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Submitted By
Binoy Babu
Akhil VijayAjith P.V
Sanoj.M
Abhilash .k.k
Contextual Cultural Differences
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What is culture?Sir Edward Tylors definition in 1871 (first
use of this term):that complex whole which includesknowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habitsacquired by man as a member of society
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Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)
Culture consists of patterns, explicit andimplicit, of and for behavior acquired andtransmitted by symbols, constituting thedistinctive achievement of human groups,
including their embodiment in artifacts; theessential core of culture consists of traditional(i.e. historically derived and selected) ideasand especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be consideredas products of action, on the other asconditioning elements of further action.
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John Bodley (1994): DiverseDefinitions
Topical: Culture consists of everything on a list of topics, orcategories, such as social organization, religion, oreconomy
Historical: Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed onto future generations
Behavioral:
Culture is shared, learned human behavior, a way oflife
Normative:Culture is ideals, values, or rules for living
Functional:
Culture is the way humans solve problems of adaptingto the environment or living together
Mental: Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, thatinhibit impulses and distinguish people from animals
Structural:Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas,symbols, or behaviors
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Sapir-Whorf HypothesisSapir (1921): Human beings do not live in
the objective world alone, nor alone in theworld of social activity as ordinarilyunderstood, but are very much at the
mercy of the particular language which hasbecome the medium of expression in thatsociety.
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As a result of differences in
language, people in differentcultures will think about,perceive, and behave toward the
world differently.Reality itself is alreadyembedded in language and
therefore comes preformed.Language determines, enablingand constraining, what is
perceived and attended to in a
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Cross-cultural Values
FreedomIndependenceSelf-reliance
EqualityIndividualismCompetitionEfficiency
TimeDirectnessOpenness
BelongingGroup harmonyCollectiveness
Age/seniorityGroup consciousnessCooperationQuality
PatienceIndirectnessGo-between
Americans Japanese
Elashmawi &Harris 1993
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Edward T. Hall's Model
High-contextcultures
Long-lasting
relationshipsExploiting context
Spoken agreements
Insiders and
outsiders clearlydistinguished
Cultural patternsingrained, slowchange
Low-contextcultures
Shorter relationships
Less dependent oncontext
Written agreements
Insiders and
outsiders less clearlydistinguished
Cultural patternschange faster
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Cultural Classification--Hall
Low-Context Cultures - What Is Said IsMore Important Than How or Where It IsSaidU.S.
GermanyHigh-Context cultures - What Is Said and
How or Where It is Said Are SignificantAsiaLatin AmericaMiddle East
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Low-context in business
Business beforefriendshipCredibility throughexpertise &performanceAgreements by legalcontract
Negotiations efficient
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High-context in business
No business withoutfriendshipCredibility throughrelationshipsAgreements founded ontrustNegotiations slow &
ritualistic
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High and Low Context
CulturesFactors /Dimensions HighContextLow
Context
Less important
Is his or her bond
Taken bytop level
Lengthy
JapanMiddle East
Lawyers
A persons word
Responsibility fororganizational error
Negotiations
Examples:
Very important
Get it in writing
Pushed tolowest level
Proceed quickly
U.S.A.Northern Europe
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Basil Bernstein (1971)Bernstein was interested in social class and
the ways in which the class system createsdifferent types of language and ismaintained by language.
Relationships in a social group affect thetype of speech used by the group. Thestructure of speech makes different thingsrelevant or significant.
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Language codesElaborated codes provide a wide range of
different ways to say something. Theseallow speakers to make their ideas andintentions explicit.
Restricted codes have a narrow range ofoptions, and it is easier to predict whatform they will take.
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Codes and Social ClassBernstein says members of the middle
class use both types of code systems,whereas members of the working class areless likely to use elaborated codes.
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Frederick Williams: PovertyCycle
In dealing with the language of the poverty child,are we dealing with language which is deficient orwith language that is different?
As the war on poverty has continued in the U.S., ithas become highly evident that the boundaries of
poverty are often subcultural ones.Individuals in a poverty group can be identified by
their common socioeconomic problems, and thesein turn are typically associated with an equallycommon range of sociocultural features - ways oflife, education, attitudes, desires, and above all,language and the ways of using it.
Much of the attention given to socioculturalaspects of poverty can be seen in the kinds of
cause and cures for poverty which are often linkedas part of an overall poverty cycle.
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Everett Rogers (1962):Diffusion of Innovations
Rogers began developing a practical theoryto increase the rate of diffusion andacceptance of agricultural innovations inunderdeveloped countries.
Diffusion of Innovations was first publishedin 1962.Rogers theory is now widely accepted and
used in many contextsbusiness,
government, technology, family planning,medicine, etc.
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Diffusion in Real World
Joseph P. Bailey, The Retail Sector and theInternet Economy,
http://e-conomy.berkeley.edu/conferences/9-
http://e-conomy.berkeley.edu/conferences/9-2000/EC-conference2000_papers/bailey.pdfhttp://e-conomy.berkeley.edu/conferences/9-2000/EC-conference2000_papers/bailey.pdf7/29/2019 03 Culture
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Innovations
Diffusion is the process by which aninnovation is communicated through certainchannels over time among themembers of a social system.
This definition establishes that diffusionconsists of four main elements:(1) the innovation
(2) the communication channels(3) time and(4) the social system.
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The stages through which a technologicalinnovation passes are:knowledge (exposure to its existence, and
understanding of its functions);
persuasion (the forming of a favourableattitude to it);decision (commitment to its adoption);implementation (putting it to use); andconfirmation (reinforcement based on
positive outcomes from it).
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Important characteristics of an innovationinclude:relative advantage (the degree to which it
is perceived to be better than what it
supersedes);compatibility (consistency with existingvalues, past experiences and needs);complexity (difficulty of understanding and
use);
trialability (the degree to which itcan beexperimented with on a limited basis);observability (the visibility of its results).
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Different adopter categories are identifiedas:innovators (venturesome) 1-3%early adopters (respectable) 13%early majority (deliberate) 34%late majority (skeptical) 34%laggards (traditional) 16%
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Consumer
Innovators
2.5%
Early
Adopters
13.5%
Early
Majority
34%
Late
Majority
34%
Laggards
16%
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Percentof
adoption
100%
0 %
Time
Laggards
Late majority
Early majority
Early adopters
Innovators
Innovation 1 Innovation 2 Innovation 3
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1. What are the communicative events,
and their components, in a community?
2. What are the relationships among
them?
3. What capabilities and states do they
have, in general, and in particular
events?
4. How do they work?
Del Hymes (1966)
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The concept of a message is taken asimplying the sharing (real or imputed) of a
code (or codes) in terms of which a message
is intelligible to participants, minimally an
addressor and addressee, in an event
constituted by transmission of the message,
and characterized by a channel, a setting or
context, a definite form or shape in themessage, and a topic or comment.
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The purposes, conscious and unconscious, the functions,
intended and unintended, perceived and unperceived, of
communicative events for their participants are here treated
as questions of the states in which they engage in them,and of the norms by which they judge them.
FOCUS ON THE ADDRESSORentails such expressive
or emotive functions as identification of the source,expression of attitude toward one or another component or
the situation as a whole, thinking aloud, etc.
FOCUS ON THE ADDRESSEE entails such directive or
conative functions as identification of the destination, and
the ways in which the events and message may be
governed by anticipation of the attitude of the destination.
RHETORIC, PERSUASION, APPEAL, and DIRECTION
enter here.
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FOCUS ON CHANNELS entails such phatic functions
as have to do with the maintenance of contact and
control of noise, both physical and psychological.
FOCUS ON CODES entails such functions as are
involved in learning, analysis, devising of writing
systems, checking code in conversation, etc.
FOCUS ON SETTINGS entails all that is considered
contextual, apart from the event itself, verbal and
nonverbal, etc.
FOCUS ON MESSAGE-FORM entails such functions
as proof-reading, mimicry, poetic and stylistic concerns,
etc.
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FOCUS ON TOPIC entails such functions as having to
do with reference to objects in the world, to people, toevents, to ideas, etc.--all we usually associate with
content.
FOCUS ON THE EVENT ITSELF entails whatever is
comprised under metacommunicative types of function.
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THANK YOU.