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Submitted By

Binoy Babu

Akhil VijayAjith P.V

Sanoj.M

Abhilash .k.k

Contextual Cultural Differences

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What is culture?Sir Edward Tylors definition in 1871 (first

use of this term):that complex whole which includesknowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,

and any other capabilities and habitsacquired by man as a member of society

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Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)

Culture consists of patterns, explicit andimplicit, of and for behavior acquired andtransmitted by symbols, constituting thedistinctive achievement of human groups,

including their embodiment in artifacts; theessential core of culture consists of traditional(i.e. historically derived and selected) ideasand especially their attached values; culture

systems may, on the one hand, be consideredas products of action, on the other asconditioning elements of further action.

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John Bodley (1994): DiverseDefinitions

Topical: Culture consists of everything on a list of topics, orcategories, such as social organization, religion, oreconomy

Historical: Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed onto future generations

Behavioral:

Culture is shared, learned human behavior, a way oflife

Normative:Culture is ideals, values, or rules for living

Functional:

Culture is the way humans solve problems of adaptingto the environment or living together

Mental: Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, thatinhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals

Structural:Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas,symbols, or behaviors

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Sapir-Whorf HypothesisSapir (1921): Human beings do not live in

the objective world alone, nor alone in theworld of social activity as ordinarilyunderstood, but are very much at the

mercy of the particular language which hasbecome the medium of expression in thatsociety.

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As a result of differences in

language, people in differentcultures will think about,perceive, and behave toward the

world differently.Reality itself is alreadyembedded in language and

therefore comes preformed.Language determines, enablingand constraining, what is

perceived and attended to in a

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Cross-cultural Values

FreedomIndependenceSelf-reliance

EqualityIndividualismCompetitionEfficiency

TimeDirectnessOpenness

BelongingGroup harmonyCollectiveness

Age/seniorityGroup consciousnessCooperationQuality

PatienceIndirectnessGo-between

Americans Japanese

Elashmawi &Harris 1993

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Edward T. Hall's Model

High-contextcultures

Long-lasting

relationshipsExploiting context

Spoken agreements

Insiders and

outsiders clearlydistinguished

Cultural patternsingrained, slowchange

Low-contextcultures

Shorter relationships

Less dependent oncontext

Written agreements

Insiders and

outsiders less clearlydistinguished

Cultural patternschange faster

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Cultural Classification--Hall

Low-Context Cultures - What Is Said IsMore Important Than How or Where It IsSaidU.S.

GermanyHigh-Context cultures - What Is Said and

How or Where It is Said Are SignificantAsiaLatin AmericaMiddle East

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Low-context in business

Business beforefriendshipCredibility throughexpertise &performanceAgreements by legalcontract

Negotiations efficient

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High-context in business

No business withoutfriendshipCredibility throughrelationshipsAgreements founded ontrustNegotiations slow &

ritualistic

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High and Low Context

CulturesFactors /Dimensions HighContextLow

Context

Less important

Is his or her bond

Taken bytop level

Lengthy

JapanMiddle East

Lawyers

A persons word

Responsibility fororganizational error

Negotiations

Examples:

Very important

Get it in writing

Pushed tolowest level

Proceed quickly

U.S.A.Northern Europe

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Basil Bernstein (1971)Bernstein was interested in social class and

the ways in which the class system createsdifferent types of language and ismaintained by language.

Relationships in a social group affect thetype of speech used by the group. Thestructure of speech makes different thingsrelevant or significant.

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Language codesElaborated codes provide a wide range of

different ways to say something. Theseallow speakers to make their ideas andintentions explicit.

Restricted codes have a narrow range ofoptions, and it is easier to predict whatform they will take.

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Codes and Social ClassBernstein says members of the middle

class use both types of code systems,whereas members of the working class areless likely to use elaborated codes.

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Frederick Williams: PovertyCycle

In dealing with the language of the poverty child,are we dealing with language which is deficient orwith language that is different?

As the war on poverty has continued in the U.S., ithas become highly evident that the boundaries of

poverty are often subcultural ones.Individuals in a poverty group can be identified by

their common socioeconomic problems, and thesein turn are typically associated with an equallycommon range of sociocultural features - ways oflife, education, attitudes, desires, and above all,language and the ways of using it.

Much of the attention given to socioculturalaspects of poverty can be seen in the kinds of

cause and cures for poverty which are often linkedas part of an overall poverty cycle.

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Everett Rogers (1962):Diffusion of Innovations

Rogers began developing a practical theoryto increase the rate of diffusion andacceptance of agricultural innovations inunderdeveloped countries.

Diffusion of Innovations was first publishedin 1962.Rogers theory is now widely accepted and

used in many contextsbusiness,

government, technology, family planning,medicine, etc.

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Diffusion in Real World

Joseph P. Bailey, The Retail Sector and theInternet Economy,

http://e-conomy.berkeley.edu/conferences/9-

http://e-conomy.berkeley.edu/conferences/9-2000/EC-conference2000_papers/bailey.pdfhttp://e-conomy.berkeley.edu/conferences/9-2000/EC-conference2000_papers/bailey.pdf

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Innovations

Diffusion is the process by which aninnovation is communicated through certainchannels over time among themembers of a social system.

This definition establishes that diffusionconsists of four main elements:(1) the innovation

(2) the communication channels(3) time and(4) the social system.

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The stages through which a technologicalinnovation passes are:knowledge (exposure to its existence, and

understanding of its functions);

persuasion (the forming of a favourableattitude to it);decision (commitment to its adoption);implementation (putting it to use); andconfirmation (reinforcement based on

positive outcomes from it).

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Important characteristics of an innovationinclude:relative advantage (the degree to which it

is perceived to be better than what it

supersedes);compatibility (consistency with existingvalues, past experiences and needs);complexity (difficulty of understanding and

use);

trialability (the degree to which itcan beexperimented with on a limited basis);observability (the visibility of its results).

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Different adopter categories are identifiedas:innovators (venturesome) 1-3%early adopters (respectable) 13%early majority (deliberate) 34%late majority (skeptical) 34%laggards (traditional) 16%

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Consumer

Innovators

2.5%

Early

Adopters

13.5%

Early

Majority

34%

Late

Majority

34%

Laggards

16%

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Percentof

adoption

100%

0 %

Time

Laggards

Late majority

Early majority

Early adopters

Innovators

Innovation 1 Innovation 2 Innovation 3

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1. What are the communicative events,

and their components, in a community?

2. What are the relationships among

them?

3. What capabilities and states do they

have, in general, and in particular

events?

4. How do they work?

Del Hymes (1966)

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The concept of a message is taken asimplying the sharing (real or imputed) of a

code (or codes) in terms of which a message

is intelligible to participants, minimally an

addressor and addressee, in an event

constituted by transmission of the message,

and characterized by a channel, a setting or

context, a definite form or shape in themessage, and a topic or comment.

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The purposes, conscious and unconscious, the functions,

intended and unintended, perceived and unperceived, of

communicative events for their participants are here treated

as questions of the states in which they engage in them,and of the norms by which they judge them.

FOCUS ON THE ADDRESSORentails such expressive

or emotive functions as identification of the source,expression of attitude toward one or another component or

the situation as a whole, thinking aloud, etc.

FOCUS ON THE ADDRESSEE entails such directive or

conative functions as identification of the destination, and

the ways in which the events and message may be

governed by anticipation of the attitude of the destination.

RHETORIC, PERSUASION, APPEAL, and DIRECTION

enter here.

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FOCUS ON CHANNELS entails such phatic functions

as have to do with the maintenance of contact and

control of noise, both physical and psychological.

FOCUS ON CODES entails such functions as are

involved in learning, analysis, devising of writing

systems, checking code in conversation, etc.

FOCUS ON SETTINGS entails all that is considered

contextual, apart from the event itself, verbal and

nonverbal, etc.

FOCUS ON MESSAGE-FORM entails such functions

as proof-reading, mimicry, poetic and stylistic concerns,

etc.

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FOCUS ON TOPIC entails such functions as having to

do with reference to objects in the world, to people, toevents, to ideas, etc.--all we usually associate with

content.

FOCUS ON THE EVENT ITSELF entails whatever is

comprised under metacommunicative types of function.

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THANK YOU.