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Chapter 14

The Organization of Work Behavior

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Module 1: Conceptual & Theoretical Foundations of Organizations

• Organization• Group of people who have common goals &

who follow a set of operating procedures to develop products & services

• Org. needs strategic planning• Buying from & selling to the unorganized

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Organization as Integration

• Successful organizations are able to integrate many different organizing forces– e.g., HR, finance, marketing, production

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Classic Organizational Theory

• Emphasized architecture of organization rather than processes of operation

• Bureaucracy as the ideal form

• Methods of describing an organization:– Division of labor– Delegation of authority– Span of control

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Classic Organizational Charts for Large & Small Span of Control

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Figure 14.1Organization Charts for Largeand Small Span of Control

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Classic Organizational Theory (cont’d)

• Constrained in 2 ways– Assumed there was one best configuration for

an organization

– Assumed that organizations affected behavior of their members but not the other way around

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Human Relations Theory

• Added human element to study of organizations

• McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y– Theory X: Managers believe subordinate

behavior has to be controlled

– Theory Y: Managers believe subordinates are active & responsible

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Human Relations Theory (cont’d)

• Growth perspective of Argyris– Suggested there is natural developmental

sequence in humans that can either be enhanced or stunted by organization

– Proposed growth is a natural & healthy experience for an individual

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Contingency Theories

• Woodward described 3 org. types:• Small batch organization• Large batch & mass production organization• Continuous process organization

– Span of control varies systematically by type of organization

– Introduced concept of technology

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Contingency Theories (cont’d)

• Lawrence & Lorsch– Mechanistic organizations

• Depend on formal rules & regulations• Small span of control

– Organic organizations• Less formal procedures• Large span of control

– Identified the department as an important level for understanding organizations

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Contingency Theories (cont’d)

• Tavistock Institute’s Sociotechnical approach– Uncovered # of dramatic changes in

social patterns of work that accompany technological change

– Includes joint consideration of technology & social patterns

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Recent Approaches

• Resource theory: Pfeffer– Organization must be viewed in context

of connections to other organizations

– Key to organizational survival is ability to acquire & maintain resources

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Recent Approaches (cont’d)

• Ecological/Evolutionary approach– Adopts biological model concentrating on

why some organizations thrive & diversify while others atrophy & disappear

– 2 basic mechanisms• Random variation• Natural selection

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Ecological/Evolutionary Approach (cont’d)

• Argues that organizations change slowly, but environments change rapidly

• Has little regard for power of individual to affect change

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Conclusions About Theories of Organization

• Motivation metaphors can be applied to organizational theories

• Discrepancy b/w many org. theories & current organizational interventions– Six Sigma, TQM, MBO, & lean production

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Module 2: Some Social Dynamics of Organizations

• Climate & culture– Brief history of climate

• Lewin’s autocratic vs. democratic climate• Recent suggestion that multiple climates

exist within any organization– Service climate

– Safety climate

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Brief history of culture

• Term culture introduced to address issues of value & meaning of actions in org’s not encompassed in climate

• Measuring culture in organizations• Organizational Culture Inventory (OCI)

• Effects of culture “clash”

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Climate & Culture (cont’d)

• Integration of concepts– Climate is about context in which actions occur

• Created at lower levels of organization

– Culture is about meaning intended by & inferred from those actions

• Created & communicated from higher levels of organization

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Climate & Culture Strength

• Extent to which members share a perception or a value/belief pattern

• Implications of lack of consensus among organization members regarding presence of climate

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Organizational Climate & Culture From the Multicultural Perspective

• When cultures clash– Models under which multinational corporations

operate• Ethnocentrism• Polycentrism• Regiocentrism• Geocentrism

– Important for multinational corporations to acknowledge existence of different cultures

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Socialization & Concept of Person-Organization (P-O) Fit

• Organizational socialization– Process by which new employee

becomes aware of values & organizational procedures

– Recruitment as socialization• Compelling research findings

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Organizational Socialization (cont’d)

• Socialization & P-O fit models– Extent to which skills, abilities, & interests of

individual are compatible with job demands (person-job fit)

– Broadened to include fit between person & organization (P-O fit)

– Work adjustment model

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Schneider’s attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model

– Organizations attempt to attract and select particular types of people

– Attrition occurs through direct or indirect actions

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ASA Model: Simplified Version

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Figure 14.7 Simplified Version ofASA Model

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Module 3: Organizational Development & Change

• Organizational change

– Lewin’s 3-stage process1. Unfreezing: Become aware of values & beliefs

2. Changing: Adopt new values, beliefs, & attitudes

3. Refreezing: Stabilization of new attitudes & values

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Episodic Change

• Infrequent, discontinuous, & intentional

• Embraced because it is focused, time urgent, & minimizes feelings of uncertainty

• Often self-propagating

• Can be stressful & disruptive for employees

• Most commonly managed

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Continuous Change

• Ongoing, evolving, & cumulative

• More likely to be improvised rather than intentional

• Lewin’s model needs to be reworked in this environment

Freeze Rebalance Unfreeze

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Resistance to Change

• Barriers to change include:• Economic fear

• Fear of unknown

• Fear of altered social relationships

• Structural inertia

• Work group inertia

• Threats to power balance

• Prior unsuccessful change efforts

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Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives

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• Management by objectives (MBO)– Concept to define & measure employee performance

– Precursor to team-based quality improvement programs

• Matrix organizations– Individuals have dual reporting relationships:

• Reporting to project manager

• Reporting to home department manager

– Efforts of leaders/managers must be integrated

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Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives (cont’d)

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• Total quality management (TQM)– Emphasizes team-based behavior directed toward

improving quality & meeting customer demands

• Six Sigma systems– Provide training in statistical analysis, project

management, & problem-solving methods to reduce defect rate of products

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Large-Scale Organizational Change Initiatives (cont’d)

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• Lean production manufacturing– Focuses on reducing waste in every form– Just-in-time (JIT) production

• Detailed tracking of materials & production

• Draws both suppliers & customers into organizational circle

– Often requires radical redesign of HRM systems to be successful

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Emerging Commonalities Among Organizational Interventions

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1. They are strategic

2. They are team centered

3. They are statistical

4. They are participatory

5. They are quality-focused

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Organizational Development (OD)

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• Action oriented rather than research oriented

• 3 different settings for use of OD:– Episodic change

• Unfreezing Change Refreezing

– Continuous change• Freezing Rebalancing Unfreezing

– Evolving from episodic to continuous change• Unfreezing Change Rebalance

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Examples of OD techniques

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– Survey feedback

– Team building

– Process consultation

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Slides 22 & 23: Figures 14.4 & 14.5 from Greenberg, J. (2002). Managing behavior in organizations, 3rd ed., pp. 172, 176, 178. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. © 2002. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

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