Conditions Affecting/ Modifiers of the Morality of Human Act

1. Ignorance

2. Fear

3. Concupiscence

4. Violence

5. Habit

6. Temperament

1) Ignorance - lack of knowledge in a person who is capable of knowing - in some cases, we are responsible for knowledge, in other cases we are not

1.1 Ignorance of the law – lack of knowledge that a particular law exists

Example. When a driver does not know that there

is an 80-kilometer-per-hour speed limit for a particular road.

1.2 Ignorance of the fact – lack of realization that one is violating a law

Example. A driver knows that there is an 80-kilometer-per- hour speed limit but does not realize that he is traveling at 100.

1.3. Vincible ignorance

– that which can and should be dispelled. It implies culpable negligence; the subject could know and ought to know.

a) simple vincible ignorance – present when one makes some, butnot sufficient, effort to dispel his ignorance

Suppose a nurse is unsure of dosage. She refers to the doctor’s order sheet and finds that she is unable to read his handwriting. She knows that the doctor is at his office but does not bother to call him. As she administers the medication, guessing at the dosage, she is guilty of simple vincible ignorance.

b) crass vincible ignorance – that which results from mere lack of effort

Let us suppose that a moral problem arises from an operating supervisor. On the shelf over her desk is a good medical ethics book with an excellent index that could quickly solve the problem. However, she does not bother. She is in crass vincible ignorance.

c) affected vincible ignorance – that which is deliberately fostered in order to avoid any obligation that knowledge might bring to light.

Let us imagine a nurse who accepts employment with a doctor who frequently practices artificial insemination. She may suspect that this is immoral or something which is contrary to the teaching of her Church but carefully avoids inquiring or even discussing the matter with anybody, lest she discover that she is cooperating in immorality and be obliged to leave her well-paying job. She is guilty of affected vincible ignorance. It is affected because she wants to be ignorant, and it is vincible because she could dispel the ignorant easily.

1.4 Invincible ignorance

– that which cannot be dispelled. This situation may exist either because the individual is unable to secure adequate information, even after reasonable effort, or because he simply does not know that there is a problem. In other words, “he is ignorant of his ignorance”.

The person cannot be expected to take steps to enlighten himself because he is unaware that he is in need of any enlightenment.

For example, a certain nurses’ aid customarily tells lies by way of making excuses for minor faults and feels that, since they harm no one, they are in no way sinful. She is ignorant of that fact that she is in need of enlightenment.

Invincible ignorance eliminates responsibility.

Vincible ignorance does not eliminate moral responsibility but lessens it.

Moral Principles

2) Fear• it is one of the emotions.

• agitation or disturbance of mind resulting from some present or imminent danger.

2.1 Light fear – fear in which the evil threatening is either present-but-slight or grave-but-remote.

Grave-but-remote

A man fears that he may die of cancer in his life, but his fear is light because the grave danger is very remote.

Present-but-slight

An elderly lady experiences fear when she hears someone passing her door at night, but her fear is only slight because she knows it is probably her neighbor arriving home at usual. This is what is meant by a present-but slight threatening fear.

• intrinsic grave fear - is that agitation of the mind which arises because of a disposition within one’s mind or body. The fear of cancer is intrinsic.

• extrinsic grave fear - is that agitation of the mind which arises from something outside oneself.

Grave Fear - is that which is present when the evil threatening is considered as serious.

Free extrinsic fear may be justly caused, such as a nurse’s fear of being dismissed if she does not cooperate in an immoral act.

a) Necessary extrinsic fear arises because of some external physical law of nature, such as fear when a house is on fire.

b) Free extrinsic fear arises from the free will of some other person, such as fear of a robber in a house.

Moral Principle:

Fear diminishes the voluntary nature of the act.

Some considerations:

1) Some acts are done because of fear. The act would not have been done had fear not been present. Some acts, on the other hand, are done with fear present but would have been done anyway. Any acts that are done, and would have been done, whether fear was present or not are clearly voluntary, and if they are wrong, the person is morally responsible.

2) A sinful act done because of fear is somewhat less free and therefore less sinful than act done not under the influence of fear.

3) Concupiscence

• is the rebellion of the passions against reason •revolt of the sense faculties of man against the dominion of his higher faculty of reason

• the tendency of human nature toward evil.

An evil action performed in the heat of passion is different, perhaps quite different – from an evil action that is calculated.

3.1 Antecedent concupiscence – the sort which precedes an act of the will and is not willfully stimulated, such as sudden anger.

3.2 Consequent concupiscence – that which is stimulated by the will, such as anger deliberately fostered.

Moral Principles:

It is obvious that certain emotions, such as anger, discouragement, or grief, can so influence a person’s state of mind that the use of reason and free will is lessened.

Antecedent concupiscence lessens the voluntary nature of human acts and lessens the degree of moral responsibility accordingly.

Consequent concupiscence does not lessen moral responsibility; rather a person acting with consequent concupiscence is completely responsible.

4) Violence

• external force applied by someone on another in order to compel him to perform an action against his will.

• in cases where the victim gives complete resistance, the violence is classified as perfect violence.

• however, if the victim offers insufficient resistance, the violence is classified as imperfect violence.

4.1 Perfect Violence physically perfect violence – in which all possible forms of resisting is utilized

If a woman walking along a dark street at night is attacked, and she attempts to fight off the attackers with all the physical powers at her command, she has been the victim of physically perfect violence.

morally perfect violence – is that in which all powers of resistance should be used but not employed for a good reason.

A man being robbed attempts to fight the robber but soon realizes that further resistance will probably result in his death

4.2 Imperfect Violence – is that in which some resistance is shown but not as much as should be.

A stenographer who is working after hours in an almost empty building is approached by the department head. The man, suddenly filled with lustful intentions, makes certain rough and violent advances. The young woman for a moment puts up some resistance and feels that additional resistance might terminate the incident. However, she quickly ceases resistance and gives in to the man. The stenographer is the victim of imperfect violence.

a) Regarding perfect violence, the moral principle is this: that which is done from perfect violence is entirely involuntary, and so in such cases there is no moral responsibility.

If an individual is a victim in the absolute sense of the word, no sensible person will condemn him. If the victim makes a judgment that resistance is utterly useless, he need not resist. There is no obligation to do what is useless.

Moral Principles Concerning Violence

b) Regarding imperfect violence: that which is done under the influence of imperfect violence is less voluntary, and so the moral responsibility is lessened but not taken away completely.

5) Other Factors Affecting Voluntary Nature of Human Actions

5.1 Habit

- an inclination to perform some particular action, acquired by repetition and characterized by decreased power of resistance and an increased facility of performance.

- “a stable quality superadded to a faculty positively inclining a person to act in a certain way.”

- often referred to as “second nature”

Habit does not destroy the voluntary nature of our acts. A person is at least in some way responsible for acts done from habit as long as the habit is consciously allowed to endure.

Moral Principles Concerning Habit

In performing an act through habit, that particular act may not be completely voluntary in itself, but it is at least voluntary in the sense that the habit was freely formed by the repetition of several previous acts.

5.2 Temperament

- disposition

- is the sumtotal of those qualities which mark an individual

- both heredity and environment play a part in forming a person’s temperament.

Psychologists list four major temperaments and their characteristics:

a) Sanguine – pleasing, agreeable, not a good leader because not very stable.

b) Choleric – domineering, strong-willed, good leader

c) Melancholic – pessimistic, brooding, usually scrupulous, despairs easily.

d) Phlegmatic – easy going, lacking initiative, trustworthy

Moral Principles Concerning Temperament

A person’s temperament can affect his will to the extent of somewhat lessening the completely voluntary nature of his actions.

Cautions Regarding Moral Judgment

1) Placing a judgment upon the objective morality of a human act in the concrete involves a consideration of all the conditions which affect morality: the nature of the act itself, the purpose of the agent, the circumstances, ignorance, fear, concupiscence, violence, habit, and even temperament.

2) Everyone has a conscience but everyone also has a duty of enlightening his conscience.

3) A particular caution must be given regarding the judging of one’s own case.

In this regard, great wisdom is expressed in the old saying, “nemo judex in propia causa” – no one is a judge in his own case. When an important personal moral problem presents itself, it is time to seek competent advice.