Rubenstein Reading Check

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC CONCEPTSKey Issue 1 - How do geographers describe where things are?

1. Geography invented by Eratosthenes (geo “Earth” and graphy “to write”)

2. Map - two dimensional or flat scale model (a part) of Earth.

3. Cartography - mapmaking, early way was a “stick” chart

a. Reference tool - finding short distance

b. Communication tool - depicting human activity

4. Difference between Eratosthenes (194 BCE world of the Mediterranean) and Ortelius (1571 - size of North America and Antarctica) maps - size of the known world

5. Age of Exploration and Discovery revived mapmaking as a reference tool

6. Mapping showed how the inequality of destruction (mostly the poor) during Hurricane Katrina

7. Map scale - amount of area (ratio) covered on a map

8. Projection of world map leads to distortion

a. Mercator Map - little shape distortion, relative size highly distorted at the poles (see Greenland)

b. Goode Homolosine Projection - multiple interruptions. Its equal-area property makes it useful for presenting spatial distribution of phenomena.

c. Robinson Map - useful for displaying information across oceans, but land areas are shown smaller

9. Meridians/longitude - running north to south, measuring west and east

a. Prime Meridian - 0°

b. International Dateline - 180°

10. Parallels/latitude - running west to east, measuring north and south

a. Equator - 0°

11. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Universal Time (UT) splits time 360° means 15° = one time zone

12. Geographic information science (GIScience) - uses satellites and other electronic information to create more accurate maps

13. Remote sensing - way to scan Earth’s surface

14. Global Positioning System (GPS) - way to determine precise location

15. Geographic Information System (GIS) - layer maps that determine pieces human and environmental information. (ex. city location + road map + landforms = best way to get to a place)

Key Issue 2 - Why each point on Earth unique?1. Place - specific point on Earth distinguished by particular characteristics

a. Location - position on Earth’s surface, also called a toponym

b. Site - physical characteristics of a place (climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation)

c. Situation - location relative to other places

2. Region - one or more distinct characteristics

a. Cultural landscape - unified characteristic

b. Uniform region - area where everyone shares in common distinct characteristics

c. Functional or nodal region - focal point people are near

d. Vernacular or perceptual region - place a part of people’s cultural identity

3. Areas are distinct because of what is called culture

a. What we care about?

b. What we take care of?

Key Issue 3 - Why are different places similar?1. Globalization - the process of something becoming worldwide

2. Housing bubble - rapid increase of housing value followed by sharp decline.

a. Led to decline of house’s value, people going bankrupt, and led an economic crisis

3. Transnational corporations conduct research, operate factories, and sell products in many countries, not just where they are headquartered.

4. Space - physical gap between two objects

5. Distribution - arrangement of features in space

a. Density - frequency something occurs in space

b. Concentration - extent of a feature’s spread over space

i. How did baseball team location show a change in the distribution of people? Spread out

c. Pattern - geometric arrangement (cities set up like squares or rectangular grids)

i. Difference for boys (little league) and girls (ballet), ethnicities, and sexuality

ii. Traditional roles of men, women, or ethnicity

6. Poststructuralist geography - understanding multiple perspectives regarding space

7. Diffusion - process of spreading away for the hearth (original point)

a. Relocation - spread of an idea through physical movement bring about the movement of their culture (language, religion, ethnicity)

b. Expansion - spread of an idea in an addictive process

i. Hierarchical - spread of an idea from a person (people)

Example: political ideas, popular music

ii. Contagious - rapid, widespread diffusion (disease)

iii. Stimulus - spread of an underlying principle (think Apple feature adopted by competitors

8. Gravity Model

a. Distance decay - contact diminishes with increasing distance

9. Space-time compression - time it takes for something to read another place

10. Network - chain of communication

11. Electronics have played a role in removing “unequal access”

12. Uneven development - increasing gap in economic condition

13. Core v Periphery (outer edge) in relationship to certain characteristics (wealth, electricity, etc)

Key Issue 4 - Why are some human actions not sustainable?1. Resource - useful substance in the environment

a. Renewable - produced more rapidly

i. Destroy air, water, and soil

b. Non-renewable - slowly produced in nature

i. Deplete petroleum, natural gas, and coal

2. Sustainability - ensure resource availability long term

a. Environmental - use and management of natural resources

b. Economic - properly exchanging resources in the market place

c. Social - Need for shelter, food, and clothing to survive. These require resources, but can be sustained with understanding the value of them

d. CRITICS - too late to discuss sustainability

3. Biotic system - living organisms (4 types)

a. Biosphere - all living organisms on Earth

4. Abiotic system - non living matter (4 types)

a. Atmosphere - thin layer of gas surrounding Earth

b. Hydrosphere - all of the water on or near Earth’s surface

c. Lithosphere - Earth’s crust and portion of upper mantle

5. Ecosystem - how living organisms interact with non-living matter (ecology - study of)

6. Two basic problems lead to destruction of soil are erosion and depletion of nutrients

7. Environmental determinism - physical environment caused social environment

8. Possibilism - physical environment may limit some human actions, but people can adjust

9. Polder - piece of land that is created by draining water from an area

CHAPTER 2 - POPULATIONKey Issue 1 - Where is the world’s population distributed?

1. Human population are distributed based off of concentration and density.

a. Top areas include: China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Russia, Nigeria, Brazil, Mexico, and the United States.

b. Four major clusters: East Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia

i. Largest in Western Hemisphere is northeast US and southeastern Canada

2. Statistical data is created from the census (US every 10 years)

a. Non participants cloud numbers

3. Ecumene - places of permanent human settlement

a. Too harsh - dry lands, wet lands, cold lands, and highlands

4. Arithmetic density - total number of objects in an area

5. Physiological density - number of people supported by one unit of arable land

6. Agricultural density - ratio of farmers to the amount of arable land

7. CHECK FOR ACCURACY ...Places of physiological and agricultural density: Egypt, Western Sahara, Oman, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, and Sri Lanka.

Key Issue 2 - Why is global population increasing?1. Population growth measured by

a. Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

b. Crude Death Rate (CDR)

c. Natural Increase Rate (NIR)

2. Doubling time - time it takes a population to double

3. Total Fertility Rate (TFR) - number of births in a society

4. Population Pyramids - bar graph that distributes population and can help determine future population

5. Dependency Ratio - ratio of people “in theory” unable to be apart of the workforce

6. Sex Ratio - male to female ratio out of 100

Key Issue 3 - Why does population growth vary among regions?1. Demographic Transition Model (DTM) - four stages that help determine population growth

a. Stage 1: low growth - high CBR and CDR

b. Stage 2: high growth - high CBR and low CDR

c. Stage 3: decreasing growth - lowering CBR and low CDR

d. Stage 4: low growth - low CBR and CDR

2. Zero Population Growth (ZPG) happens in stage 4

3. Population pyramid flattens as country moves through DTM (like Denmark, US).

4. Lowering birth rates through: education, healthcare, and contraception

a. Religion and political reason affect contraception use

5. Thomas Malthus - theories on overpopulation

a. Correct on food production

b. Less so population growth

6. Japan facing prospect of population decline (stage 5?)

7. China and India largest populations in the world (India #1 in 2030)

Key Issue 4 - Why do some regions face health threats?1. Epidemiological transition - focuses on health threats at each stage of the DTM

a. Stage 1 - Infectious and parasitic diseases are common (ex. Black Plague). Malthus called these “natural check.” Highly preventable with more medical knowledge.

b. Stage 2 - Lessening pandemic (widespread) diseases. Cholera common in urban areas until water and sewer system development.

i. Cholera has been seen recently in warmer climates of developing countries

c. Stage 3 - Degenerative diseases (human-created), increase in age based diseases as humans live longer (heart attack, cancer, etc)

d. Stage 4 - Delayed degenerative disease - happening later. Obesity increases with non-nutritious food and lazy behavior

e. Stage 5 - Infectious disease return - evolved over time, poverty leads to unsanitary conditions, and increased connection due to (relocation) diffusion.

2. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) - annual deaths of infants under the age of one compared to total live births.

3. Health care varies sharply from developed and developing countries.

CHAPTER 3 - MIGRATIONKey Issue 1 - Where are migrants distributed?

1. Ravenstein’s Law can be organized in three groups (distance, reasons, characteristics of migrants)

2. Demographic Transition Model and Migration Transition Model both deal with changes in how society reacts at different stages (CBR/CDR v Circulation/Emigrate/Immigrate)

3. Migration Transition Model - deals with how people move around as a result of their area’s social and economic changes.

4. Internal Migration deals with permanent moves in a country, while international migration deals with permanent moves to another country

5. Voluntary v Forced Migration - choice

6. Intraregional v Interregional - within one region or going another

7. Three largest migration flows

a. Asia to Europe

b. Asia to North America

c. Latin America to North America

8. 17th/18th Century US Immigration

a. First settlers voluntarily migrating to US mostly from Great Britain

b. African slaves forced to US

9. Last 19th/20th Century US Immigrationa. Economic push caused Irish and Germans (plus political unrest) to emigrate to US.b. Brief immigration break because of the US Civil Warc. Scandinavia reaches Industrial Revolution, massive population increase causes people to

leave10. Late 20th/21st Century US Immigration

a. Asian and Latin American ImmigrantsKey Issue 2 - Where do people migrate within a country?

1. Internal migration over international migration is seen as less disruptive

2. Principal Interregional migration rural to urban areas

3. Two main directions US people migrated to were south and west

a. Hugging the coast

b. Appalachians

c. Gold Rush

d. Great Plains

e. Southern opportunities

4. Why did interregional migration start slow in 2008? Economic recession

5. Negative pull factors in Northern Russia (Siberia)

a. Harsh climate

b. Remoteness

6. Native American Removal Act 1830 → Trail of Tears7. Industrial Revolution caused people to start moving to city

8. Intraregional migration is from cities to suburbs (counterurbanization)

Key Issue 3 - Why do people migrate?1. Push - move out v Pull - move in

2. Most people migrate for economic reasons

3. Top forced political migration

a. Refugees

b. Internally displaced person (IDP)

c. Asylum seeker

4. 2010 migration in Afghanistan and Iraq due to war

5. Economic migrants only admitted with special skills or a close relative, while refugees receive special priority

6. 1960s - 70s Guest worker program - temporary migration (circulation) to obtain jobs

7. China’s booming economy is attracting people from neighboring countries

8. Southwestern Asia’s oil is a major destination for people looking for work

9. Why are street cleaning and construction jobs attractive for immigrants to Europe and Southwestern Asia? More money than at home

Key Issue 4 - Why do migrants face obstacles?1. Intervening obstacles - something environmental or political that hinders migrations

2. Controlling migration through US Quota Laws 1921 & 1924

a. Three preferences for choosing from the overflow (family reunification, skilled workers, and diversity)

3. Brain drain - emigration by talented people

4. Chain migration - following in the footsteps of relatives or fellow nations

5. Ellis Island - immigrant processing area

6. Unauthorized immigrants - people lacking proper documents

7. Describe population characteristics of unauthorized immigrants to the United States

a. Most unauthorized immigrants in the US are from Mexico

b. Children born here are legal citizens

c. Labor force

d. Distributed mostly in California and Texas

8. Most immigrants to US are individual, males between 25-39

9. European migration easier now for fellow Europeans and harder now for non-Europeans

CHAPTER 4 - CULTUREKey Issue 1 (pg 115-121): Where are folk and popular leisure activities distributed?

1. Culture is defined as the body of material traits, customary beliefs, and social form that make up a

series of traditions for a group of people.

2. Two types of cultures are:

a. Daily necessities: food, clothing, and shelter, which can be unique for a specific culture.

b. Leisure activities: arts and recreation.

3. HABIT is a repetitive act that someone performs, always wearing jeans to class, while a CUSTOM

is also repetitive, but to the extent of a group. Black sweater CEO, while the custom is wear suit

and ties

4. Folk vs Popular Culture

Folk Culture THEME Popular Culture

Hearth is often anonymous from anonymous sources, at unknown dates...may have multiple

ORIGIN Traceable to a specific person or corporation

Slow, smaller scale, primarily through relocation (migration

DIFFUSION

Faster, usually through hierarchical, and extensively for hearths or nods of innovation with the help of communication

Local physical and cultural factors influence movement, can lead to isolation.

EX. Art in the Himalayas is very different for Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, and Animists based on their location

DISTRIBUTION Widely across many countries, little regard for physical factors

Tell a story or convey information about life-cycle events, environmental features.

EX. Vietnamese songs about agricultural technology

MUSIC Written for the purpose of being sold. Displays high level of technical skill

Sports like soccer (football) were originally folk. Some never catch on like cricket, wushu martial arts, and baseball

SPORTS

Sports become a part of popular culture as they migrate, spread, and interest rises

Olympic sports must be practiced in 75 countries (50 for women),

Key Issue 2 (pg 122-131): Where are folk and popular material culture distributed?1. Material culture includes three necessities of life - clothing, food, and shelter.

2. Controversy can arise with folk clothing being worn in countries dominated by popular culture and

visa versa. Belgium and France prohibit women from wearing burkas

Folk Culture THEME Popular CultureChosen because of environmental and cultural reasons.

CLOTHING Preference reflect occupation rather than environment. Lawyer is NYC and

Like the Dutch wearing wooden shoes to help with the wet climate

California probably dress similarlyIncome can affect who has the latest fashion

Embedded in the environment, certain food make you strong, while others weaken you.

Certain food are TABOO or forbidden

FOOD

Based on cultural valuesCoke v Pepsi vary country to countryRegion within US have different preferences

Developed over centuries of isolation.Pitched roof helpful in wet climates.Window locationSome have sacred walls or roomsDiffer based on region in US (New England, Mid-Atlantic, and Lower Chesapeake)

HOUSING Vary since the 1940s in US

3. Terroir - French for how a location’s physical features make food taste differently

4. Regional Differences:

NE: Dunkin Donuts Nevada: high alcohol due to gambling Midwest: White Castle

SW: In-N-Out Burger Texas: tortilla due to large Hispanic-American population

SE: Krispy Kreme Utah: low alcohol due membership to Church of Jesus Christ and Latter-day Saints

5. Wine Production has significant cultural values and differs based the region and its:

a. Climate: best in temperate climates: moderate cold, rainy winters, with long, hot summers

b. Topography: hillsides with a lot of sunlight

c. Soil: coarse and well drained

6. Housing is an essential part of human geography according Jean Brunhes

7. Brick and wood most common building materials

8. Different style homes around northern and western China

a. Kashgar: second-floor open-air patios to catch evening breeze. Poplar and fruit trees are

around the house because of a nearby river

b. Turpan: homes have small, open courtyards for social events. Located in deep valley will

limited land

c. Yinchuan: large, open-air courtyards, residents are Muslim, who value private yards

d. Dunhuang: walled central courtyards, homes have sloped roofs for the rain

9. Madagascar the door is always on the west (most important direction), northeast corner most

sacred, and northern wall place to honor ancestors

Key Issue 3 (pg 132-137): Why is access to folk and popular cultural unequal?1. Popular culture diffuses quickly around the world due to electronic media.

2. Television is the most important media as we enter the 21sth century for two reasons: most popular

leisure activity and fastest way to be exposed to pop culture.

a. Early 20th century: US holds almost monopoly on broadcasts

b. Mid 20th century: 1954 study, US own 86% of the world 37 million TV sets

c. Late 20th century: rapid growth in Europe meant US drops to 25%. In 1970, half of the

countries in the world (mostly Africa and Asia) had little, if any TV broadcasting

d. 21st century: near universal access

3. Internet usage has skyrocketed since 1995, like with Facebook since its opening in 2004 (also

YouTube and Twitter)

4. Folk culture is sometimes threatened by popular culture in the media.

5. Questions arise about the media developed countries produce:

a. Entertainment or cultural imperialism: American belief and social reforms, particularly in

regards to freedom for women.

b. News - Fair or Biased:

c. News coverage and press freedom: is the news balanced and fair or just playing to

American interests?

6. Countries sometimes limit access to four types of Internet content

a. Political content

b. Social content

c. Security content

d. Tools like email, hosting, and searching

Key Issue 4 (pg 138-143): Why do folk and popular culture face sustainability challenges?1. Sustainability Challenges for folk culture

a. Difficult to maintain with increased connection to popular culture

b. Amish culture has diffused slowly through interregional migration with families selling their

lands in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania to cheaper land in SW Kentucky. Every son gets

a farm, but that land is becoming expensive.

c. India’s marriage rules are changing, but resistance is there (2010 8,391 women killed

because of small dowries).

2. Sustainability Challenges for popular culture

a. Landscape pollution

b. Golf course (originally a folk sport in Scotland)

c. Environmental capacity (loss of scarce resources)

i. Demand for animal products

ii. Recycling Resources (way to control mass use of products)

iii. Recycling Collection is a two part process:

1. Pick up and processing

a. Curbside programs

b. Drop-off centers

c. Buy-back centers

d. Deposit programs

2. Manufacturing

a. Paper - most can be

b. Plastic - some plastic does not mix well with others. Type 1 and 2

are commonly recycled

c. Glass - no loss in quantity and is 100% recyclable

d. Aluminum - readily accepted for recycling

CHAPTER 5 - LANGUAGEKey Issue 1 (pg 151-157): Where are languages distributed?

1. Language is essential to culture. It is a system of communication through speech. Literary

language is a system on written communication.

2. Dutch learn at least two foreign languages, while in the US most people only learn English.

3. Official languages are the ones used by a country’s government, some former British colonies have

English as an official language even though few citizens in the country can speak it.

4. Off of the 6,909 estimated languages only 11 are spoken by 100 or more people.

a. 85 are spoken by 10 million people

b. 300 are spoken by between 1 and 10 million people.

5. World language is split into families, branches, and groups

a. Family - collection of language related to a common ancestry (Nostralic)

b. Branch - same as family, but not as old or extensive. (Indo European)

c. Group - within the same branch with a common origin in the relatively recent past.

(Romance)

6. Indo European is the mostly widely used language family used in Europe, South Asia, and North

and Latin America. Sino-Tibetan language family encompasses language spoken in China.

7. Logograms are symbols that represent words or parts of words instead of sounds.

8. Other Asian Languages include:

a. Austronesian, Austro-Asiatic, Tai Kadai. Japanese, and Korean

9. Southwest Asia and North Africa and Central Asia

a. Afro-Asiatic, Altaic, and Uralic

10. African Languages (most lack a written tradition)

a. Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan

Key Issue 2 (pg 158-165): Why is English related to other languages?

1. Official languages of the UN are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish

2. Indo European languages are split into 8 branches (Germanic, Indo-Iranian, Baltic-Slavic,

Romance, Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, and Indo-Iranian)

3. German and English all appearing to be very different have similar words and are structurally

similar. Northern Germanic includes Old Norse.

4. Indo-Iranian includes 100 individual languages split into two groups (Indic - Eastern and Iranian -

Western). India speaks Hindi, but also is home to 15 Indo-European languages

5. Slavic was once a single language until it branched off into East, West, South Slavic. The most

recognized is the eastern one of Russian, spoken by 80% of its people. In the west, the most

spoken is Polish, followed by Czech and Slovak, which are similar and can be understood by the

other. The southern Slavic languages have Arabic involved.

6. Romance languages branched off Latin 2,000 years ago. The most widely used are French,

Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian.

7. English comes from German.

8. Vulgar Latin is a spoken form of Latin, meaning the masses.

9. The mysteriously unknown Proto-Indo-European language that was the foundation for all these

languages is still not known, despite similarities found in certain words.

Key Issue 3 (pg 166-171): Why do individual languages vary among places1. Dialects are a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and

pronunciation (like those of the US - New England, Midlands, and Southeastern).

2. Isogloss is word-usage boundary lines

3. Words can be distinctive in different dialects like soft drink, northeast, southwest, as well as St.

Louis area call it soda. Midwest, Great Plains, and Northwest call it pop.

4. Pronunciation differ region to region. New England drops the r from words

5. Standard language is the most established and widely recognized dialect of language that has

many.

6. Received Pronunciation (RP): the dialect used commonly by politicians, broadcasters, and actors.

7. British and American English like all dialects differ in VOCABULARY (flashlight v torch), SPELLING

(honor v honour), and PRONUNCIATION (lord pronounced laud).

8. Creation of standard national language is new occurrence.

9. 90% of Spanish and Portuguese is spoken outside of those countries mainly in Central and South

America.

10. Several languages in Italy are now seen as consideration as languages distinct from Italian

a. Emiliano-Romagnolo (2 million)

b. Liguria (2 million)

c. Lombard (9 million)

d. Napoletano-Calebrese (7 million)

e. Piemontese (3 million)

f. Sicilian (5 million)

g. Venetian (2 million)

11. Distinction between a dialect and an entirely different language is not alway clear-cut.

Key Issue 4 (pg 172-185): Why do people preserve local languages?1. Spreading of language is often a measure of the fate of a culture group. While languages like

English and Chinese are spreading, others face the possibilities of extinction.

2. Some countries incorporate multiple national languages that do not have much in common.

a. Belgium (French and Flemish/Germanic) - sharply divides country as the Walloons

(French) control the economy and politics

b. Switzerland (French, Italian, Romansh, German) - peacefully coexisting between multiple

languages thanks to a long tradition of decentralized government.

c. Nigeria with 527 languages (3 most spread are Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo) - problems arise

with battling regions. Igbo tried to succeed in the 1960s. Reflection of how great

differences in cultural diversity (language) cause problems. Languages are not easily

understood by others.

3. Isolated language is a unrelated to any other:

a. Basque - unique European language only spoken in the Pyrenees Mountains (666,000

people)

b. Icelandic - originally branched off from Northern Germanic, but has been around for over

1,000 years

c. Koro Aka - Indian language belonging to the Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan (1,000

speakers).

4. Extinct languages are ones from the past no longer spoken or read in DAILY activities. 473 are

considered to be nearly extinct.

a. Native American languages in both the North and South America. Of the 500 languages

found, only 92 survive with 14 facing immediate extinction with less than 100 speakers.

b. Gothic originally spoken in Eastern and Western Europe, no longer has a language group.

Last speakers in Crimea in Russian 16th century

c. Hebrew is being revived. It was in decline since the 4th century BCE. After 1948, Israel

became an independent country with Hebrew as the official language, along with Arabic.

5. Some endangered languages are being preserved, since only 300 are clear safe from extinction for

now.

a. Celtic Languages: Welsh, Irish, Breton, Scottish, Cornish

b. 1988 Education Act - In Wales, all students are required to learn Welsh and its history

c. Irish - spoken daily by 350,000 (1.5 million say they speak it). Originally forbidden in 1300s

under English control (tally sticks punished kids for speaking)

d. Breton has more French

e. Scottish Gaelic is spoken by 59,000 (1 percent of the population)

f. Cornish has been extinct since 1777, although there was a small revival starting in the

1920s.

6. Australians regard English as a tool for promoting diversity, while New Zealand regards linguistic

diversity necessary for cultural diversity.

7. European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages (EBLUL) in Dublin was set up by the EU to help fund

the preservation of language.

8. With the importance of communication, the international language is English (first language of 328

million people, official language in 57, and fluent to between ½ and 1 billion).

9. Lingua franca mixing of two languages into a simple common language. Examples include Swahili

(East Africa) and Hinid (South Asia).

10. Pidgin language is a simplified form learned to help with another language

11. Diffusion of English has led to adopting words from other languages

a. African American English - words like gumbo and jazz. Ebonics - ebony and phonics

b. Appalachian English - natives of the Appalachian areas, like rural West Virginia. Regional

pride to some, others see it as a sign of poor education.

c. Franglais, Spanglish, Denglish are examples of how French, Spanish, and German has

combined with some people..

12. Spanish in the US and French in Canada are becoming more prevalent.

13. Internet has a majority of sources in English, even though the percent of English language users

has dropped from 46% to 27% (2000 to 2010), while Mandarin has gone from 2% to 22% in the

same time and will replace English as the most used by 2020.

CHAPTER 6 - RELIGIONKey Issue 1 (pg 192-201): Where are religions distributed?

1. Dalai Lama means “oceanic teacher” is not only the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism, but once

was the leader of Tibet

2. China controlled Tibet until 1911 and then again 1950, making it a part of the Communist

government in 1953.

3. Each faith has a distinctive distribution across Earth’s surface.

4. Two types of religion universalizing and ethnic:

a. Universalizing religions attempt to be global, to appeal to everyone, no matter where they

live. Largest are Christianity (~2.1 billion), Islam (~1.5 billion), and Buddhism (~376

million).

b. Ethnic religions appeal primarily to one group of people.

5. Stats on followers of religions are controversial since no official count takes place in many

countries

6. Atheism is the belief that there is no god

7. Agnostic is the belief that nothing can be known about whether god exists

8. Three principal universalizing religions are divided into:

a. Branches: large and fundamental division within a religion

b. Denominations: division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations

c. Sects: relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination

9. Christianity is the largest religion in the world and arguably the most wide spread.

a. Branches: Roman Catholic (51%), Protestant (24%), and Eastern Orthodox (11%)

b. Denominations: Lutherans and Baptists

c. Sects: Coptic, Ethiopian, Armenian, and Maronites

10. Islam is 1.5 billion strong, mostly in the Middle East and Northern/Central Africa. It means

“submission to the will of God.”

a. Branches: Sunni (following example of Muhammad) 83% and Shiite (sectarian) 16%

11. Muslims account for 5% of Europe’s population

12. Black Muslims founded in US 1930s led by (for 40 years) Elijah Muhammad although there was

division in 1963 by Malcolm X who founded the Organization of Afro-American Unity and started

orthodox Islam.

13. Buddhism is clustered mostly in the East and Southeastern Asia. Branches developed over

interpretations of Buddha’s statements.

a. Branches: Mahayana (56% China, Japan, and Korea), Theravada (38% Cambodia, Lao,

Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand), and Vajrayana (6% Tibet and Mongolia)

b. Numbers are difficult in Buddhism because you can believe in it and other Eastern

religions.

14. Sikhims (23 million, mostly India) and Baha’i (7 million, mostly Africa and Asia) are other

universalizing religions.

15. Hinduism is the largest ethnic religion (South Asia) and third largest in the world with 900 million

followers, 90% in India. Most believe in god or manifestations of that god:

a. 80% are Vaishnavism, which worships Vishnu, a loving god incarnated as Krishna

b. Sivaism dedicated to Siva, a protective and destructive god

16. Chinese religions are syncretic - combine several traditions. Two of the most popular are:

a. Confucianism: Confucius (551-479 BCE) principle of ethics for daily life

b. Taoism: Lao-Zi (604-531 BCE) means “the way” or “the path” focused on the mystical and

magical aspects of life, since not everything is knowable

17. Primal-Indigenous are passed down through oral tradition (word of mouth). Usually nature gods.

18. Pagan or polytheistic belief in many gods like the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.

19. Juchte meaning “self reliance” is the religion of North Korea, but like an ideology or philosophy.

20. Animism located mostly in Africa (100 million or 12% of continent’s population) has the belief that

plants, stones, or natural events are animated by spirits or have conscious life.

21. Spiritualism believes that life continues to exist after death. Mostly practiced in Brazil.

22. Judaism is the first recorded monotheistic religion. It has strong connections to both Christianity

and Islam as both patriarchs Jesus and Muhammad can trace their lineage back to Abraham the

father of Judaism.

Key Issue 2 (pg 202-209): Why do religions have different distributions?1. Several geographic differences between universalizing and ethnic religions.

Location of origin, process of diffusion, holy places, dates of importance, attitude towards

the environment.

2. Ethnic religions often have unknown or unclear origins.

3. Religions have places dedicated to the men that started them. Buddhism 2,500 years, Christianity

2,000 years, and Islam 1,500 years.

4. Siddhartha Gautama (b. 563 BCE) work into a life of wealth, life changed after four trips (old man,

diseased man, corpse, and man who taught him withdrawal). At 29, left palace and after 6 years of

solitude emerged as the Buddha, spending 45 years teaching others.

5. Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

a. The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness.

b. The truth of the origin of dukkha

c. The truth of the cessation of dukkha

d. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha

6. Each branch (Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana) emphasize different parts of Buddhism

7. Jesus (b. 8-4 BCE) was from Bethlehem and Jewish, dying on the cross. His followers preached

the coming of the Kingdom of God. Four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John document his

deeds. Christ is Greek for “messiah” or “anointed.” After his Last Supper (Passover), he was

arrested and put to death

8. Each Christian branches Roman Catholic (original) with Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant that

arose based on disagreements on doctrine from the Roman Catholic.

9. Islam was founded by Muhammad (b. 570 BCE). He received the revelation from the Angel

Gabriel at age 40. His migration (Hijra) to Mecca starts the Muslim Calendar

10. Islam based off of five pillars

a. Shahada: Testifying to God's One-ness: The declaration "There is no God but Allah and

Muhammad is His prophet."

b. Salat: Prayer. General Features of Islamic Prayer. ...

c. Zakat: Giving charity. Originally a free-will donation (what is no called Sadaqah ). ...

d. Sawm: Fast. ...

e. Hajj: Pilgrimage.

11. Two major branch of Islam (Sunnis and Shiites) disagree on the lines of succession.

12. Hinduism (ethnic religion) does not have a clear origin, but comes from the 6th century in India.

13. Each religion has its own hearth from which is diffused

a. Christianity - hierarchical diffusion with the conversion of the Roman Empire and relocation

diffusion due to missionaries (individuals who help transmit teachings in new areas).

b. Islam - hierarchical diffusion through the conquests of Palestine, Persian Empire, and parts

of India. Relocation due to missionaries visiting North and Sub-Saharan Africa and

Southwestern Asia, as well Arab traders to Indonesia.

c. Buddhism - hierarchical diffusion through Emperor Asoka of the Magadhan Empire from

273 to 232 BCE. Relocation due to traders to China and Korea.

d. Ethnic religions barely diffuse, somewhat with relocation.

e. Judaism - relocation after Roman diaspora 70 CE, then hierarchical when Israel became a

state in 1948.

Key Issue 3 (pg 210-221): Why do religions organize space in distinctive patterns?1. Tallest and most elaborate buildings are often religious structures

2. Religious structures, such as churches, pagodas, and mosques are prominent features of the

landscape

a. Christianity has a high volume of churches (places to gather) and plays a larger role than in

other religions. Each denomination has a different style of architecture, which is often

ignored in cities.

b. Muslim mosques are highly visible, most do not consider it the most important place of

worship. They are organized with a central courtyard with open-air (unless it is in a harsh

climate). Distinctive feature is a minaret (tower), where a muezzin summons people to

worship.

c. Buddhist pagodas are tall slender towers with many balconies/floors.

d. Baha’i have Houses of Worship (first one 1908 in Ashgabat, Russia)

e. Sikihism’s holy place is called a Darber Sahib or Golden Temple.

f. Some religions encourage pilgrimages to holy places (like Hinduism and Islam)

3. Eight holy places to Buddhists in northeastern India and southern Nepal. Four others in

northeastern India because of miracles performed by the Buddha.

4. Holiest site in Islam is Makkah (Mecca), the birthplace of Muhammad. Second is Madinah

(Medina), where Muhammad received his first support. It is expected of all financially capable

Muslims to travel to Mecca.

5. Ethnic religions are more closely tied to their local environment than are universalizing religions.

a. Hindus believe that you achieve purification by bathing in holy rivers (Ganges is the holiest)

6. Cosmogony are religious beliefs concerning the the origin of the universe.

a. Ethnic Chinese religions like Confucianism and Taoism believe in yin and yang

b. Universalizing religions like Judaism, Islam, and Christianity consider that god created the

universe. Although each has its concepts: Christians believe that Earth was given to them

to finish god’s work and Muslims believe that they representatives of god, reflected in their

deeds.

c. Animists believe that god is mystical

7. Solstice (longest or shortest) days of the year hold special significance in ethnic religions.

8. Each religion has its own way burial practices. Christians, Muslims, and Jews bury their dead,

while Hindus cremate them.

9. Utopian settlement is an idea community built around a religious way of life.

10. The calendar typically revolves around the physical environment in ethnic religions and the

founder’s life in universalizing religion.

a. Jews have Pesach (Passover) spring harvest, Sukkot final gathering of fruits, Shavuot end

of grain harvest, and Rosh Hashanah/Yom Kippur, the two most holy and solemn days for

New Years and Atonement. Jewish calendar is lunar calendar, but most still follow the

solar one

b. Islam has a 30 year cycle (19 years of 354 days and 11 years of 355 days). During its holy

month of Ramadan, Muslims fast during the daylight and try to make pilgrimage to Mecca.

Day rotates based off Muslim calendar.

c. Baha’i believe that Bab created their calendar that has 19 months and 19 days with 4 (5 in

leap years) intercalary days. Year begins on the first day of spring, March 21st. Nineteen

Day Feast held at the beginning of each month.

d. Christians commemorate the resurrection of Jesus on Easter (different day for Catholics

and Protestants and Christmas (Jesus’ birthday).

e. Buddhists celebrate Buddha’s life through birth, Enlightenment, and death. Different days

for different countries.

f. Sikhism follows holidays for the birth and death of the 10 gurus.

11. Some religions have hierarchical administrative structures (well defined structure), whereas others

emphasize local autonomy.

a. Catholicism has the Pope - Archbishops - Bishops - Priests.

12. Autonomous religions - self sufficient to a small area like some Protestantism or Islam.

Key Issue 4 (pg 222-231): Why do territorial conflicts arise among religious groups?1. 20th century has seen a lot of global conflicts, but local conflicts have increased in the areas of

cultural diversity.

2. Fundamentalism is a literal interpretation and a strict and intense adherence to basic principles of a

religion (branch, denomination, or sect).

3. Religions may oppose government or social policies.

a. Taliban, who gained control of Afghanistan in 1996, restricted western values and

destroyed other religious symbols that violated Islam. They restricted Western leisure

activities (music, kites, etc)

b. Hinduism has faced challenges due to its sever caste system.

c. Christianity and Islam, along with all religions were banned during the Soviet Union’s

control of Eastern Europe.

d. Buddhism faced similar problems in Southeast Asia after the Vietnam War and revolutions

in Laos and Cambodia.

4. Some places like Ireland (Catholicism vs Protestantism) face religion v religion conflicts.

5. Religious wars in the Middle East are still a major source of conflict, particularly because of the holy

sites in Jerusalem and its connection to Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.

a. Crusades were seven different campaigns over 150 years (1099-1233) by Christians to

capture the holy land.

b. Partition of Palestine - after being controlled by the Ottomans (1516-1917) and the British

(1917-1946), the land was split between the Palestinians and the Jews.

c. Israel’s wars (1948-9 Independance War, 1956 Suez War, 1967 Six-Day War, 1973 Yom

Kippur War, and 1979 Peace Treaty)

6. Conflicting perspectives are a part of every war. Both Israeli and Palestinians have views on why

they should own the land.

CHAPTER 7 - ETHNICITIESKey Issue 1 (pg 238-243): Where are ethnicities distributed?

1. Ethnicity is a source of pride to people, a link to the experiences of ancestors and cultural

traditions. Ethnikos (Greek for national).

2. Differs from race, which is identified with a group of people who share a biological ancestor.

Examples of traits passed on by race are lactose intolerances, while features like skin color, hair

type, and blood traits. Asian/African American = ethnicity v Asian/Black = race. Hispanic is an

ethnicity that can several different races

3. The most numerous ethnicities in the US are Hispanic, African American, and Asian American.

4. At best, we are so genetically similar that race does not mean much

5. At worst, we biologically classification is the basis for racism.

6. US has always been defined by its ethnic diversity. The census recently added an additional

question to help further distinguish Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin.

7. Each ethnicity has distinctive distributions at regional, states, and urban scales:

a. Hispanic: clustered in the southwest, with over 1/3 of population in Arizona, New Mexico,

and Texas, 1/4 in California (⅓ of all Hispanics).

b. African American: clustered in the southeast, with over ¼ of the populations in Alabama,

Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, and South Carolina, and more than ⅓ in Mississippi. Upper

New England and the west have less 1 percent African Americans

c. Asian American: clustered in the west, with 40% of the population in Hawaii. Half of the

total population live in California (12% of the state’s population).

8. Hispanic and African Americans are highly clustered in urban centers with 90% living there,

compared to 75% of of the US population.

Key Issue 2 (pg 245-249): Why do ethnicities have distinctive distributions?1. Most African Americans are descended from Africans who were forced to migrate due to slavery.

2. Roman Empire had widespread slavery, 2000 years ago. Height of slave trade 1710-1810 CE.

“Banned” in the US in 1808, but 250,000 were thought to be brought in illegally.

3. Europe during the Middle Ages used the feudal system to keep their own people attached to the

land.

4. Triangular slave trade - Cloth and other trade goods went to Africa to buy slaves, Slaves from

Africa to Americas (mostly the Caribbean islands), sugar and molasses sent back to Europe.

Sometime an additional trip was added to bring molasses to the US.

a. Slaves packed on ships very tightly, provided minimal food and sanitary facilities, ¼ died

on the trip.

5. 13th Amendment to the US Constitution abolished slavery in the US.

6. Quotas limited immigration to US from Latin America and Asia until 1960s and 1970s

7. African American followed two distinct patterns of internal migration (south to north) in the earlier

20th century and inner-city ghetto to outer city and inner suburban in the later 20th century.

8. After slavery, many African Americans took jobs as sharecroppers in nearby regions, working land

for rent.

9. In the cities, the move of the African Americans to the urban areas caused a “White Flight” to the

suburban areas instead of integrating. This led to blockbusting or selling your home at low prices

because of fear of living near blacks.

10. 1896 - Plessy v Ferguson, which created “Separate, but Equal” and led to segregation laws (Jim

Crow Laws)

11. 1954 - Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas made segregation illegal

12. As US was getting rid of discrimination, South Africa was enacting them. They created a system of

apartheid or physical separation of different races into different geographic areas.. Ended in 1991,

Nelson Mandela was elected in 1994.

Key Issue 3 (pg 250-257): Why do conflicts arise among ethnicities?1. Nationality is about sharing legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country. It

identifies citizens, while ethnicity deals with distinct ancestry and cultural traditions, and race looks

at skill color. Nationalism is loyalty to your nation. Example of CENTRIPETAL FORCE

2. Each country has its own definition of citizen. In the US, it means that you believe in “unalienable

rights” of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Canada has two groups the Anglo-Canadian -

English-Canadians and the Quebecois (French).

3. British Isle have four ethnicities (English, Welsh, Scots, and Irish)

4. Ireland and Great Britain are divided into two nationalities (The UK or British is Great Britain and

Northern Ireland) and (The Republic of Ireland).

a. Despite being the same countries, England, Scotland, Wales, and North Ireland field their

own sports teams (soccer and rugby)

b. Rory McIlroy is Irish Catholic, but his nationality is to the UK

c. Tiger Woods is a citizen of the US, but ethnically a mix of African American, Native

American, Thai, Dutch, and Chinese.

5. Lebanon is split between Muslims (60%) and Christians (40%), exact numbers are unknown since

the last census was 1932. Each group has half the power in Parliament. Tension is still there,

makes unification difficult.

6. Sri Lanka has three principal ethnic groups, Sinhalese (74%, Buddhist, control gov’t), Tamil (16%,

Hindus, and feel discriminated), and the Moors (10%, Muslim). Disagreement is 2,000 years over

7. Ethnicities are sometimes divided into different nationalities, like the Islamic Pakistan and

Bangladesh (West and East Pakistan) because of Hindu India. India and Pakistan do not have an

agreed upon border.

8. 30 million Kurds are split among several countries (14 million-Turkey, 5 million northern Iraq, 4

million western Iran). There culture is being suppressed in Turkey, where it is illegal to speak Kurd.

9. Ethnic diversity in western Asia has led to a lack of communication between certain groups within

the same country:

a. Iraq: Sunni Muslims lost power after US invasion, Shiite Muslims gained control of the

country, but still oppose the US, feeling connected to Shiite in Iran, and the Kurds who

gained more security and autonomy after the US invasion. Most Iraqi are more loyal to

tribe or clan than country.

b. Iran: Persians/Shiite Muslims control most of the country, but Azeri and Baluchi are

important minorities

c. Afghanistan: Pashtun (Taliban), Tajik, and Hazara

d. Pakistan: Punjabi are the most numerous.

Key Issue 4 (pg 258-267): Why do ethnicities engage in ethnic cleansing and genocide?1. Ethnic cleansing is the process a group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an

ethnically homogeneous region.

2. Most recent ones have taken place in Eastern Europe and Africa

3. One of the most famous is the Holocaust from (1939-1945) - Wannasee Conference 1942

4. The fall of Yugoslavia led to ethnic cleansing

a. 7 neighbors, 6 republics, five nationalities, four languages, three religions, two alphabets,

and one dinar (currency).

5. Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo by Serbs forcing Albanians to leave, proven by NATO thanks to three

photographs

6. Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia with Serbs and Croats attacking Bosnian Muslims.

7. Balkanization led to WWI

8. Similarly in Africa with the Sudan (South Sudan, Darfur, and Eastern front) problems has raged

since the 1980s.

9. Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia after being connected after WWII, but Ethiopians took

away their gov’t and language.

10. Somalia 1992 - US sent troops to help after 300,000 died from famine and warfare among the

clans (and subclans)

11. Rwanda 1994 - Hutus (farmers) committing genocide against the Tutsis (herders), Tutsis now

control the country after the civil war.

12. Congo faced the fallout of the Rwandan Genocide

13. Ethnic conflicts are widespread due to the present-day boundaries set forth by the colonial

Europeans.

CHAPTER 8: POLITICAL GEOGRAPHYKey Issue 1 (pg 275-281): Where are states distributed? pg 271 - 281

1. State is an area organized into a political unit, with defined boundaries and permanent population. Synonym in this case to a country. Not to be confused with 50 US states. Largest is Russia

2. Sovereignty means independence.3. Microstates - small states under 400 sq miles (1000 sq km), sometimes these are islands.

Smallest in UN is Monaco.4. Three eras of rapid growth in the UN

a. 1955: 16 countries join that had been liberated from the Nazi Germanyb. 1960: 17 countries added, 16 were former African colonies controlled by Britain

and Francec. 1990-1993: 26 countries join due to the breakup of Soviet Union and Yugoslavia

and later on more microstates join 5. UN built on League of Nations - neutral/peacekeepers. 5 permanent members - Russia, China,

France, Britain, and the United States. One vote can veto UN actions6. Sovereign state number is questioned due to disputes in Korea, China, Kosovo, Western Sahara,

and Arctic regions7. Antarctica only large landmass w/o sovereign state. Research centers of 47 are there thanks to

1959 treaty8. 1982 UN Convention on Law of the Sea gave countries until 2009 to submit claims to the Arctic.9. Development of States

a. Ancient States - city-states of Mesopotamia and Greece - smallb. Medieval States - Large areas controlled by kingsc. Nation States - territory corresponds to a particular ethnicity, based on the concept

of self determination. Key Issue 2 (pg 282-289): Why are nation-states difficult to create?

1. No such thing as a perfect nation-state (great idea, tough to maintain). Some ethnic groups coexist, others try to dominate the others (close are Denmark 90% and Slovenia 97%).

2. More than one ethnicity is a multi-ethnic state3. Multinational state is a country with that contains more than one ethnicity with traditions of self-

determination (think Soviet Union).4. Fall of the Soviet Union (symbol of the supposed death of nationalism), Czechoslovakia, and

Yugoslavia gave rise to ethnic identity importance and nation-states. 5. Soviet Union’s fall created 15 states in 5 different groups

a. Three Baltic states: Estonia, Lafayette, and Lithuaniab. Three European states: Belarus, Moldova, and Ukrainec. Five Central Asian states: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and

Uzbekistand. Three Caucasus states: Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgiae. Russia

6. European influence is everywhere because of colonialism. They believed they needed (summarized as God, Gold, and Glory):

a. to promote Christianityb. to extract useful resources and serve as the captive marketsc. to establish relative power through the number of their colonies

7. Colony era began in 1400s, after they lost the Americas, they turned their attention to Asia and Africa, until independence was achieved after WWII.

8. US still has colonies like Puerto Rico are citizens, but not participate in elections or have a voting member of Congress.

Key Issue 3 (pg 290-299): Why do boundaries cause problems?1. Frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control (like Antarctica)

2. Types of boundaries vary:

a. Physical: following land features (desert, mountain, and water)

i. Desert: Sahara for Algeria, Libya, and Egypt

ii. Mountain: Andes Mountains for Argentina and Chile

iii. Water: Lake Albert for DR of Congo and Uganda

b. Cultural: based off cultural characteristics coinciding with differences in ethnicity, especially

language and religion.

i. Geometric: straight lines on a map like US and Canada 49᷾° established in 1846.

ii. Ethnic: South Asia - Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan

iii. Green Line: putting a wall like Cyprus

3. Law of Sea signed by 158 countries standardized the territorial limits to 12 nautical (14 land) miles.

4. Shape of a state can have a centripetal force, but also the ease or difficulty with unifying it

a. Compact: effective with everything equally dispersed from the core. (Kenya, Rwanda)

b. Elongated: potential isolation as long, narrow shapes spread out part of the states (Chile,

Gambia)

c. Prorupted: compact with long projecting extension to help provide access to a resource

(water) or separate two states that would share a boundary (Namibia, DRC (get to the

Atlantic))

d. Perforated: completed surrounded by one state, making them reliant on that state.

(Lesotho)

e. Fragmented: several discontinuous pieces of territory like Angola (Cabinda)

5. Landlocked states completely surrounded by land need to work with neighbors to gain access.

6. Two types of government: national and local

7. Governments classified as a democracy (people decide), autocracy (interests of the ruler), or

anocracy (combo). Difference occur with:

a. Selection of leaders: voting or clearly defined hereditary rules

b. Citizen participation: gov’t power limited or power restricted/suppressed

c. Checks and balances: power is checked or is not

8. Shift in the world to becoming more democratic

9. Unitary government (China, France) lets the central government make decision by federal (US)

allows local governments to make decisions

10. Electoral Geography changes due to redistricting.

a. Gerrymandering - process of redrawing boundaries for the benefit of the party in power.

Key Issue 4 (pg 300-309): Why do states cooperate and compete with each other?1. Competing done for control/access to/influence of trade and resources.

2. Balance of power during the Cold War was bipolar between US and Soviet Union saw

conflicts for position and access to the opponent:

a. Cuban Missile Crisis: Soviet Union put missiles (first strike) into Cuba, only ended

when US showed irrefutable evidence of such before the UN

b. Europe post WWII where countries allied with either NATO (US) or the Warsaw

Pact (Soviets)

3. During the Cold War two economic alliances formed:

a. European Union (EU) formed in 1958 designed to heal Western Europe’s wars

scares. Grew to 27 countries in the 21st century

b. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) formed in 1949 to help

Eastern Europe plus Cuba, Mongolia, and Vietnam. Disbanded in 1990s

4. Similar alliances around the world

a. Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)

b. Organization of American States (OAS) - 35 states in the Western Hemisphere

c. African Union (AU) - formed in 2002, now has 53 countries looking for economic

integration

d. Commonwealth - UK and 52 former colonies for economic and cultural cooperation

5. Terrorism (Latin to frighten) is the systematic use of violence by a group in order to

intimidate a population or coerce a government into granting its demands. First used

during French Revolution. Several throughout history. One of the most famous was 9/11

6. Some states provide SANCTUARY for terrorists (Afghanistan and Pakistan?), while others

have been accused of supplying them (Iraq and Iran)

CHAPTER 9: DevelopmentKey Issue 1: Why does development vary among countries?

1. Standard of living, a long and healthy life, and access to knowledge2. Development process is continual3. Human Development Index (HDI) - UN system designed to measure and score a country’s growth

based off of three things:a. Standard of livingb. A long and healthy lifec. Access to knowledge

High levels - US & Canada Low levels - Sub-Saharan Africa

4. Wealth is key to a high standard of living5. UN measures standard of living based off of ANNUAL GROSS NATIONAL INCOME. None are

perfecta. Gross national income (GNI) - value of the items (including money) produced that leave the

countryb. Purchasing power parity (PPP) - adjustment to GNI to account for difference among

countries cost of goods6. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the value of the goods in the country, but not the money coming

or going7. Three types of jobs:

a. Primary - farmerb. Secondary - manufacturingc. Tertiary - Lawyer, teacher, etc.

8. Contribution to GNI varies among three types of jobs. 9. Development often means more productive and valuable.10. IHDI helps UN to determine how legitimate HDI is from top to bottom on the social structure11. Wealth in developed countries is used purchase good & services in the transportation and

communication fields12. Access to knowledge is important to improving life. This is studied through years in school (past),

expected years in school (future), pupil/teacher ratio (current), and literacy rate.13. All of this can vary in different regions within in a country...like Brazil (SE to NE), China (E to W),

and Mexico (N to S).

Key Issue 2: Why does development vary by gender?1. Overall development can mask inequalities in gender (mostly due to culture and legal obstacles.

No country where they are equal (somewhat is not the same).a. UN argues that it is keeping the world from achieving the highest levels of development

2. GII measures the inequality, higher (1.0) means more unequal. Ten countries in Europe have less than .1, meaning relatively equal. Two indicators:

a. % in national legislatureb. % completed high school

3. Labor force ratio varies out of 100 men from 75 in developed vs 65 in developing to only 35 in Southwest Asia and North Africa

4. Poor reproductive health more contributor to gender inequality. Two indicators:a. Maternal mortality rate: currently out of 100,000 births, 15 in developed vs 140 in

developing.b. Adolescent fertility rate: current rate of birth by women out 1,000 15-19 is 20 in developed

vs 60 in developing.5. UN found that inequality has declined in the 1990s. US Ranks #47th, although its 4 on HDI.6. GII focus on three factors

a. Empowering womenb. Labor force participationc. Reproductive health

Key Issue 3: Why are energy resources important for development?1. Low-cost energy available is vital to development.2. Most current energy resources are nonrenewable resources (reproduce slowly)

3. Supply and demand play a large part for the 5/6 of the world’s energy which comes from:a. Coal - leading energy source in the 1800s took over from wood.b. Petroleum - first pumped 1859, but value not realized until the use of motor transportation

in the 20th centuryc. Natural gas - originally burned off waste product of petroleum, not used to heat home.

4. All of the above sources are fossil fuels - major source of instability between developed and developing nations.

5. China is now the highest consumer of energy at 20%, followed by the US (same with production of coal). Three places of high use are:

a. Businesses - high demand for coalb. Homes - demand is more heating space and water mostly natural gasc. Transportation - demand for petroleum

6. Demand for fossil fuels in developing countries has surpassed developed countries as of 2007.7. Each energy sources forms differently:

a. Coal - tropical locations, slow moving continents made this shift to mid-latitude locationsb. Petroleum - formed millions of years ago from deposit on the seafloor. Persian Gulf and

North Sea still has deposits belowc. Natural gas - similar story as petroleum

8. Proven energy - remaining supply in areas already discovered9. Potential energy - undiscovered, but thought to exist10. OPEC - Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries started in 1960 to help developing

countries gain control of their resource.11. Alternative Energy options

a. Nuclear energy - not renewable, but large energy is released from small material. PROBLEMS are the waste is very dangerous and uranium is limited. Very expensive

b. Renewable Energyi. Hydroelectric power - water power. PROBLEM is that few acceptable areas are left

to build damsii. Biomass fuel - plant material and animal waste. PROBLEMS are may not be

enough energy and hurts the environmentiii. Wind power - only 1/3 of the US is windy enoughiv. Geothermal energy - hot water or steamv. Nuclear fusion - fusing hydrogen atoms to make helium. PROBLEM is that this is

not an easy process yet.vi. Passive solar energy - solar energyvii. Active solar energy - collecting energy and converting it through photovoltaic cells.

Key Issue 4: Why do countries face obstacles to development?1. Two paths to development both have advantages and challenges.

a. Self sufficiency - encourage domestic productb. International trade - open up to foreign investment and markets

2. Prime example of self sufficiency was India after British Independence.a. Made foreign companies get a license then limited their quantity of imports, which were

heavily taxedb. Indian money could not be converted to other countries and private company were unable

to make new products without the government’s permission.c. Following this model, India achieved only modest development

3. International trade path requires countries to find out their unique economic assets, emphasize its further development, and use the money gained from selling it to fund other endeavors.

4. Rostow’s Model in 1950 outlined the 5 stages of developmenta. Traditional society: process not started, most people involved in agriculture or non

productive activities like military and religionb. Preconditions for takeoff: elite initiate new economic activity. Starting to invest in new

technology and infrastructure.c. Takeoff: rapid growth in limited activities like textiles or food.d. Drive to maturity: modern technology is used in a wider variety. Workers become more

skilled and specialized.e. Age of mass consumption: economy shifts from production of heavy industry to consumer

goods.5. Most countries chose self sufficiency, but two groups that did not were:

a. Four Asian Dragons: South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong - focusing on manufactured good like clothes and electronics

b. Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and UAE - focused on petroleum6. Weakness of both paths

a. Self-sufficiency - protecting ineffective business (little incentive to improve quality) and need for large bureaucracy to regulate the market.

b. International Trade - uneven resource distribution with some resources not being as valuable as they once were, increased dependence on developed countries to buy your products, and market decline (supply and demand)

7. International trade approach proved more effective. Developing countries in the late 20th century followed the approach of the successful developed countries.

a. IT countries benefit from EXPOSURE to demands, needs, and preferences of consumers in other countries.

b. Many self sufficient countries switched over like India and saw huge growth (1.8 to 6.5 on GNI

8. World Trade Organization (WTO) - formed in 1995 representing 97%, enforces trade agreement and hears/judges complaints.

9. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the investment made a foreign country into a country’s economy.10. Two major loan lenders were formed by the 1944 UN Monetary and Financial Conference to

prevent financial disasters (1930s Great Depression) are:a. World Bankb. International Monetary Fund (IMF)

11. To hold countries accountable for cancelling or refinancing debts, the UN banks set up a Structural Adjustment Program

a. Spending what it can affordb. Directing money at the poor, not just the elitec. Diverting funding to health and educationd. Investing in scarce resources where they will have more impacte. More productive private sectorf. Make civil service more efficient

12. In developed countries hurt by widening inequality. 1980s in the US started an increase there.13. Stimulus or Austerity for fighting economic downturns

a. Stimulus: government spend more money, collect more taxes to stimulate economyb. Austerity: government spends less, allowing people to spend their tax savings on the

economy14. Housing bubble caused economic crises. Rapid increase in home value, followed by sharp

decrease.15. Fair trade a version of international trade was developed to help promote sustainability.16. UN Millennium Goals to achieve by 2015:

a. Eradicate extreme poverty and hungerb. Achieve universal primary educationc. Promote gender equality and empower womend. Reduce child mortalitye. Improve maternal healthf. Combat HIV/AIDs, malaria, and other diseasesg. Ensure environmental stabilityh. Develop a global partnership for development

17. Core and periphery - relationship between countries in the developed (mostly north) and the periphery middle and south).

CHAPTER 10 - FOOD AND AGRICULTUREKey Issue 1 (pg 365-369): Where did agriculture originate?

1. Agriculture is the deliberate modification of Earth’s surface through the caring for of crops.2. 1/2 of the population in less developed countries is some kind of farmer, which makes up 97% of

the world’s farmers, but their advanced technology gives them the ability to farm more effectively for themselves, the US, and the world.

3. Farming began before written history (WHY?).4. Originally people were hunters and gatherers in small communities (~50). Traveled around

following the food. Only 250,000 people today still survive by this method.5. Agricultural Revolution (~8000 BCE) was the time when humans first started domesticating plants

and animals.a. Environmental factors like climate changeb. Cultural factors like people observing how plants grew back every year.

6. Original places are Southwest Asia, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America7. Animals also became domesticated around this time, although dogs were much sooner (~10000

BCE).8. Subsistence farming (developing) is producing food for oneself vs commercial farming is growing

crops that you can sell, which often means more technology, larger workforce, and a larger farm.9. 5% vs 45% of the population in developed vs developing countries are involved in farming. WHY?10. Better technology has decreased the need for human and animal power, also allowing for better

transport.Key Issue 2 (pg 370-374): Why do people consume different foods?

1. Everyone needs food to survive, but it varies around the world.a. Level of development: MDC tend to consume more food from a larger varietyb. Physical conditions of the climatec. Cultural preference come into play with certain groups

2. Dietary energy consumption is the amount of food an individual eats (measures in calories or kilocalories)

3. 90% of all grain production and 40% of energy comes from wheat, rice, maize, and other crops (like cassava, sorghum, millet, plantains, sweet potatoes, and yams).

4. Protein intake is a major difference between MDC (⅓) and LDC (1/10)5. UN defines food security as physical, social, and economic access to safe and nutritious food at all

times to sustain a healthy life. According to that, ⅛ of the population is secure.6. While only 1,800 kcal is needed per day according the UN to maintain a healthy, moderately active

lifestyle, many people consume 2,800 kcal a day (3,800 in the US).7. Undernourishment is energy consumption continuously below the minimum requirement for

maintaining a healthy life and staying active. 870 million people fall into that category, with India having the largest number (225 million), followed by China (130 million)

Key Issue 3 (pg 374 - 391): Where is agriculture distributed?1. Agriculture is practiced in different forms all over the world.2. Geographer Derwent Whittlesey divided them into 11 major regions:

a. Developing Regionsi. Pastoral nomadism - subsistence agriculture focusing on herding domesticated

animals by nomad (people who move place to place with herds)ii. Shifting cultivation - practiced in the tropics

1. Slash and burn2. Rotation from areas that need to replenish nutrients

iii. Intensive subsistence, wet rice dominant1. Worked is done intensively 2. Rice is planted on dry land (nursery) then moved to a flooded field3. Animal power is a distinguishing fact from shifting cultivation4. Just the right amount of water is needed

iv. Intensive subsistence, crops other than rice dominant - growing rice is difficult.1. Some climates are not suitable for rice, but are for wheat

v. Plantation are large commercial fields (often in developing countries) that specialize in one or two crops. Were common in the south before the American Civil War.

b. Developed Regionsi. Mixed crop and livestock - combination of crops and livestock, using the crops to

feed the animals and the livestock to fertilize the soil. ii. Dairying - most common near large urban areas (milkshed). iii. Grain - seeds from various grasses like wheat, corn, oats, and barley, rice, millet,

and others. Grown for mostly consumption.iv. Ranching - commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. Usually in

semi-arid climates.v. Mediterranean - farming around the sea. Various types of farming occur here and

food is grown for human use.vi. Commercial gardening - large growing season of fruits and vegetables.

3. Transhumance a practice of some nomads that involves season migration between mountains and lowland pasture areas

4. Pasture is an area for feeding grazing animals.5. Sawah - Austronesian name for flooded field6. Threshed means beaten

7. Chaff means separating from seeds8. Hull means outer covering9. Winnowed means blown away10. Agricultural Revolution was the time when humans first domesticated plants and animals around

8000 BCE. Happened because of both environmental and cultural factors.11. Crop rotation is when you rotate the use of different fields to avoid exhaustion.12. Agribusiness is commercial farming (think of the chicken industry farms)13. Truck farming involves growing one or more vegetable crops on a large scale for shipment to

distant marketsKey Issue 4 (pg 392 - 405): Why do farmers face economic difficulties?

1. Farmers in developing countries face challenges in terms of matching supply with rapid population growth and getting money from exports

a. New farming methods (technology) to help improve supplyb. Boserup’s model helps improve growing production

2. Some products are overproduced.3. People do not have access to the markets.4. Drug trade affects how land is used in developing countries5. US Government has three policies that are supposed to address excess production

a. Avoid producing crops that in excess supplyb. Pay farmers when certain commodity prices are lowc. Buy surplus and sell/donate to foreign countries

6. Von Thunen Model has four rings outside the market that helps determine the spatial area of agriculture. Can be modified by the river (see pg 397)

a. First ring - market-orientated garden and dairyb. Second ring - wood lotsc. Third ring - various crops and pasture (rotation yearly)d. Fourth ring - exclusively to animal grazing (a lot of space)

7. More distribution to lands without food surplus will help farmers make money8. Aquaculture or aquafarming is the cultivation of seafood under controlled conditions9. Green Revolution - 1970s and 1980s was a time of rapid diffusion and growth of agricultural

techniques.10. Sustainable agriculture includes sensitive land management, limited chemicals, and better

integration of crops and livestock.11. Ridge tillage is a system of planting crops on ridge tops to protect the soil.

CHAPTER 11 - INDUSTRY AND MANUFACTURINGKey Issue 1 (pg 415-417): Why are situation and site factors important?

1. Industrial Revolution - series of improvements in industrial technology that help the process of develop manufactured goods. Origins in northern England and southern Scotland around later 18th century

2. Cottage industry - home-based manufacturing. Used before the Industrial Revolution3. Steam engine (Watt’s) among a series of inventions that helped start the revolution.4. Revolution also improved social, economic, and political areas of society5. Gradual diffusion over decades, not instantaneous.6. Major improvements were seen in iron (easier to make with steam engine), coal (became new

energy source), transportation (canals and railroads), textiles (cotton), chemicals (bleach and dyes), and food processing (canned foods).

7. Important European Industrial Areasa. UK - dominated steel and textile production b. Rhine-Ruhr Valley - iron and steel near coal fieldsc. Mid-Rhine - centrally located, transportation hubd. Po Basin - textiles and other manufactured goods made here due to low wagese. Northeastern Spain - was fastest growing areaf. Moscow - Russia’s oldest industrial regiong. St. Petersburg - Russia’s second largest, focused on shipbuilding and other naval needsh. Urals - most varied collection of mineralsi. Volga - largest petroleum and natural gas fields in Russiaj. Kuznetsk - most important district east of the Uralsk. Silesia - Europe’s most rapidly growing industrial area.

8. North America’s areasa. New England - cotton textiles were completed here after being shipped from the south.b. Mid Atlantic - largest market in USc. Mohawk Valley - NY industrial belt, helped by Niagara Fallsd. Pittsburgh-Lake Erie - steel productione. Western Great Lakes - transportationf. Southern California - largest in clothing and textilesg. Southeastern Ontario - Canada’s most important area

9. Asiaa. Japan - industrialized in the 50s and 60s. Korea took the same route focusing on export

manufacturingb. China - largest supply of low-cost labor

Key Issue 2 (pg 418-431): Why are situation and site factors important?1. Situation factors involved transporting materials to and from the factory.

a. Proximity to inputs and markets is important 2. Site factors involve the characteristics of the location3. Bulk-reducing industry - where the inputs weighs more than the final products (put factory near

input4. Nonmetallic minerals make up 90% of what humans use like stones and fertilizers5. Metallic minerals

a. Malleable - able to be hammered into thin platesb. Ductile about to be drawn into a fine wirec. Types are ferrous (containing iron)

Chromium Molybdenum Tin Tungsten

Manganese Nickel Titanium

d. Nonferrous (no iron)

Aluminum Copper Lead Lithium

Magnesium Zinc Precious metals Rare earth metals

6. Bulk-gaining industry means something gains volume or weight during production (factory near market)

a. Fabricated metals like microwavesb. Beverage production

7. Single-market manufacturers specialize with small groups (1, 2, etc) and are often near their customers. Example buttons, zippers

8. Perishable products like bakeries and milk factories are near consumers9. Four ways to transport goods - trucks (one day, quick to load), trains (long to load, but fast over a

day), ships (low cost over water, but slow), and air (most expensive, but fast).10. If the mix of situational factors changes, the optimal location can change (see copper pg 423)11. Steel was a luxury item item until Henry Bessemer in 1855, became a bulk-reducing industry. Shift

in production west along the Great Lakes starting in Pittsburgh12. Motor vehicles are a bulk gaining resources need to be near the markets, but these are changing.

Currently the major areas are North America, Europe, and East Asia.13. Site Factors

a. Labor-intensive industry is one in which wages and other compensation paid to employees constitute a high percentage of expenses. These change based on the country, in developed countries the average wage of a manufacturing worker is $35 ($40 in parts of Europe), while it is around $1 per hour in China and India.

b. Capital or the funds necessary to operate an institutionc. Land suitable for the factory and is cost effective.

Key Issue 3 (pg 432-437): Where does industry cause pollution?1. Air Pollution is the concentration of trace substances at a greater level than average air

a. Occurs on a global (global warming), regional (acid rain), and local (motor vehicle) scaleb. Greenhouse gases trap CO2 and other gases build up in the atmosphere cause the

surface to get warmer.c. 1 degree increase over the past 100 years, could lead to polar caps meltingd. Ozone gas in the stratosphere (15-50 km up) helps protect us from UV damagee. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - is a pollutant to the atmosphere, goal is that by 2020 all

developed countries will no longer use them (2030 for developing), replacements HFCs and HCFCs are not effective either

f. Acid deposition in water becomes “acid rain” and can damage land and water resourcesg. Urban air pollution has three components - carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons (respiratory

problems), and particulates (dust and smoke particles).2. Solid Waste Pollution

a. 2 kilograms (4lbs) of solid waste is produced daily by people in the US (60% homes)

b. Sanitary landfills are the most common disposal strategy, but their numbers have dropped 75% since 1990. Incineration is an alternative that has reduced bulk by 75% and can provide energy (steam heat or for turbines)

c. Hazardous waste is particular difficult, like heavy metals (ex mercury, cadmium, and zinc). They must be stored safely to prevent damage.

3. Water Pollutiona. Manufacturers are heavy users of water (hydroelectrics), also has many human usesb. Point-source pollution enters a body of water a specific location, while non-point come from

many different areasc. Point sources include Water-using manufacturers and municipal sewage

i. US Clean Water Act and equivalent laws in other developed countries make sure places meet

ii. Unclean water in developing countries can be deadly (cholera, typhoid, and dysentery).

d. Non-point sources are often seen in agriculture, as seen when the Soviet Union diverted tributary water away from the Aral Sea to help with cotton fields. Both are now failing/disappearing.

e. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) which helps decompose organic waste, hurt the oxygen levels. Too much waste is the water deprives it of oxygen and kills living organisms.

f. While companies may not add pollutants to the water, adding warm water can affect organisms who have were adapted to colder water.

Key Issue 4 (pg 438-444): Why are situation and site factors changing?1. Traditional areas of industry are moving (US from the NE to S and W & Europe to peripheral areas)2. Reason for move to the south in the US was people’s willingness to work for less.3. “Right to work” law requires a factory to maintain “open-shop,” meaning that the workers are not

required to join the union. 23/50 states have this lawa. Textile (and apparel) production has moved from the NE to SE, with workers willing to work

without unions.b. Europe’s movement has been interregional. Central Europe provides good value for

money, but are less skilled than Western Europe.4. 1970s - Europe had 1/2 and North America had ¼ of the world’s industry, but today they have a

combine ⅓.a. Outsourcing to developing countries with lower labor costs, more than making up for the

higher transportation costs. (aka new international division of labor)i. Outsourcing is turning over much of the responsibility to independent suppliers,ii. This is different than vertical integration, where the company controls all parts of

the processb. Mexico’s manufacturing has increased since the North American Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA), especially due to low-cost labor and shorter distances to markets.c. Maquiladoras - US built factories in Mexico to take advantage of low cost labor.d. Mexico’s situation factors help it compete with China.

5. Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRIC) are countries that should dominate manufacturing in the 21st century. They have 3 billion of the 7 billion people in world.

a. South Africa was invited to join in 2010, making the new acronym BRICS.6. By 2050, only the US will expected to be in the top 7 economies as a developed country7. Some manufactures stay in developed countries due to the demand and availability of skilled

workers

8. A worker who is a master of only one part of the manufacturing process is apart of a system known as Fordist Production. Post-Fordist is more about flexible rules:

a. Teams - working together to solve a variety of tasksb. Problem Solving - addressed through consensus after working with all affected partiesc. Leveling - everyone is treated equallyd. Productivity - finding people that are well educated to work on new technology, maximizing

the effectiveness.9. Just-in-time delivery from close to market factories allow for constant deliveries of materials.10. Three kinds of disruptions that can result from reliance on just-in-time delivery:

a. Labor unrest - strikes by staffb. Traffic - roads are backed up c. Natural hazards - weather

CHAPTER 12 - SERVICES AND SETTLEMENTSKey Issue 1 (pg 452 - 455) Where are services distributed?

1. Principal purpose of consumer services is to provide services to the individuals who want them.2. Three types of Service: consumer, business, and public3. Four types of Consumer Services are retail (14% of jobs), education (15%), health (14%), and

leisure/hospitality (9%).4. Business service makes up 1/4 of all jobs. These include professional, financial, and transportation

and information.5. Service is the fastest growing due to its struggles in the 2008 collapse.6. Health care is the fastest growing in the consumer, while professional service is the largest in

business.Key Issue 2 (pg 456 - 462) Where are consumer services distributed?

1. Services follow different distributions with consumer following a regular pattern of size or settlements.

2. Central Place Theory helps explain how the most profitable location can be identified. It is located in the market center. It is represented in Hexagons as a compromise between circles and squares. These hexagons overlap and are different sizes depending on the service provided.

3. Market area or hinterland is what surrounds the “Central Place”a. Area depends on range (max distance) and threshold (min number of people for the

service. These differ on the product, like consumer services (groceries) are shorter than concerts or sporting events

4. Use census information to determine where to determine locations of things like movie theaters, stadiums that will maximize profit.

5. Rank-size rule produces a pattern of hierarchy (n-th city is 1/n the population of the largest). This shows a strong distribution of wealth like in the USA and Germany..

6. Primate city rule is where the largest city is much more than twice as large as the second largest. Mexico is an example, where Mexico City is 5x larger than Guadalajara.

7. Binary city rule has the two largest cities around the same size like China (Beijing and Shanghai).8. Figuring out central place.

a. Compute the rangeb. Compute the thresholdc. Draw a market-area

9. The gravity model predicts how optimal the location is based on population and distance from service.

Key Issue 3 (pg 464 - 469) Where are business services distributed?1. Global cities (world cities) play an important role in global business services. Divided into alpha,

beta, and gamma (see map on pg 465). Ranking occur based on Economic, Political, Cultural, and Infrastructural.

2. Business services include law, banking, insurance, accounting, and advertising.a. HQ is often located in the places where information/services can be shared in a timely

manner.b. Lawyers, accountants, and other professionals need to be nearby the companies they work

for.3. Improved technology has reduced the necessary clustering.4. Two types of business services in developing countries are

a. Offshore Financial Servicesi. Taxes are low/non-existent and there is bank secrecy (privacy). Each

country/region have areas they can send their money.ii. US loses $70 billion in tax revenue because of tax havens

b. Business-Process Outsourcing (BPO)i. Back-office happen in the peripheral regions

1. Low wages2. Ability to speak English

5. Settlement’s distinctive economic structure derives from its basic industries, which are exported out of the settlement. All of these in a settlement are know as its economic base.

6. Non-basic industries are for people in the settlement.7. Each city is known for its specialty (Detroit - cars, Pittsburgh/Cleveland - steel, etc.). For more

examples look on page 468.Key Issue 4 (pg 470 - 477) Why do services cluster in settlements?

1. Services are clustered in settlements.

2. The world’s population is equally split between urban and rural settlements (clustered or

dispersed).

a. Clustered rural settlement is agricultural-based communities with people living close to

each other.

i. Circular - open central space, surrounded by structures (Kraal Village in sub-

Saharan Africa AND Gewandorf settlements in Germany (see Von Thunen))

ii. Linear - along the river/road like the St. Lawrence River in Quebec.

iii. In Colonial America, colonists were clustered around an open center called the

common.

b. Dispersed is typical of North America, where farms are more spread out.

i. Seen in UK and US

3. As recently as 1800, only 3 percent of Earth’s population lived in urban areas, today it is 50

percent.

4. First cities were in Mesopotamia like Ur (fire) developed into city-states (self governing

communities. Athens, the largest in ancient Greece added additional elements through culture and

philosophy. Rome encouraged urban development, but after its fall those declined. It was revived

in Europe with the feudal system.

5. China had large urban settlements of over 1 million between 700 and 1800 CE, which were the

largest until London began the Industrial Revolution. Later it was New York, but now it is

considered to be Tokyo.

6. Urbanization is the process by which the population of urban settlements grow in two dimensions.

Number of people living in urban settlements and percentage of people living in urban settlements.

7. Differences between urban and rural settlements are the large size of the urban, but you have

more familiarity with your neighbors in the rural. There is also a higher density of social

consequences in urban.

8. Social Heterogeneity or variety is greater in urban settings.

CHAPTER 13 - URBAN PATTERNSKey Issue 1 (pg 484 - 489) Why do service cluster downtown?

1. Downtown is most visually distinctive area of most cities, also called the Central Business District (CBD). Often 1% of the area, but large clusters of businesses and consumer services.

2. CBD is often the oldest part of the city and is often near the water.3. Public services are typically courts, county and state agencies, and libraries. Often sports and

convention centers are here to promote more business in this area4. Businesses that connect to the public agencies like lawyers cluster in this area, allowing for easy

face to face meetings.5. Allows for people who live in different areas to meet there for work, but rarely live in CBD6. Consumer services are here because of the accessibility to everyone in the region, but this

business model has not worked7. High rents and land shortage = lack of industrial and residential

a. Hectare in rural area = 1000s, while Hectare in CBD = 10000sb. Compensating by building “underground city” below CBDs

8. North America CBDs are characterized by high-rise office buildings, as well as extensive underground services

a. Exception is DC where the Capitol is the highest building9. Historic European CBDs have fewer high-rises and more residential and consumer services.

Key Issue 2 (pg 490 - 499) Where are people distributed within urban areas?1. Concentric zone model - a city grows by adding rings with newer (wealthiest) housing on the outer

rings. Think cutting open a tree. EW Burgess 1923.a. CBDb. Zone in transition - industry and poorer quality homesc. Zone of working classd. Zone of better residences (middle class)e. Commuter zone - wealthier group choosing to travel to the CBD

2. Sector model - a city grows along corridors that extend out from CBD. Homer Hoyt 1939. Considered a refinement rather than radical restatement of concentric zone model.

3. Multiple Nuceli Model - cities consist of nodes (centers) around which different people cluster. Geographers CD Harris and EL Ullman in 1945.

4. Three models show some similarities and differences in the patterns within North America and other regions (see Houston). None alone can explain why people live in distinctive places

5. Urban areas are divided into census tracts contain around 5,000 residents.6. Social area analysis - distribution of characteristics of where various people live.7. Neilsen Claritas similar people live together - “birds of a feather flock together.”8. Colonial history influences LDCs.9. European CBDs have far less skyscrapers (France), focusing on the historic building and restoring

them. Making their use more expensive. Many of these CBD street forbid vehicles.5010. In Europe, most of the wealthy live in the city with the poor living in the suburbs.11. Latin American city model - wealthy live in the inner city and along the commercial spine.12. Squatter settlements are known by many names, they start as temporary housing a develop slowly.13. Europeans left a heavy mark on developing countries during colonialism. For instance Spanish

colonies followed Laws of the Indies 1573 on how to construct a city. Destroying previous city plans

Key Issue 3 (pg 500 - 513) Why are urban areas expanding?

1. 1950s - 20% of Americans lived in the suburbs, 40 in cities, and 40 in small towns2. 2000 - 50% in the suburbs, 30 in the cities, and 20 in small towns3. Peripheral Model (made by a Harris from Multiple Nuclei Model) has the central city surrounded by

a beltway or ring road with suburban and nodes with business and consumer services clustered.4. Urban area consists of dense core and dense suburbs with low-density land between the two. It

consisted of 486 urbanized areas and 3,087 clusters5. Urbanized area = x > 50,000 inhabitants6. Urban cluster = between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants7. Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) - measuring the functional area of a city, while micropolitan

(uSAs) measure smaller areas. These include the city and the surrounding areas.8. Megapolis (great city) - one continuous urban complex. Examples include Boston to Washington,

Chicago to Milwaukee to Pittsburgh, and Los Angeles to Tijuana9. Annexation the process of legally adding land area to a city (vary state to state). Less likely today.10. Density gradient is a change in the density of an urban area. Often caused by fewer people living

in the center and fewer differences in density within urban areas. (think: Cleveland)11. Sprawl is a progressive spread of development over the landscape. Require a lot of land and

investments (roads and utilities)12. Greenbelts - rings of open spaces13. Smart growth is designed to preserve farmland and prevent suburban sprawl, also reduces traffic

congestion 14. Segregation happens in two ways: social class and land uses (access)15. Edge cities are planned on the outskirts of a urban area, near freeway exits and for motor vehicles16. To lessen congestion, urban areas have used several ways:

a. Congestion charges (to drive into CBD between 7am - 6pmb. Tollsc. Permitsd. Bans (like European cities)

17. Public transit can help alleviate traffic particularly for people who live in the area.

Key Issue 4 (pg 514 - 519) Why do cities face challenges?1. Most of the land in urban settlements is devoted to housing. Problem is that most of the housing in

these areas was built in the 1940s2. CIties are suffering from physical deterioration as a result of filtering and redlining.3. The process taking place with houses being occupied by successive waves of lower-income people

is called filtering. (Detroit)4. Redlining - areas that banks are refusing to give loans to5. Public housing is when people have to play 30% of their income for rent. While the number of

available units is going down with fewer projects in the making and demolitions of older one, there is more need.

6. Gentrification - moving to a lower income area and renovating the housing. Encouraged by banks with low-cost loans

a. Larger housesb. Interesting architecturec. Less of a commute downtownd. School quality is not important

7. Inner-city residents constitute a large amount of the permanent underclass (unending cycle of economic and social problems). Jobs that were once available (like factory workers) require more skill and education.

8. Financial problems of the low-income urban residents has escalated with the recession.

9. Subprime mortgages - one without a background check or poor credit histories10. To solve economic difficulties, cities must raise taxes and lower services (library, trash, bus, etc).