelligence is a strong predictor of academic success, but many other factors (such as motivation, talent, opportunities and non-study activities) will influence this relationship.

Cognitive ability tests are not strong predictors of success in jobs such as art, music, writing, drama, science and leadership, where specific ability tests for creativity will be better predictors.

Personal history data or biodata may in many cases be a better predictor of work success than

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cognitive ability measures. Cognitive ability factors, according to a body of research findings, have strong relationships with

work-related performance criteria and are arguably the best measures to use in personnel selection.

The following are a few examples of the work-relatedness of cognitive ability factors. In Ghiselli's impressive analysis of more than 10 000 studies executed over 45 years, he found that intelligence provided an average correlation of 0,42 for all jobs with training success and 0,23 for professional success. Some specific ability tests such as mechanical ability and perceptual speed also had strong correlations. All these correlations, and others which indicated negative correlations, are seen as insufficient to predict job success. However, the problem of invalid job performance criteria was a confounding factor in this research, as was the question of the influence of which ability factors predict which specific work performance criteria, and also the influence of other personality and situational factors.

Cook asserts that many criticisms against the use of ability measures to predict work performance are unnecessary. He argues that the results of many scientifically designed research projects are often considered not objectively, but according to personal preferences and political, emotional and ideological viewpoints. Cook's general assumption is that cognitive ability measures are valid across most types of jobs, situations and groups and in relation to most types of work performance criteria, and that the influence of moderator variables can be ignored.

The issue, however, of the possible negative discrimination and bias of cognitive ability measures across variables like age, gender and ethnicity (different cultural and race groups) still remains controversial.

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Outline strategies which you will use to facilitate more effective employee cognitive behavior. 25

IMPROVING COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR

A fact is that, owing to genetic influences, not all individuals have the same innate potential; however, for all individuals certain processes and changes due to natural maturation (for example, ageing, physical growth and neurological growth) will take place notwithstanding the type of environment and even setbacks like illness and deprivation. Intellectual development is an aspect of human behaviour that is co-determined by these natural growth processes. However, the quality of cognitive development will be determined by learning and environmental influences and opportunities.

Therefore, in a sense any education, training and experience can be aimed at improving innate cognitive potential, establishing new cognitive skills and improving existing acquired skills (if the participants are also in an environment that facilitates intellectual growth). During childhood, and as preparation for adult roles, environmental influences (like the type of parenting and teaching approaches, and other educational opportunities) are widely recognised. There are many examples of the harmful effects of educational and social deprivation during childhood, while many examples also illustrate how cognitive and social deprivation can be positively transformed by providing positive and stimulating environments.

At school level, apart from the common school tuition, many programmes are aimed at developing intellectual skills (in areas like abstract and creative thinking, learning or studying methods and improving memory and recall, often also using artificial intelligence stimulation or computer-based programs).

Similar strategies can and are used at adult level to develop innate potential, establish new and improved cognitive skills and enable employees to use their cognitive skills to better effect. Hence the saying ``work smarter, not harder!''. To improve creativity in employees, Furnham suggests training initiatives which promote lateral thinking to present public, objective critique or play devil's advocate, and implementing an expert system of people together with artificial intelligence to encourage new ideas, and using creative group problem-solving techniques. In this regard, too, training employees to have more controlled emotions will help them be more emotionally intelligent in their work behaviours.

Many other training programmes (for example, managerial programmes that address managerial skills) can also improve thinking skills (for example, entrepreneurship, planning, organising, analysing, and problem-solving and decision-making strategies)

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